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Tru64 UNIX
System Administration

Part Number: AA-RH9FE-TE

September 2002

Product Version: Tru64 UNIX Version 5.1B or higher

This manual describes the tasks you must perform to maintain the Tru64
UNIX operating system running on a workstation or server. You use
UNIX commands, shell scripts, and the SysMan Menu or SysMan Station
user interfaces to perform the administration tasks described in this
manual.

Hewlett-Packard Company
Palo Alto, California
© 2002 Hewlett-Packard Company

Microsoft®, Windows®, Windows NT® are trademarks of Microsoft Corporation in the U.S. and/or other
countries. UNIX®, Motif®, X/Open®, and The Open Group™ are trademarks of the Open Group in the
U.S. and/or other countries. All other product names mentioned herein may be the trademarks of their
respective companies.

Confidential computer software. Valid license from Compaq Computer Corporation, a wholly owned
subsidiary of Hewlett-Packard Company, required for possession, use, or copying. Consistent with FAR
12.211 and 12.212, Commercial Computer Software, Computer Software Documentation, and Technical
Data for Commercial Items are licensed to the U.S. Government under vendor’s standard commercial
license.

None of Compaq, HP, or any of their subsidiaries shall be liable for technical or editorial errors or omissions
contained herein. The information is provided “as is” without warranty of any kind and is subject to
change without notice. The warranties for HP or Compaq products are set forth in the express limited
warranty statements accompanying such products. Nothing herein should be construed as constituting
an additional warranty.
 Contents

About This Manual

1 System Administration Methods and Utilities

1.1 Overview of the SysMan Menu and Other Utilities . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–1
1.2 Related Documentation . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–3
1.2.1 Reference Pages . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–3
1.2.2 Online Help . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–4
1.2.3 Web Based Help . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–4
1.3 Setting Up Your System .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–6
1.4 Administrative Methods .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–9
1.5 Administrative Utilities Under CDE . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–12
1.5.1 Accessing SysMan Under CDE .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–13
1.5.2 System Setup . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–15
1.5.2.1 Quick Setup . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–15
1.5.2.2 Custom Setup .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–16
1.6 The SysMan Menu . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–20
1.7 Using the SysMan Command Line . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–22
1.8 The SysMan Station . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–26
1.8.1 Using SysMan Station Status Options . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–28
1.8.2 Using SysMan Station Views .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–28
1.8.3 Using SysMan Station Menu Options . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–31
1.9 HP Insight Manager . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–32
1.10 Using SysMan on a Personal Computer . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–34
1.11 Setting Up a Serial Line Console .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–35
1.11.1 Setting Up a Console Port .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–36
1.11.1.1 Connecting the Modem to COMM1 . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–36
1.11.1.2 Setting the Configurable DCD Timer Value . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–37
1.11.1.3 Setting the Console Environment Variables .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–37
1.11.1.4 Verifying the Modem Setup .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–38
1.11.2 Initiating a Console Port Connection .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–38
1.11.2.1 Using the Console Port . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–38
1.11.2.1.1 Turning Off Console Log Messages . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–39
1.11.2.1.2 Shutting Down the Remote System . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–39
1.11.2.1.3 Ending a Remote Session .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–39
1.11.3 Troubleshooting . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–39

Contents iii
2 Starting Up and Shutting Down the System
2.1 Overview of the Shutdown and Boot Operations .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–1
2.1.1 Shutdown Methods . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–2
2.1.2 Boot Methods . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–3
2.1.3 Related Documentation .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–4
2.1.3.1 Manuals . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–4
2.1.3.2 Reference Pages .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–5
2.1.3.3 Online Help . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–5
2.1.4 System Files .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–6
2.1.5 Related Utilities . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–6
2.2 Understanding the Boot Operation .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–7
2.2.1 Booting Automatically or Manually . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–7
2.2.2 Booting to Single-User or Multiuser Mode .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–8
2.3 Preparing to Boot the Installed System . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–8
2.3.1 Preparing to Boot a Powered-Down System . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–9
2.3.2 Preparing to Boot a Powered-Up, Halted System . . .. . .. . .. . 2–10
2.3.3 Preparing to Transition from Single-User Mode .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–10
2.3.4 Preparing to Boot a Crashed System .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–11
2.3.5 Preparing to Boot a System Taken Off the Network . .. . .. . 2–12
2.4 Booting the System .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–13
2.4.1 Defining the Console Environment Variables and Using
the Boot Commands .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–14
2.4.2 Overriding the Boot Commands . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–17
2.4.3 Using Interactive Boot to Verify the Root File System . . .. . 2–17
2.5 Identifying System Run Levels . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–19
2.6 Changing System Run Levels . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–19
2.6.1 Changing Run Levels in Single-User Mode . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–20
2.6.2 Changing Run Levels from Multiuser Mode . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–20
2.6.2.1 Changing to a Different Multiuser Run Level . .. . .. . .. . 2–21
2.6.2.2 Changing to Single-User Mode . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–21
2.6.2.3 Reexamining the inittab File . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–21
2.7 Symmetric Multiprocessing .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–22
2.7.1 Adding CPUs to an Existing System . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–22
2.7.2 Unattended Reboots on Multiprocessor Systems . . .. . .. . .. . 2–22
2.8 Setting and Resetting the System Clock . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–22
2.9 Troubleshooting Boot Problems . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–23
2.9.1 Hardware Failure .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–23
2.9.2 Software Failure . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–23
2.10 Shutting Down the System . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–24
2.11 Stopping Systems While in Multiuser Mode .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–25
2.11.1 Using SysMan shutdown . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–25

iv Contents
 2.11.2 Shutting Down the System and Warning Other Users . . .. . 2–27
2.11.3 Shutting Down and Halting the System .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–29
2.11.4 Shutting Down and Automatically Rebooting the System . 2–30
2.11.5 Shutting Down and Halting Systems Immediately .. . .. . .. . 2–31
2.12 Stopping Systems While in Single-User Mode .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–31
2.12.1 Stopping and Rebooting Systems with the reboot
Command . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–32
2.12.2 Stopping Systems with the fasthalt Command . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–32
2.12.3 Stopping Systems with the fastboot Command . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–33

3 Customizing the System Environment

3.1 Identifying and Modifying the System Initialization Files . . .. . 3–2
3.1.1 Using the /etc/inittab File . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–5
3.1.1.1 Specifying the Initialization Default Run Level . . .. . .. . 3–7
3.1.1.2 Specifying wait Run Levels .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–7
3.1.1.3 Specifying Console Run Levels . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–7
3.1.1.4 Specifying Terminals and Terminal Run Levels . . .. . .. . 3–8
3.1.1.5 Specifying Process Run Levels . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–9
3.1.1.6 Securing a Terminal Line . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–9
3.1.2 Using the init and rc Directory Structure . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–9
3.1.2.1 The init.d Directory .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–10
3.1.2.2 The rc0.d Directory and rc0 Run Command Script . .. . 3–10
3.1.2.3 The rc2.d Directory and rc2 Run Command Script . .. . 3–12
3.1.2.4 The rc3.d Directory and rc3 Run Command Script . .. . 3–13
3.1.3 Using the crontabs Directory .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–14
3.2 Using National Language Support . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–16
3.2.1 Setting Locale . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–18
3.2.2 Modifying Locale Categories .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–19
3.2.3 Limitations of Locale Variables .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–20
3.2.4 Setting Environment Variables for Message Catalogs and
Locales .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–21
3.3 Customizing Internationalization Features .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–21
3.4 Customizing Your Time Zone . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–22
3.5 Customizing Power Management . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–24
3.5.1 Using the dxpower Utility’s Graphical User Interface . . .. . 3–25
3.5.2 Using the sysconfig Command . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–26
3.5.2.1 Changing Power Management Values .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–27
3.5.2.2 Changing a Running Kernel or X Server .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–28
3.5.3 Using the SysMan Station .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–29
3.6 Adding Swap Space .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–29
3.6.1 Related Documentation and Utilities .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–31

Contents v
 3.6.1.1 Related Documentation . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–31
3.6.1.2 Related Utilities .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–31
3.6.2 Allocating Swap Space . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–32
3.6.3 Estimating Swap Space Requirements . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–33
3.6.4 Selecting the Swap Space Allocation Method .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–34
3.6.5 Correcting an Apparent Lack of Swap Space .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–35

4 Configuring the Kernel

4.1 Overview . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–1
4.2 Related Documentation and Utilities . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–2
4.2.1 Manuals . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–2
4.2.2 Reference Pages . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–2
4.2.3 Online Help . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–6
4.3 System Configuration at Installation Time . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–6
4.4 Deciding When and How to Reconfigure Your Kernel . . .. . .. . .. . 4–7
4.5 Dynamic System Configuration . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–9
4.5.1 Configuring Subsystems . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–10
4.5.2 Listing the Configured Subsystems . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–10
4.5.3 Determining the Subsystem Type .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–11
4.5.4 Unloading a Subsystem .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–11
4.5.5 Maintaining the List of Automatically Configured
Subsystems . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–11
4.5.6 Managing Subsystem Attributes . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–12
4.5.6.1 Determining the Current Value of Subsystem
Attributes . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–13
4.5.6.2 Identifying Run-time Configurable Subsystem
Attributes . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–15
4.5.6.3 Modifying Attribute Values at Run Time .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–15
4.5.7 Managing Subsystems and Attributes Remotely . . .. . .. . .. . 4–16
4.5.8 Managing the Subsystem Attributes Database . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–17
4.5.8.1 Listing Attributes in the Database . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–18
4.5.8.2 Adding Attributes to the Database . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–18
4.5.8.3 Merging New Definitions into Existing Database
Entries . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–18
4.5.8.4 Updating Attributes in the Database . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–19
4.5.8.5 Removing Attribute Definitions from the Database .. . 4–20
4.5.8.6 Deleting Subsystem Entries from the Database . . .. . .. . 4–21
4.6 Static System Configuration . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–21
4.6.1 Building the Kernel to Add Support for a New Device . . .. . 4–22
4.6.2 Building the Kernel to Add Selected Kernel Options . .. . .. . 4–26
4.6.3 Building a Kernel After Modifying System Files .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–28
4.7 Configuration Files .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–30

vi Contents
 4.7.1 Configuration Files in /usr/sys/conf . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–31
4.7.1.1 The Target Configuration File .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–31
4.7.1.2 The GENERIC Configuration File . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–32
4.7.2 Extensions to the Target Configuration File . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–32
4.7.3 The param.c File . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–34
4.7.4 System Configuration File Entries . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–35

5 Administering Disks
5.1 Partitioning Disks Using the Disk Configuration Utility .. . .. . 5–1
5.1.1 Configure Partitions Window . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 5–3
5.1.2 Partition Table Window .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 5–4
5.2 Manually Partitioning Disks . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 5–4
5.2.1 Utilities . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 5–4
5.2.2 Using the disklabel Utility . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 5–4
5.2.3 Examining for Overlapping Partitions with the newfs
Command .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 5–7
5.3 Copying Disks . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 5–8

6 Administering UNIX File Systems (UFS)

6.1 Introduction to File Systems . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–1
6.1.1 Directory Hierarchy for File Systems .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–4
6.1.2 Disk Partitions .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–4
6.1.3 UFS Version 4.0 . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–6
6.1.4 File System Structures: UFS . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–8
6.1.4.1 Boot Block . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–8
6.1.4.2 Superblock . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–8
6.1.4.3 Inode Blocks . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–9
6.1.4.4 Data Blocks .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–10
6.1.5 Directories and File Types .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–10
6.1.6 Device Special Files . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–10
6.2 Context-Dependent Symbolic Links and Clusters . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–11
6.2.1 Related Documentation .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–12
6.2.2 Description of CDSLs . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–13
6.2.2.1 Structure of a CDSL . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–14
6.2.3 Maintaining CDSLs .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–15
6.2.3.1 Verifying CDSL Inventory . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–16
6.2.3.2 Creating CDSLs .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–16
6.3 Creating UFS File Systems Manually .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–16
6.3.1 Using newfs to Create a New File System .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–16
6.3.2 Making File Systems Accessible to Users . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–20

Contents vii
 6.3.3 Using the /etc/fstab File .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–20
6.3.4 Mounting the UFS File System Manually .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–23
6.3.5 Unmounting the UFS File System Manually .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–24
6.3.6 Extending the UFS File System . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–24
6.3.6.1 Extending a Dismounted File System . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–26
6.3.6.2 Extending a Mounted File System . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–27
6.4 Administering UFS File Systems Using SysMan Menu . . .. . .. . 6–28
6.4.1 File System Tasks in the SysMan Menu . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–29
6.4.2 Using SysMan to Dismount a File System .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–31
6.4.3 Using SysMan to Display Mounted File Systems . . .. . .. . .. . 6–31
6.4.4 Using SysMan to Mount File Systems . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–33
6.4.5 Using SysMan to Share a Local Directory .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–37
6.4.5.1 Sharing a File System .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–38
6.4.5.2 Removing a Shared File System . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–39
6.4.6 Using SysMan to Mount a Network File System . . .. . .. . .. . 6–39
6.4.6.1 Mounting a Shared Network File System . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–40
6.4.6.2 Adding a Network Directory . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–41
6.4.7 Using SysMan to Create a UFS File System .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–41
6.5 Managing Quotas . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–42
6.5.1 Hard and Soft Quota Limits . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–43
6.5.2 Activating File System Quotas . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–44
6.5.3 Setting File System Quotas for User Accounts . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–45
6.5.4 Verifying File System Quotas . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–46
6.6 Backing Up and Restoring File Systems . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–46
6.7 Monitoring and Tuning File Systems . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–47
6.7.1 Verifying UFS Consistency . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–47
6.7.2 Monitoring File System Use of Disks .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–48
6.7.2.1 Examinng for Available Free Space .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–48
6.7.2.2 Verifying Disk Use . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–49
6.7.3 Improving UFS read Efficiency .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–51
6.8 Troubleshooting File Systems . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–51

7 Administering User Accounts and Groups

7.1 Account Administration Options and Restrictions . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–1
7.1.1 Administrative Utilities .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–1
7.1.2 Notes and Restrictions on Using the Utilities . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–3
7.1.3 Related Documentation .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–5
7.1.3.1 Manuals . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–5
7.1.3.2 Reference Pages .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–5
7.1.3.3 Online Help . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–6
7.1.4 Related Utilities . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–6

viii Contents
7.2 Account Administration - Quick Start .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–7
7.2.1 Creating Primary Accounts During System Setup .. . .. . .. . 7–7
7.2.2 Using the Account Manager (dxaccounts) GUI . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–8
7.2.3 Using the SysMan Menu Accounts Option .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–8
7.2.4 Using the Command Line Utilities . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–9
7.2.5 Advanced Server for UNIX . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–10
7.3 Understanding User Accounts and Groups . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–10
7.3.1 System Files .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–11
7.3.2 Understanding Identifiers (UIDs and GIDs) .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–12
7.3.3 Understanding the Password File .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–13
7.3.4 Understanding the Group File . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–16
7.4 Administering User Accounts . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–17
7.4.1 Using the SysMan Menu Accounts Options . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–17
7.4.1.1 Gathering Account Information . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–18
7.4.1.2 Setting Filter and Display Options . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–20
7.4.1.3 Using Filter Options . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–21
7.4.1.4 Creating or Modifying Local Accounts .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–22
7.4.1.5 Deleting Local Accounts . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–23
7.4.1.6 Creating or Modifying LDAP and NIS Accounts . .. . .. . 7–24
7.4.1.7 Deleting LDAP and NIS Accounts . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–25
7.4.2 Using Account Manager (dxaccounts) . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–25
7.4.2.1 Adding and Modifying Accounts . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–26
7.4.2.2 Deleting Accounts . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–27
7.4.2.3 Finding and Selecting Accounts . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–28
7.4.2.4 Copying Accounts . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–28
7.4.2.5 Using the Password Option .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–29
7.4.2.6 Account Manager (dxaccounts) General Options . .. . .. . 7–29
7.5 Administering Groups . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–30
7.5.1 Using the SysMan Menu Accounts Group Options .. . .. . .. . 7–31
7.5.1.1 Gathering Group Information .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–31
7.5.1.2 Creating or Modifying Groups .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–32
7.5.2 Using Account Manager (dxaccounts) . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–33
7.5.2.1 Adding Groups . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–33
7.5.2.2 Modifying Groups . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–34
7.5.2.3 Deleting Groups .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–35
7.5.2.4 Finding Groups . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–35
7.6 Administering Windows Domain Accounts and Groups . . .. . .. . 7–35
7.6.1 Administering Synchronized Accounts . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–38
7.6.1.1 Using SysMan Menu Accounts and Groups Options .. . 7–38
7.6.1.2 Using Account Manager (dxaccounts) . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–39
7.6.1.3 Using Command Line Utilities . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–40
7.6.1.4 Using the ASU User Manager for Domains . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–43

Contents ix
 7.6.1.5 Using ASU net Commands .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–43
7.6.2 Windows 2000 Single Sign-On . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–44
7.6.2.1 Single Sign-On Installation Requirements . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–44
7.6.2.2 Installing the Single Sign-On Software . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–45
7.6.2.3 UNIX Requirements for Creating Single Sign-On
Accounts .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–45
7.6.2.4 Creating Single Sign-On Accounts and Groups . . .. . .. . 7–47
7.6.2.5 Single Sign-On System Files . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–47

8 Administering the Print Services

8.1 Print Administrative Tasks .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–1
8.1.1 Printer Connection Methods .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–2
8.1.2 Printer Administration Methods . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–3
8.1.2.1 Using the Printer Configuration utility (printconfig) . . 8–3
8.1.2.2 Using the lprsetup utility . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–3
8.1.2.3 Manually editing system files .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–3
8.1.3 Advanced Printing Software .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–4
8.1.4 Related Documentation .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–4
8.1.4.1 Manuals . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–4
8.1.4.2 Reference Pages .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–5
8.1.4.3 Online Help . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–6
8.1.5 System Files .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–6
8.1.6 Related Utilities . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–8
8.2 Gathering Information . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–9
8.2.1 Network and Direct Printer Connections . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–9
8.2.2 Remote Printers . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–12
8.3 Configuring Printers . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–12
8.3.1 Using printconfig to Configure TCP/IP Printing .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–14
8.3.1.1 Using printconfig for TCP/IP Printer Configuration .. . 8–15
8.3.1.2 Additional Manual Steps Required for Setting Up
TCP/IP . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–16
8.3.2 Installing a Directly Connected Printer with printconfig . . 8–18
8.3.3 Setting Up Remote Printers with printconfig . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–19
8.3.4 Configuring PC Print Queues with printconfig . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–20
8.3.5 Using lprsetup to Install a Printer . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–21
8.3.6 Advanced Printing Software Print Symbols . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–25
8.4 Routine Print System Maintenance .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–25
8.4.1 Adding Printers . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–26
8.4.2 Modifying Printer Configuration . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–26
8.4.3 Removing Printers . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–27
8.4.4 Controlling Local Print Jobs and Queues . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–27
8.4.5 Enabling Printer Accounting .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–29

x Contents
 8.5 Reference Information . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–31
8.5.1 The /etc/printcap File . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–31
8.5.2 Data in /etc/printcap .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–34
8.5.2.1 Printer Name .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–34
8.5.2.2 Printer Type . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–35
8.5.2.3 Printer Synonyms . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–35
8.5.2.4 Device Special File . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–36
8.5.2.5 Connection Type .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–37
8.5.2.6 Spooling Directories .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–37
8.5.2.6.1 Spooling Directory Files . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–38
8.5.2.6.2 Creating a Spooling Directory . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–40
8.5.2.7 Baud Rate . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–40
8.5.3 Line Printer Daemon . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–40
8.5.4 Error Logging . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–41
8.5.5 Print Filters and Filter Directories . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–42
8.5.6 Flag Bits . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–43
8.5.7 Mode Bits .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–45
8.5.8 Remote Printer Characteristics .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–45
8.6 Print Filters . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–46
8.6.1 The pcfof Print Filter . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–46
8.6.2 The wwpsof Print Filter .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–47
8.6.3 Known Restrictions of Filter Use . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–47
8.7 Testing and Troubleshooting Printers .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–48

9 Administering the Archiving Services

9.1 Understanding Backup Tasks .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–2
9.2 Backing Up Data and System Files .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–3
9.3 Choosing a Backup Schedule . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–4
9.4 Backup Methods .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–5
9.5 Preparing to Perform a Backup . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–6
9.5.1 Related Documentation .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–6
9.5.1.1 Manuals . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–6
9.5.1.2 Reference Pages .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–6
9.5.1.3 Online Help . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–7
9.5.2 System Files .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–7
9.5.3 Related Utilities . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–8
9.5.4 Prerequisite Tasks . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–9
9.6 Using the dump Command . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–12
9.6.1 Performing a Full Backup .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–12
9.6.2 Performing an Incremental Backup . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–14
9.6.3 Performing a Remote Backup . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–15

Contents xi
 9.6.4 Using Backup Scripts . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–15
9.7 Restoring Data . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–16
9.7.1 Restoring a File System .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–16
9.7.2 Restoring Files Manually . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–17
9.7.3 Restoring Files Interactively .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–18
9.7.4 Restoring Files Remotely . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–21
9.7.5 Restoring or Duplicating a System (Root) Disk . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–21
9.7.5.1 Preparing for Recovery or Duplication .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–22
9.7.5.2 Determining the Restoration Requirements .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–24
9.7.5.3 Applying the Procedure . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–26
9.7.5.4 Using Alternative root Disk Duplication Methods . . .. . 9–30
9.7.6 Restoring the /usr and /var File System .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–30
9.8 Using the Command Line Utilities: tar, pax, and cpio . .. . .. . .. . 9–31
9.9 Using dxarchiver .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–33
9.10 Creating a Standalone System Kernel on Tape . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–35
9.10.1 Tape Device Requirements . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–36
9.10.2 Using the btcreate Utility . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–36
9.10.2.1 Gathering Information . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–37
9.10.2.2 Creating the SAS Kernel .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–38
9.10.3 Using the btextract Utility . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–38
9.10.4 Using the SysMan Menu boot_tape Option . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–39

10 Administering the System Accounting Services

10.1 Accounting Overview . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–1
10.1.1 Accounting Shell Scripts and Commands . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–3
10.1.2 Accounting Files . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–5
10.2 Setting Up Accounting . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–9
10.2.1 Enabling Accounting in the rc.config File . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–10
10.2.2 Verifying the qacct, pacct, and fee Files .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–11
10.2.3 Editing the holidays File . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–11
10.2.4 Modifying the crontab Files . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–11
10.3 Starting Up and Stopping Accounting .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–13
10.4 Connect Session Accounting . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–13
10.4.1 The wtmpfix Command .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–16
10.4.2 The fwtmp Command . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–16
10.4.3 The acctwtmp Command . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–17
10.4.4 The ac Command . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–18
10.4.5 The acctcon1 Command .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–18
10.4.6 The acctcon2 Command .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–20
10.4.7 The prctmp Shell Script .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–20
10.4.8 The lastlogin Shell Script . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–20

xii Contents
 10.4.9 The last Command . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–20
10.5 Process Accounting .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–21
10.5.1 The accton Command . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–23
10.5.2 The turnacct Shell Script . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–24
10.5.3 The ckpacct Shell Script . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–24
10.5.4 The acctcom Command . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–25
10.5.5 The sa Command . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–26
10.5.6 The acctcms Command . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–28
10.5.7 The acctprc1 Command .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–29
10.5.8 The acctprc2 Command .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–30
10.5.9 The lastcomm Command . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–30
10.6 Disk Usage Accounting . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–31
10.6.1 The dodisk Shell Script . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–31
10.6.2 The diskusg Command . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–32
10.6.3 The acctdusg Command .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–33
10.6.4 The acctdisk Command .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–33
10.7 System Administration Service Accounting .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–34
10.8 Printer Accounting .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–34
10.9 Creating Daily, Summary, and Monthly Report Files . . .. . .. . .. . 10–35
10.9.1 The runacct Shell Script . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–36
10.9.1.1 Correcting runacct Shell Script Errors . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–37
10.9.1.2 Examples of Errors and Corrective Actions . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–38
10.9.2 The acctmerg Command . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–39
10.9.3 The prtacct Shell Script .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–40
10.9.4 The prdaily Shell Script .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–41
10.9.5 The monacct Shell Script . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–41

11 Monitoring and Testing the System

11.1 Overview of Monitoring and Testing . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–1
11.1.1 Guidelines for Monitoring Systems . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–2
11.1.2 Summary of Commands and Utilities . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–3
11.1.2.1 Command Line Utilities . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–4
11.1.2.2 SysMan Menu Monitoring and Tuning Tasks . . .. . .. . .. . 11–6
11.1.2.3 SysMan Station . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–7
11.1.2.4 X11-Compliant Graphical User Interfaces . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–7
11.1.2.5 Advanced Monitoring Utilities . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–9
11.1.3 Related Documentation .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–10
11.2 Configuring and Using Monitoring Utilities .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–10
11.2.1 Using the collect Utility to Record System Data .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–10
11.2.2 Using the sys_check Utility . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–11
11.2.3 Using the Monitoring Performance History Utility .. . .. . .. . 11–13

Contents xiii
 11.3 Environmental Monitoring and envmond/envconfig .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–14
11.3.1 Loadable Kernel Module . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–16
11.3.1.1 Specifying Loadable Kernel Attributes . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–16
11.3.1.2 Obtaining Platform-Specific Functions . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–17
11.3.2 Server System MIB Subagent . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–17
11.3.3 Environmental Monitoring Daemon . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–18
11.3.4 Using envconfig to Configure the envmond Daemon . .. . .. . 11–19
11.3.5 User-Definable Messages . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–19
11.4 Using System Exercisers . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–20
11.4.1 Running System Exercisers . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–20
11.4.2 Using Exerciser Diagnostics . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–21
11.4.3 Exercising a File System . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–22
11.4.4 Exercising System Memory . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–22
11.4.5 Exercising Shared Memory . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–23
11.4.6 Exercising the Terminal Communication System . . .. . .. . .. . 11–23

12 Administering the Basic System Event Channels

12.1 Understanding the Basic Event-Logging Facilities . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–1
12.1.1 System Event Logging . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–2
12.1.2 Binary Event Logging . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–3
12.2 Configuring Event Logging . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–4
12.2.1 Editing the Configuration Files .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–5
12.2.1.1 Editing the syslog.conf File .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–5
12.2.1.2 Configuring syslog to Use Event Manager . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–9
12.2.1.3 Editing the binlog.conf File .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–10
12.2.2 Remote Messages and syslog Security . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–13
12.2.3 Creating the Special Files .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–14
12.2.4 Starting and Stopping the Event-Logging Daemons . .. . .. . 12–14
12.2.4.1 The syslogd Daemon . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–14
12.2.4.2 The binlogd Daemon . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–16
12.2.5 Configuring the Kernel Binary Event Logger . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–16
12.3 Recovering Event Logs After a System Crash . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–17
12.4 Managing Log Files .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–18
12.5 Startup Log Messages in /var/adm/messages . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–19

13 Using the Event Manager

13.1 Event Manager Overview . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–1
13.1.1 Features of the Event Manager .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–2
13.1.2 Understanding Event Manager Events . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–3
13.1.3 Event Manager Components .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–5
13.1.3.1 Event Manager Command Line Utilities .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–7

xiv Contents
13.1.3.2 Event Manager Application Programming Interface . . 13–8
13.1.3.3 Event Manager System Files . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–8
13.1.4 Related Utilities . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–11
13.2 Administering Event Manager . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–12
13.2.1 Starting and Stopping Event Manager . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–12
13.2.2 Configuring Event Manager . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–13
13.2.2.1 Event Manager Daemon Configuration . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–14
13.2.2.2 Event Manager Channel Configuration . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–15
13.2.2.3 Event Manager Logger Configuration .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–17
13.2.2.4 Secondary Logger Configuration Files .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–19
13.2.2.5 Changing the Buffer Size to Prevent Missed Events . . 13–20
13.2.3 Security Considerations .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–21
13.2.3.1 User Authentication . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–21
13.2.3.2 User Authorization . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–21
13.2.3.3 Remote Access with Authentication .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–23
13.2.4 Managing Log Files . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–26
13.2.5 Event Templates . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–27
13.2.6 Installing New Event Manager Clients . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–28
13.2.7 Configuring binlog Event Translation Utilities . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–29
13.3 Using Event Manager in System Administration . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–32
13.3.1 Displaying Events Using evmshow . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–32
13.3.2 Introducing Event Filters . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–35
13.3.3 Retrieving Stored Events Using evmget .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–36
13.3.4 Sorting Events Using evmsort .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–39
13.3.5 Using the -A Option to Simplify the Command String . . .. . 13–40
13.3.6 Monitoring Events Using evmwatch . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–40
13.3.7 Posting Quick Message Events Using evmpost . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–42
13.3.8 Listing Registered Events .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–43
13.3.9 Posting Events from a Shell Script . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–43
13.3.10 Understanding the Event Manager Mark Event . . .. . .. . .. . 13–47
13.3.11 Viewing Events Using the SysMan Event Viewer . .. . .. . .. . 13–48
13.3.12 Advanced Selection and Filtering Techniques . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–49
13.3.12.1 Filtering By Time . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–49
13.3.12.2 Using the Event-Id to Select Events for Detailed
Display . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–50
13.3.12.3 Searching for Reserved Component Names . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–51
13.3.12.4 Using Filter Files . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–52
13.3.13 Logging and Forwarding Events . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–53
13.3.13.1 Logging Events . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–54
13.3.13.2 Using Forwarding to Handle Events Automatically .. . 13–54
13.3.13.3 Logging Events from Remote Systems .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–55
13.4 Troubleshooting Event Manager .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–57

Contents xv
14 Administering Crash Dumps
14.1 Overview of Crash Dumps . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–1
14.1.1 Related Documentation and Utilities .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–2
14.1.1.1 Manuals . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–2
14.1.1.2 Reference Pages .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–2
14.1.1.3 SysMan Menu Applications .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–3
14.1.2 Files Used During Crash Dumps . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–3
14.2 Crash Dump Applications . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–4
14.2.1 Using the Configure System Dump Application .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–4
14.2.2 Using the Create Dump Snapshot Application . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–7
14.3 Crash Dump Creation .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–8
14.3.1 Setting Dump Kernel Attributes in the Generic
Subsystem . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–8
14.3.2 Crash Dump File Creation . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–10
14.3.3 Crash Dump Logging . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–12
14.3.4 Swap Space . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–13
14.3.5 Planning Crash Dump Space .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–17
14.3.6 Planning and Allocating File System Space for Crash
Dump Files . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–17
14.4 Choosing the Content and Method of Crash Dumps .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–19
14.4.1 Adjusting the Primary Swap Partition’s Crash Dump
Threshold .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–19
14.4.2 Including User Page Tables in Partial Crash Dumps .. . .. . 14–20
14.4.3 Selecting Partial or Full Crash Dumps . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–21
14.4.4 Expected Dump Compression . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–21
14.4.5 Selecting and Using Noncompressed Crash Dumps . . .. . .. . 14–22
14.4.6 Dumping to Exempt Memory . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–23
14.4.7 Dumping to a Remote Host . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–24
14.5 Generating a Crash Dump Manually . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–24
14.5.1 Continuable Dumps on a Running System .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–25
14.5.2 Forcing Crash Dumps on a Hung System . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–26
14.6 Storing and Archiving Crash Dump Files .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–27
14.6.1 Compressing a Crash Dump File . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–27
14.6.2 Uncompressing a Partial Crash Dump File . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–28

A Administration Utilities
A.1 X11 Graphical User Interfaces (CDE Application Manager) .. . A–1
A.2 SysMan Menu Tasks and Associated Utilities .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . A–6
A.2.1 Accounts . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . A–7
A.2.2 Hardware .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . A–7

xvi Contents
 A.2.3 Mail .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . A–8
A.2.4 Monitoring and Tuning . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . A–8
A.2.5 Networking . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . A–9
A.2.6 Printing . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . A–13
A.2.7 Security . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . A–13
A.2.8 Software . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . A–14
A.2.9 Storage .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . A–14
A.2.10 Support and Services . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . A–16
A.2.11 General Tasks . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . A–16

Index

Examples
2–1 A Typical Shutdown Sequence .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–28
6–1 Default Partitions . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–5
7–1 Changing the Default Environment Variables Using usermod 7–36
12–1 Sample Translated Event . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–3
12–2 Sample syslog_evm.conf File Entries . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 12–9
13–1 Sample Event Manager Daemon Configuration File Entries . . 13–14
13–2 Sample Event Manager Channel Configuration File .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–16
13–3 Sample Event Manager Logger Configuration File Entries . .. . 13–17
13–4 Sample Event Manager Authorization File Entries . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–22
13–5 A binlogd Event Showing the DECevent Translation . .. . .. . .. . 13–30
13–6 Sample Logger Configuration File Entries for Remote
Logging . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–56

Figures
1–1 System Setup Graphical User Interface . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–7
1–2 Quick Setup . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–8
1–3 Custom Setup . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–9
1–4 CDE Tool Drawer and SysMan Station Icons . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–13
1–5 SysMan Applications Panel .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–14
1–6 The SysMan Menu . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–21
1–7 SysMan Station Main Window . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–27
1–8 AdvFS_Filesystems View . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–29
1–9 Hardware View . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 1–30
4–1 Configuration Files Directory Hierarchy . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 4–31
8–1 Printconfig Main Window . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–14
13–1 Event Model . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–4
13–2 Event Manager Component Model . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–5

Contents xvii
 14–1 Configure System Dump application . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–5
14–2 Create Dump Snapshot application .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–7
14–3 Default dump_sp_threshold Attribute Setting .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–15
14–4 Crash Dump Written to Multiple Devices .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 14–16

Tables
2–1 Console Environment Variables . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–14
2–2 Options to the boot_osflags Variable . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–15
2–3 Parameters of the date command . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 2–23
3–1 Locale Support Files . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–17
3–2 Locale Environment Variables .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 3–19
6–1 Disk Partition Tables . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 6–19
7–1 Utilities for Administering Accounts and Groups . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–2
7–2 Account Administration Worksheet .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–19
7–3 Account Administration Worksheet with Example Data . .. . .. . 7–20
7–4 Group Administration Worksheet . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 7–32
8–1 TCP/IP Socket Numbers .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–16
8–2 lprsetup Options .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–22
8–3 lpc Command Arguments . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–28
8–4 Communication Ports and Printer Device Special Files . . .. . .. . 8–36
8–5 Flag Bits .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–44
8–6 Mode Bits . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–45
8–7 Non-PostScript and PostScript Filters . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 8–47
9–1 Recovery Preparation .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9–23
10–1 Accounting Commands and Shell Scripts .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–3
10–2 Database Files in the /var/adm Directory .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–5
10–3 Daily Files in the /var/adm/acct/nite Directory .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–6
10–4 Summary Files in the /var/adm/acct/sum Directory . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–9
10–5 Monthly Files in the /var/adm/acct/fiscal Directory . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–9
10–6 The utmp ASCII Conversion Structure Members . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–15
10–7 The tacct File Format .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 10–22
11–1 Parameters Defined in the Kernel Module . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–16
11–2 get_info() Function Types . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–17
11–3 Mapping of Server Subsystem Variables . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 11–18
13–1 Event Manager Command Line Utilities .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–7
13–2 Event Manager Administrative Utilities . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 13–7
A–1 System Administration Configuration Applications . .. . .. . .. . .. . A–3
A–2 System Administration Daily Admin Applications . . .. . .. . .. . .. . A–4
A–3 System Administration Monitoring and Tuning Applications . A–5
A–4 System Administration Software Management Applications . . A–5
A–5 System Administration Storage Management Applications .. . A–6
A–6 System Administration Tools . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . A–6

xviii Contents
 About This Manual

This manual describes the tasks you perform to administer the Tru64 UNIX
operating system running on an AlphaServer.

Audience
This manual is intended only for system administrators. As a system
administrator, you should have knowledge of the UNIX operating system
concepts and commands and the supported hardware and software
configurations. You must be trained in the operational aspects of UNIX
system administration and be familiar with all the procedures necessary to
maintain a UNIX system for high availability. This manual is not intended
to train system administrators or to plan the installation of a UNIX system.

New and Changed Features

The following changes were made to this manual:
• Chapter 5 is a subset of the previous version of this chapter. The removed
material has been incorporated into the Hardware Management manual.
• Chapter 8 has been updated to focus on printer configuration using
TCP/IP. This chapter also describes the updated lprsetup procedure
and describes new lpc commands.
• Section 9.7.5 has been updated.
• Section 11.3 has been updated with a discussion of environmental
monitoring from the command line, as part of HP Insight Manager, and
using sensor monitoring (which is available on a limited number of
recent hardware platforms).
• Chapter 13 has been updated for discussions on starting and stopping
the Event Manager, configuration for preventing missed events, remote
authentication, remote logging, and the increased message capacity
of event connections.
• Chapter 14 now includes a description of the graphical user interfaces
for configuring crash dumps for your needs and to save a snapshot of
system memory to a dump file.
If you are updating your system from an older version of the UNIX operating
system, you may want to review all the changes that were implemented in
the intervening releases. You can find this information in the HTML files

About This Manual xix

 provided on the Software Documentation CD-ROM, especially New and
Changed Features from Previous Releases. In addition, the following online
resource isavailable:
• Previous versions of this manual are available on the World Wide Web
at: http://www.tru64unix.compaq.com/docs/
See the New and Changed features section of those versions to learn the
evolution of this manual.
Also, you can obtain technical updates for any information that is not
included in the documentation provided with your media.
New features are added to many of the operating system’s administrative
commands and utilities. Command examples and procedures throughout
the manual are verified to ensure that they are correct. In several cases,
the related reference pages are revised completely. Some information is
relocated to reference pages to eliminate redundancy and reduce the size
of this manual.

Organization
This manual is organized as follows:

Chapter 1 Describes the methods and tools that you use to perform
system administration tasks.
Chapter 2 Explains how to start up and shut down the operating
system. It also explains how to recover from an unexpected
shutdown.
Chapter 3 Describes how to customize operating system files and
operating system components to tailor the operating
system environment.
Chapter 4 Describes how to configure an operating system kernel
dynamically and statically.
Chapter 5 Discusses system administration tasks related to the
administration of disks, including disk partitioning, disk
copying, and disk monitoring.
Chapter 6 Explains how to administer the UFS file system.
Chapter 7 Explains how to administer accounts for operating system
users and groups of users.
Chapter 8 Explains how to administer the print services system and
configure printers.
Chapter 9 Explains how to administer the archiving services of the
operating system in order to back up and restore mass
storage devices.

xx About This Manual

 Chapter 10 Explains how to administer the resource accounting
services of the operating system.
Chapter 11 Describes the monitoring and testing utilities.
Chapter 12 Explains how to set up and administer the basic event
logging services of the operating system.
Chapter 13 Explains how to set up and administer EVM, the advanced
event management and logging mechanism.
Chapter 14 Explains how to set up and administer crash dumps.
Appendix A Lists the administration utilities.

Related Documentation
The following documents provide important information that supplements
the information in certain chapters:
• The Installation Guide and Installation Guide — Advanced Topics
describe how to install your operating system. Several important
administrative tasks, such as installing software and installation
cloning, are described in detail in these manuals.
• The Hardware Management manual is the companion manual to this
manual. The Hardware Management manual describes the tasks you
must perform to maintain system hardware that is controlled by the
Tru64 UNIX operating system.
• For important information on storage configurations, including the
configuration and maintenance of storage arrays, see your StorageWorks
documentation. You use StorageWorks software applications, such as
the StorageWorks Command Console (SWCC) in addition to the utilities
provided by the operating system. See Related Documentation for
resources on the Web.
• The Network Administration: Services and Network Administration:
Connections manuals describe how to set up, configure, and troubleshoot
your network.
• The Advanced Server for UNIX (ASU) Concepts and Planning Guide
and Installation and Administration Guide provide information on
administering Windows domain accounts and sharing printers with PC
users. These documents are supplied with the ASU software on the
Associated Products CD-ROM, Volume 2.
• The Security Administration manual provides information on security
that affects account management and file system sharing.
• The AdvFS Administration and Logical Storage Manager manuals
provide information on advanced file systems and storage management.

About This Manual xxi

 • The System Configuration and Tuning manual provides information on
system performance tuning and advanced kernel configuration.
• The Release Notes provide important information such as restrictions on
using certain operating system features.
Many procedures described in this manual concern the administration of
system hardware and peripherals such as storage devices. See the owner’s
manual for any hardware device, particularly if you need information on
using software that is supplied with, or required to manage the device.
Use the console commands for your processor; they are documented in the
owner’s manual. The Release Notes provide information on device-specific
restrictions. The following online resources are available:
• You can find hardware documentation at the Alpha Systems Technology
web site, located at the following URL: http://www.compaq.com/al-
phaserver/technology/index.html
• You can find software and drivers, including Alpha firmware downloads
at the following URL: http://www.compaq.com/support/files
• You can find general resources on AlphaServers at the following URL:
http://www.compaq.com/alphaserver/index.html

Icons on Tru64 UNIX Printed Manuals

The printed version of the Tru64 UNIX documentation uses letter icons on
the spines of the manuals to help specific audiences quickly find the manuals
that meet their needs. (You can order the printed documentation from HP.)
The following list describes this convention:

G Manuals for general users

S Manuals for system and network administrators
P Manuals for programmers
R Manuals for reference page users

Some manuals in the documentation help meet the needs of several

audiences. For example, the information in some system manuals is also
used by programmers. Keep this in mind when searching for information
on specific topics.
The Documentation Overview provides information on all of the manuals in
the Tru64 UNIX documentation set.

xxii About This Manual

Reader’s Comments
HP welcomes any comments and suggestions you have on this and other
Tru64 UNIX manuals.
You can send your comments in the following ways:
• Fax: 603-884-0120 Attn: UBPG Publications, ZKO3-3/Y32
• Internet electronic mail: [email protected]
A Reader’s Comment form is located on your system in the following
location:
/usr/doc/readers_comment.txt
Please include the following information along with your comments:
• The full title of the manual and the order number. (The order number
appears on the title page of printed and PDF versions of a manual.)
• The section numbers and page numbers of the information on which
you are commenting.
• The version of Tru64 UNIX that you are using.
• If known, the type of processor that is running the Tru64 UNIX software.
The Tru64 UNIX Publications group cannot respond to system problems or
technical support inquiries. Please address technical questions to your local
system vendor or to the appropriate HP technical support office. Information
provided with the software media explains how to send problem reports to
HP.

Conventions
This manual uses the following conventions:
MB1, MB2, MB3 MBN refers to the mouse button that you must press
to select an item or initiate an action.

%
$ A percent sign represents the C shell system prompt.
A dollar sign represents the system prompt for the
Bourne, Korn, and POSIX shells.

# A number sign represents the superuser prompt.

file Italic (slanted) type indicates variable values,

placeholders, and function argument names.

About This Manual xxiii

 [|]
{|} In syntax definitions, brackets indicate items that
are optional and braces indicate items that are
required. Vertical bars separating items inside
brackets or braces indicate that you choose one item
from among those listed.

...
In syntax definitions, a horizontal ellipsis indicates
that the preceding item can be repeated one or
more times.

.. A vertical ellipsis indicates that a portion of an

. example that would normally be present is not
shown.

cat(1) A cross-reference to a reference page includes

the appropriate section number in parentheses.
For example, cat(1) indicates that you can find
information on the cat command in Section 1 of
the reference pages.

Ctrl/x This symbol indicates that you hold down the

first named key while pressing the key or mouse
button that follows the slash. In examples, this
key combination is enclosed in a box (for example,
Ctrl/C ).

Return In an example, a key name enclosed in a box

indicates that you press that key.

xxiv About This Manual

 1
System Administration Methods and
Utilities

The operating system provides a number of methods and utilities you can
use to perform administration tasks from initial configuration (setup) to
ongoing maintenance and customizing your system environment. This
chapter provides:
• An overview of administrative methods and utilities (Section 1.1)
• Pointers to other documentation available for the administrative
utilities, such as online and Web-based help (Section 1.2)
• An explanation of the system setup utilities that are displayed
automatically during the first root login to a system, that is, after a full
installation (Section 1.3)
• An introduction to the different administrative methods and utilities
(Section 1.4)
• A description of the administrative utilities that you launch from the
Common Desktop Environment (CDE) (Section 1.5)
• An introduction to the SysMan Menu (Section 1.6)
• A description of the SysMan Menu command line interface (Section 1.7)
• An introduction to the SysMan Station (Section 1.8)
• A discussion of HP Insight Manager, which you can use to view system
status, and launch the SysMan Menu and the SysMan Station from a
Web browser (Section 1.9)
• Configuration information for the SysMan Menu and SysMan Station
clients so that you can launch them directly from Windows on a PC
(Section 1.10)
• A discussion on setting up a serial line console to access a remote system
using a modem line (Section 1.11)

1.1 Overview of the SysMan Menu and Other Utilities

SysMan Menu utilities are independent of user environments, which can
be as follows:
• X-compliant user environments, such as CDE.

System Administration Methods and Utilities 1–1

 • Microsoft® Windows® user environments running on a Personal
Computer (PC), such as Windows 98 and Windows NT®.
• Web-based management using a Web browser, such as Internet Explorer,
and HP Insight Manager.
• A terminal, or terminal window running under any of the previous user
environments. In this case, terminal curses mode is used to display
and use SysMan utilities.
For example, you can perform administrative tasks on a remote UNIX®
system from a personal computer running Microsoft Windows NT using the
SysMan Menu and SysMan Station clients running as Java applications.
The utilities are consistent in appearance no matter what user environment
is used.
Although you can use different methods to perform the same tasks, it
is important to note that there may be minor differences in the options
provided, depending which administrative utilities you use and how you
invoke them. For example, many SysMan Menu utilities are designed to run
in different user environments, and therefore contain no graphical elements
such as icons. The X11-based utilities, designed to run in a windowing
environment such as CDE, often contain graphical elements and support
windowing features such as drag-and-drop. Examples of these are:
• Account Manager (dxaccounts) to administer user accounts and groups
• Kernel Tuner (dxkerneltuner) to customize your UNIX kernel
• File Sharing (dxfileshare) to share local directories and mount remote
shares
Other legacy utilities, retained for backwards compatibility, are designed
for use in character-cell terminals only. However, when invoked from
the SysMan Menu, these utilities also run in any of the supported user
environments. An example is the NIS configuration utility, nissetup, which
appears on the SysMan Menu as Configure Network Information
Services(NIS).
In contrast to the X11–compliant utilities, the SysMan Menu utilities are
not as highly functional and graphical. They enable you to perform the basic
administrative tasks, independent of user environment. They also offer a
greater breadth of administrative functions. The following usage constraints
apply:
• There also may be minor differences in the appearance and layout of the
SysMan Menu utilities, depending what user environment you are using.
For example, invoking Shutdown the system when in the X11 CDE
user environment displays the shutdown delay selection as a slider bar.
You use the mouse button to select this bar and drag it to set a longer

1–2 System Administration Methods and Utilities

 time. When the same utility is invoked in a character-cell terminal, the
slider bar is replaced by a field in which you type a number representing
the shutdown delay time.
• There are also functional differences between administrative utilities.
Some SysMan Menu utilities do not offer all the options available in
the analogous command line (or X11-compliant) utility. For example,
when managing user accounts, you can use the useradd command
to set default characteristics that all newly created accounts inherit.
You cannot set these characteristics from the SysMan Menu Accounts
utilities. As a general rule, the SysMan Menu utilities provide the most
frequently used options, while the command line interface (CLI) provides
all options.
The advantage for the system administrator is that the SysMan Menu
and SysMan Station provide a single consistent presentation format for
administrative utilities, no matter where the administrator is located and
what user environment is available. For example, you can log on to a remote
UNIX system from your local PC and use the same familiar utilities to
perform administrative tasks. You also can connect to any system using
HP Insight Manager across the Web to view the system status and launch
the SysMan Menu and the SysMan Station to perform tasks on the remote
system.

1.2 Related Documentation

This guide does not document how to invoke and complete all fields in a
given administration utility, but describes how you use the utility to perform
administrative tasks. It includes examples of use, but not for all user
environments or options. The following sections provide pointers to more
detailed information on invoking and using administration utilities and
methods. Documentation for the various options is provided in the following
formats: reference pages, online help, and web-based help.

1.2.1 Reference Pages

Each utility has its own reference page that describes how to invoke the
utility and the available options for that utility. For example, sysman_cli(8)
describes how you invoke the command line version of the SysMan Menu
data.
Reference pages also document the user environment options for a particular
utility. You may be able to invoke an administrative utility in several
different user environments, or you may only be able to invoke it in one.

System Administration Methods and Utilities 1–3

1.2.2 Online Help
Each utility provides an online help volume that describes how you use it
and gives a detailed description of the available options in a utility. Online
help also identifies valid data that the user must supply, and provides
reference information and definitions of terminology. The online help is
accessed from a button on the first window of a utility, or from the CDE
help library by invoking the library icon on the CDE front panel. System
Management is the first help volume available.
In some graphical user environments, context-sensitive help is provided
for the options and fields. As you move the pointer over the screen, a brief
description of the screen fields or option buttons is displayed in a message
field. In a curses user environment, a help message is displayed as you
move between fields and options with the Arrow keys or Tab key. See
curses(3) for more information.
Command line utilities have help that describes the command syntax. This
usually is invoked with the -h or -help flag, or simply by entering the
command without any arguments and parameters and pressing the Return
key.

1.2.3 Web Based Help

When you configure and invoke the Netscape viewer as described in the
Installation Guide, the home page defaults to the following:
file:/user/doc/netscape/Tru64_UNIX.html.
This page contains links to the following information:
Documentation The online documentation for the operating system.

System Management
A link to file:/user/doc/netscape/SYS-
MAN/index.html, the HP Insight Manager
Web-based Management page. The following
information on administering the operating system
is available from this page:
• Using SysMan Menu and the SysMan Station.
• Using an X-capable user environment such as
CDE.
• Using a personal computer (PC) running
Microsoft Windows. This section provides links

1–4 System Administration Methods and Utilities

 to the client software that you must download
to your PC.
The SysMan Menu is running in Web/Java mode if
it was launched from a web browser or from the
SysMan Station. The SysMan tasks are running in
Web/Java mode if they were launched from a web
browser, SysMan Station, or from an instance of the
SysMan Menu running in Web/Java mode.
To view online help for the SysMan Menu or any of
the Menu tasks when running in Web/Java mode
(such as from a PC), the HP Insight Manager
daemon must be running on the server to which
you are connecting. To start the daemon, run the
following command on the server as root:
# /sbin/init.d/insightd start
You can find out which system is the server by
looking at the title bar of the window from which you
launched the help command.
The SysMan Station also requires the insightd
daemon to display online help.

World Wide Web Links to product information on the World Wide Web.

When HP Insight Manager is configured, you also can connect to the Web
agents of any system in the local network domain that is running the HP
Insight Manager agents. For example, to connect to the local host on a UNIX
system, invoke Netscape and specify the following URL in the Location field:
http://<host>:2301
Where <host> is either the fully qualified network name of the system, such
as bender.fut.ram.ma, or the TCP/IP address, such as 111.22.333.11.
The port is always :2301. See Section 1.9 for more information on
configuring HP Insight Manager.
Choose HP Insight Manager Agents and then select Summary? to access the
HP Insight Manager Web-based user guide.
There are restrictions on using HP Insight Manager, depending on your user
environment. See Section 1.9 for information.

System Administration Methods and Utilities 1–5

1.3 Setting Up Your System
The initial configuration of your system (setup) usually is performed as a
postinstallation task and System Setup is invoked automatically at first root
(superuser) login after an installation. During installation, you may have
used some of the utilities documented in this chapter. You use the same
utilities for initial setup as you do for ongoing maintenance and custom
configuration of your system.
The System Setup utility (also known as the clipboard) is presented as a
graphical user interface if your system has a graphics board and you are
running an X11 user environment such as the default CDE. If you first log in
at a character-cell terminal, System Setup is presented as a text interface.
Figure 1–1 shows the System Setup in graphical format.

1–6 System Administration Methods and Utilities

Figure 1–1: System Setup Graphical User Interface

You can invoke System Setup at any time to modify the existing system
configuration, simply by typing setup at the command line, or by invoking
the System Setup icon in the CDE Application Manager – System Admin
folder. The following options are provided:
Quick Setup Enables you to complete basic configuration of
system services such as networking, mail, and
printers. This option is useful if you want to get a
system up and running quickly, leaving advanced
configuration options for later. Figure 1–2 shows the
initial quick setup window.

System Administration Methods and Utilities 1–7

 Figure 1–2: Quick Setup

Custom Setup Enables you to run a wide range of system

configuration utilities to perform all the Quick
Setup tasks and run additional setup options
such as custom disk configuration or set up the
point-to-point protocol.
Figure 1–3 shows part of the Custom Setup
graphical interface.

1–8 System Administration Methods and Utilities

 Figure 1–3: Custom Setup

Cloning Information This option provides a link to information on

the SysMan Menu option to clone your system
configuration so that it can be applied to other
systems. See the Installation Guide — Advanced
Topics manual and sysman_clone(8) for more
information.

See Section 1.5.2 for more information.

1.4 Administrative Methods

Most of the tasks described in this manual can be accomplished by using one
or more of the following methods. Because of its versatility in different user

System Administration Methods and Utilities 1–9

 environments, SysMan is the recommended method of performing system
administration tasks.
• The SysMan Menu
The SysMan Menu integrates most available system administration
utilities in a single menu that enables you to run the utilities from:
– Any local or remote character-cell terminal
– Any X11-compliant windowing environment, such as CDE
– Microsoft Windows on a personal computer (PC)
– The Web browser using HP Insight Manager
See Section 1.6 for more information.
• The SysMan Station
The SysMan Station is a graphical representation of a system (or cluster)
that enables you to monitor system status from the CPU down to the
level of individual system components such as disks. You also can view
and monitor logical groups such as file systems or AdvFS domains and
create customized views. When viewing any system component, you can
obtain detailed information on its properties or launch utilities that
enable you to perform administrative tasks on the component. Unlike
the SysMan Menu, the SysMan Station requires a graphics capability
and cannot be run from the character-cell or curses user environments.
See Section 1.8 for more information.
• Graphical user interfaces in the CDE Application Manager –
System_Admin
A set of X11-compliant graphical user interfaces (GUIs) that run under
CDE or other X11-compliant windowing environments. Use of the
GUIs requires a graphics (windowing) terminal or workstation, and
the installation of the windowing software subsets. These graphical
utilities support features of the windowing environment, such as
using cut-and-paste to create duplicated versions of user accounts in
dxaccounts.
See Section 1.5 for more information.
• Command line scripts
For compatibility reasons, older administrative utilities have been
preserved in most cases. Some command line utilities have migrated to
become the new command line options. For example, the adduser script
is still available, but it is superseded by the following utilities:
– The SysMan Menu Accounts utilities, which provide tasks enabling
you to manage users and groups in local and NIS environments.

1–10 System Administration Methods and Utilities

 – The useradd command line utility, which you run from a
character-cell terminal.
– The Account Manager graphical user interface, available from
Application Manager - Daily Admin in the CDE environment, or by
invoking dxaccounts from a terminal window. (The interface runs
in other X-compliant windowing environments)
– The Accounts option on the SysMan Menu, available from Application
Manager - System_Admin in the CDE environment, or by invoking
sysman from a terminal window.
You should migrate your system administration processes from
the older command line scripts to the appropriate SysMan Menu
method. These command line utilities have been moved to optional
OSFRETIREDxxx subsets. See the Installation Guide for information
on installing the retired command subsets.
• Serial line console
In addition to networked methods of administration, the serial line
console provides a dial-up facility that enables you to connect to remote
systems through a modem. See Section 1.11 for more information.
• Manual file changes by editing system files (not recommended)
Traditionally, experienced UNIX system administrators have used a
combination of individual shell commands, scripts, and utilities, or
simply edited the system files. Most sections of this manual describe the
various system files that are updated or modified when you perform an
administrative task, and you may still want to make manual changes.
The use of system utilities maintains the integrity and consistency of
system files such as /etc/sysconfigtab. We recommend that you use
the appropriate utilities to update system files so that the structure
of these files is preserved.
Important considerations are:

Context Dependent Many system files are now special symbolic

Symbolic Links links, created to facilitate clusters. If these links
(CDSLs)
are broken, the system cannot be joined to a
cluster in future without recreating the links.
See Chapter 6 and hier(5) for more information.

Binary databases, Many system components write data both to

configuration text and binary files, and their administrative
definitions
utilities often recreate the binaries. Other
system information often is preserved so that
when you update your system it can be recovered

System Administration Methods and Utilities 1–11

 and used again, saving you time and effort on
administering the system.

Latent support for Individual systems are capable of being joined

clusters into clusters and many UNIX system files have
been modified recently to provide latent support
for clusters. For example, the rc.config file
now has two related files, rc.config.common
and rc.config.site, which can store run-time
configuration variables. Using the rcmgr utility
ensures the integrity and consistency of these
files.

Update installation – During an update installation, the installation

preserved customized process merges changed information into existing
files
system files. The .new..* and .proto..*
files may be important in this process. See the
Installation Guide — Advanced Topics manual
for more information.

1.5 Administrative Utilities Under CDE

The Common Desktop Environment (CDE) is the default X11 windowing
user environment, although the utilities described in the following sections
run on other X11–compliant user environments. After you complete the
full installation, the System Setup graphical user interface is displayed to
guide you through the process of configuring the system for initial use. From
System Setup, you invoke the same graphical user interfaces (GUIs) that
you use regularly to administer and customize the system. System Setup is
described in Section 1.5.2.
Many of the administrative utilities that you invoke from within CDE start
a SysMan Menu task option. However, some of the utilities are graphical,
and either have no analogous SysMan Menu option, or offer features that
only can be used under CDE. Examples are:
• CDE Setup, used to configure the CDE environment.
• Disk Configuration (diskconfig), an application that you use to
configure disk partitions.
• Archiver (dxarchiver), an application used to create tar, pax, or cpio
archives. You can use drag-and-drop to easily add folders to an archive.
Under CDE, The GUIs are located in the Application Manager, which is the
tool drawer option on the CDE front panel, as shown in Figure 1–4. The icon

1–12 System Administration Methods and Utilities

 next to the tool drawer only appears on the CDE front panel for the root
login and is used to invoke the SysMan Station as described in Section 1.8.

Figure 1–4: CDE Tool Drawer and SysMan Station Icons

If you are using an X11–compliant user environment other than CDE,

invoke the individual GUIs from the command line as shown in the following
examples:
# /usr/sbin/X11/dxaccounts

# /usr/sbin/X11/dxarchiver

1.5.1 Accessing SysMan Under CDE

In CDE, certain SysMan Menu utilities are available in the Application
Manager folder, which you can access as follows:

1. From the CDE Front Panel, select the arrow for the SysMan
Applications panel. You can see this arrow above the icon for the
SysMan Station, shown in Figure 1–4. When you select this arrow, the
panel appears as shown in Figure 1–5.

System Administration Methods and Utilities 1–13

 Figure 1–5: SysMan Applications Panel

From this panel you can select one of the following icons, to launch a
utility or open a folder containing more administration utilities:
• Launch the SysMan Station, which is described in Section 1.8. This
icon appears on the front panel of a root login to CDE, as shown
in Figure 1–4.
• Select a folder icon, such as Configuration to open the applications
folders, which contain utilities described in Appendix A.
• Launch the SysMan Menu.
2. From the CDE Front Panel by selecting its tool-drawer icon, shown
in Figure 1–4. When the top-level folder is opened, double click on
the System_Admin group to access System Setup, the Welcome
to SysMan online help volume, and the five utility groups. See
Section 1.5.2 for more information.

1–14 System Administration Methods and Utilities

 Online help is available for the SysMan Menu utilities without actually
running any utility. Select the Help Manager icon on the CDE front panel
to invoke the online help browser. The browser includes help volumes for
CDE, the CDE Desktop, and System Management. You also can customize
your CDE workspace with the Create Action utility in the Desktop_Apps
folder. Customized icons enable you to start SysMan applications directly
from the workspace. See the CDE Companion manual for more information.
In other X-Windows environments, the SysMan utilities can be invoked
from the command line. See sysman_intro(8) for a list of the utilities.
This reference page also describes how to invoke the online help browser in
graphical environments other than CDE. The SysMan Station icon also is
located on the CDE Front Panel on the root user display.
More information is available from these reference pages:
sysman(8) Describes the SysMan Menu and explains how to
invoke it for various environments. See Section 1.6.

sysman_station(8) Describes the SysMan Station and explains how to

invoke it. See Section 1.8.

sysman_cli(8) Describes the command line option for SysMan

Menu, and defines the command options. See
Section 1.7.

1.5.2 System Setup

System Setup guides you through the process of configuring the system for
initial use. System Setup is a graphical representation of a clipboard that
contains an icon for each configuration application. After the initial root
login following a full installation, System Setup is invoked automatically,
prompting you to complete system configuration tasks. The initial window
contains two options, Quick Setup and Custom Setup.

1.5.2.1 Quick Setup

This option provides a step-by-step guide (or wizard) that navigates you
through a typical system configuration. Use Quick Setup to perform a basic
configuration, which may be all that is required for some systems. You can
perform any advanced or site-specific configuration tasks at a later time
using the Custom Setup.
The Quick Setup wizard guides you through the following tasks:
• Entering your software licenses (PAKs)
• Configuring the network interface card (NIC)

System Administration Methods and Utilities 1–15

 • Configuring static network routing
• Specifying the following networking services and naming servers:
– Domain Name Service (DNS, formerly BIND)
– Network Time Protocol (NTP)
– Network Information Service (NIS, formerly YP or Yellow Pages)
– Network File System (NFS)
– Electronic mail server
• Configuring a default local or remote printer and server
You can skip any options that you do not require, details of which are
provided later in this section.

1.5.2.2 Custom Setup

This option invokes a version of System Setup that contains an icon for
each configuration application. You can select only the options you require
for your site-specific configuration or custom configuration, for example
configuring a system as a server. Not all configuration applications are
available on all systems. The file /etc/checklist.desc contains a list of
configuration applications.
When you select an icon, the appropriate SysMan Menu utility, X11–based
GUI, or character-cell script is invoked. The following list describes the
available utilities:
License Manager
Invokes the License Manager (dxlicenses) , which enables you
to register the Product Authorization Keys (PAKs or licenses) for
the operating system and any layered software applications. Paper
copies of software licenses are provided with the product media. See
dxlicenses(8) and lmf(8), and the Software License Management
manual for more information.

Disk Configuration
Invokes Disk Configuration (diskconfig), which enables you
to configure and administer disk devices on the system. See
diskconfig(8) and disklabel(8), and the Hardware Management
manual for more information.

Network Configuration Step By Step

Invokes the SysMan Menu Network Setup Wizard, which is
a guide that leads you through the process of configuring and
administering networking components on the system. See sysman(8)
and network_manual_setup(7), and the Network Administration:

1–16 System Administration Methods and Utilities

 Connections manual. The following configuration options are
presented:
• Configuring network interface cards (NIC)
• Setting up static routes and configuring the /etc/routes file
• Setting up routing services – gated, routed, or an IP router
• Set up remote who services (rwhod)
• Set up a DHCP server (joind)
• Specifying the contents of the /etc/hosts.equiv file
• Specifying the contents of the /etc/networks file
In addition to the options offered in the Network Setup Wizard,
you also may need to set up other options, such as NTP, depending
on your site-specific networking requirements. See the Network
Administration: Connections manual and the Network Administration:
Services manual for more information.

DNS (BIND) Configuration

Selecting Configure system as a DNS client invokes
the DNS Client Configuration utility, which enables you to
configure the domain name server (DNS). See bindconfig(8) and
network_manual_setup(7), and the Network Administration:
Connections manual and the Network Administration: Services manual
for more information.

NIS Configuration
Invokes the nissetup script, which enables you to configure NIS,
the network information service. This is also known as ypsetup.
See nissetup(8) and network_manual_setup(7), and the Network
Administration: Connections manual and the Network Administration:
Services manual for more information.

NFS Configuration
Invokes the SysMan Menu and presents the Network File Systems
(NFS) utilities, which enables you to configure and administer NFS
components on the system. See sysman(8) and nfs_intro(4), and
the Network Administration: Connections manual and the Network
Administration: Services manual for more information.

File Sharing
Invokes the dxfileshare option, which enables you to access
and share file systems. See dxfileshare(8) and the Network

System Administration Methods and Utilities 1–17

 Administration: Connections manual and the Network Administration:
Services manual. See Chapter 6 for more information on file systems.

NTP Configuration
Invokes the SysMan Menu Network Time Protocol
Configuration option, which enables you to configure network
time. See sysman(8), ntp(1), and ntp_intro(7), and the Network
Administration: Connections manual and the Network Administration:
Services manual for more information.

PPP Configuration
Invokes the SysMan Menu and presents the Serial Line
Networking options, which enables you to configure options and
secrets files for the point-to-point protocol (PPP). See sysman(8),
ppp_manual_setup(7), and pppd(8), and the Network Administration:
Connections manual and the Network Administration: Services manual
for more information.

SLIP Configuration
See the entry for PPP and startslip(8) for more information.

Account Manager
Invokes the Account Manager (dxaccounts) GUI, which enables
you to create user accounts and manage groups for both UNIX and
Windows NT domain users on client PCs. See dxaccounts(8) and
adduser(8), and Chapter 7 for more information.

Mail Configuration
Invokes the Mail Configuration utility, which enables you to configure
the system to send and receive electronic mail. See sysman(8),
mail_intro(7), and mailconfig(8), and the Network Administration:
Connections manual and the Network Administration: Services manual
for more information.

LAT Configuration
Invokes the latsetup script, which enables you to configure the Local
Area Transport service. See latsetup(8) and lat_intro(7), and
the Network Administration: Connections manual and the Network
Administration: Services manual for more information.

1–18 System Administration Methods and Utilities

UUCP Configuration
Invokes the uucpsetup Connections Configuration script, which
enables you to configure UNIX to UNIX connections and modems. See
uucpsetup(8) and uucp_intro(7), and the Network Administration:
Connections manual and the Network Administration: Services manual
for more information.

Printer Configuration
Invokes the SysMan Menu Configure line printers option, which
enables you to configure local and remote printers. See sysman(8),
printconfig(8), and lprsetup(8), and Chapter 8 for more
information.

Security Configuration
Invokes the SysMan Menu Security utilities, which enable you
to configure base or enhanced security. See secconfig(8) and the
Security Administration manual for more information.

Audit Configuration
Invokes the SysMan Menu Security utilities, which enable you to
configure the audit subsystem. See auditconfig(8) and the Security
Administration manual for more information.

DOP (Division of Privileges)

Invokes the SysMan Menu option Configure Division of
Privileges (DOP), which enables you to assign privileges to
nonprivileged users so that they can run utilities that usually are run
only by the root user. See dop(8) and sysman(8) for more information.

Prestoserve I/O Acceleration Configuration

Invokes the prestosetup script, which enables you to configure
Prestoserve. See presto(8) and presto_setup(8), and the Guide to
Prestoserve for more information.

GUI Selection
Enables you to configure the display manager to CDE or xdm.

ATM
Invokes a script that enables you to configure Asynchronous Transfer
Mode (ATM).

System Administration Methods and Utilities 1–19

 HP Insight Manager
Invokes a utility that you use to enable and configure the HP Insight
Manager.

You do not need to use all the options presented on System Setup, and
you can opt to defer any option to a later time. If you choose to defer any
configuration options and exit from System Setup, you need to invoke
System Setup manually from the Application Manager – System Admin
folder, from the SysMan Menu, or from the command line as follows:
# /usr/sbin/sysman
# /usr/sbin/checklist
# /usr/sbin/setup

1.6 The SysMan Menu

SysMan integrates most system administration utilities and makes them
available under several different user environments. You can access utilities
from the SysMan Menu, a hierarchical, task-oriented menu interface.
All the tasks in the SysMan Menu can be performed from an X11-capable
display, a personal computer running Microsoft Windows, such as Windows
NT Version 4.0, or a character cell terminal. There are several ways to start
the SysMan Menu:
To start the SysMan Menu from a CDE desktop:
• Log in as root and choose the SysMan Menu icon from the CDE front
panel’s SysMan Applications panel.
• Choose the SysMan Menu icon from the System Management group in
the Application Manager.
• To start the SysMan Menu from a command prompt in a terminal
window, enter the following command:
# /usr/sbin/sysman
• To start the SysMan Menu from the SysMan Station, select the system
icon in a view window and then choose SysMan_Menu from the SysMan
Station Tools menu.
You can start a specific task directly from the command line using its name
in the menu or its accelerator, which is a unique keyword for each option in
the sysman menu. For example, to run the task that invokes the menu
option Configure Division of Privileges (DOP), use its accelerator
dopconfig and enter the following command at the system prompt:
# /usr/sbin/sysman dopconfig

1–20 System Administration Methods and Utilities

Use the following command to obtain a complete listing of the available
tasks and their accelerators.
# /usr/sbin/sysman -list

The SysMan Menu contains a text list of options organized in a hierarchy (or
tree). Each option appears as a branch on the tree, leading to suboptions,
which may be further branches or end in a task. You can collapse or expand
each option if suboptions are available, as indicated by a character preceding
each menu item. The plus sign (+) indicates that further menu items are
available; the minus sign (-) indicates that the branch is fully expanded.
Tasks at the end of a branch are preceded by a vertical bar (|) indicating
that no further expansion of the branch is possible and you only can select a
task to invoke an administrative utility.
Figure 1–6 shows the SysMan Menu invoked in the CDE user environment.
The contents of this menu may be different on your system:

Figure 1–6: The SysMan Menu

As shown in Figure 1–6, the Software branch (label 1) is expanded fully,

showing the Installation branch and the Register license data
task. The Installation branch (label 2) contains several tasks such as
Install software and List installed software. When you select a
task, the appropriate utility is invoked.

System Administration Methods and Utilities 1–21

 How you move through and select menu items or invoke tasks is dependent
on the user environment that you are using such as a curses terminal or a
windowing environment. When using a terminal, you use the arrow keys or
Tab key to move around the menu, highlighting options and buttons as you
move. Use the Enter key to select an item, which expands a branch or select
a task to invoke the associated utility. When using a mouse in a windows
environment, you can move the pointer to a branch or task and double click
MB1 to expand a branch or select a task and invoke the associated utility.
See the online help for detailed instructions on navigating through the
utilities. The following options appear on the SysMan Menu:
Select Chooses the highlighted item. Selecting a branch
expands or contracts it. Selecting a task invokes the
associated utility.

Find... Invokes the search window, enabling you to search

on a keyword and find associated tasks.

Help On Item Invokes context-sensitive help on any branch or task.

Exit Closes the SysMan Menu window.

Options... Provides options for configuring the SysMan Menu

display, such as displaying the accelerators.

Help Invokes general help on the SysMan Menu.

Context-sensitive help also is displayed in the pane located between the two
rows of buttons. This online help describes the content of the window as you
move the mouse pointer or use the Tab key to move to an item. Selecting
a task invokes its associated utility in a format that is most appropriate
for your current user environment, such as the X11–compliant windowing
environment or curses format in a character-cell terminal.
More information is available in sysman(8) and in the online help. See the
tables in Appendix A for information on related utilities.

1.7 Using the SysMan Command Line

The sysman -cli utility is a command line alternative to the SysMan Menu,
which enables you to implement SysMan Menu tasks from the command
line, view SysMan data, or write scripts to customize your configuration
tasks. When you set up different parts of the system, such as configuring
the network using SysMan Menu tasks, you are manipulating system
configuration files such as /etc/rc.config.common or /etc/hosts. The

1–22 System Administration Methods and Utilities

sysman -cli utility enables you to view and manipulate entries in these
files directly from the command line or from within a shell script.

You must have root privileges to use the sysman -cli options, although
unprivileged users can use it to view system setup data. See dop(8) for
information on using the division of privileges (DoP) utilities to enable
nonroot users to become privileged users of SysMan tasks.
A brief introduction to the many features of the sysman -cli
utility is presented here. See sysman_cli(8) for a complete list
of options and flags. A set of shell script examples is provided in
/usr/examples/systems_management/sysman_cli. Some command
line examples follow.
You can use the sysman -cli command to display all the manageable
components in the Menu. For example, the following command is used to list
the main components in the SysMan Menu hierarchy:
# sysman -cli -list components

Component(s):
account_management
atm
auditconfig
bindconfig
bttape
ciconfig
clsschl
doprc
.
.
.
networkedSystems
.
.
.
The following command displays the groups included in the
networkedSystems component:
# sysman -cli -list group -comp networkedSystems
Component: networkedSystems
Group(s):
hostEquivalencies
hostEquivFileText
hostFileText
hostMappings
joinMappingService
componentid
digitalmanagementmodes

System Administration Methods and Utilities 1–23

 The following command displays the current data values in the
hostMappings group of the component networkedSystems. This data is
the content of the /etc/hosts file.
# sysman -cli -list values -group hostMappings /
-comp networkedSystems
Component: networkedSystems
Group: hostMappings
{} {} 127.0.0.1 localhost
argnot {local host} 16.140.112.139 argnot.xxx.yyy.com
jason server 16.140.112.3 jason.xxx.yyy.com
fleece {backup server} 16.140.112.28 fleece.xxx.yyy.com
{} {} 150.2.3.4 newshst.pubs.com
For every option in the SysMan Menu, the sysman -cli command lets
you view and manipulate system data without invoking the utilities. For
example, the following command shows how you can remove a host from
the /etc/hosts file:
# sysman -cli -delete row -group hostMappings /
-comp networkedSystems

Please enter key 1 [systemName]: newshst.pubs.com

Please enter key 2 [networkAddress]: 150.2.3.4

You are prompted to enter key data that enables the utility to identify the
correct entry in the /etc/hosts file. Because the SysMan Menu options
sometimes work on data that is stored in tables, you need to identify the
correct row in the table to delete or modify. Every row has some unique
identifiers, called keys, which you must specify with the sysman -cli
command option. If you do not supply the keys, you are prompted to enter
them. The following command shows how you determine the keys for a
particular table:
# sysman -cli -list keys -group hostMappings -comp /
networkedSystems

Component: networkedSystems
Group: hostMappings Keys: systemName,networkAddress

You also can use sysman -cli commands to add or remove user data
entries from the system data files that are updated by the SysMan Menu.
For example, the following command adds a mail user interactively:
# sysman -cli -add row -comp mailusradm -group mailusers

Attribute Name: user_name (key attribute)

Attribute Description: user name

1–24 System Administration Methods and Utilities

Attribute Type: STRING(8), Default Value:
Enter Attribute Value: davisB

Attribute Name: nis

Attribute Description: NIS User
Attribute Type: INTEGER, Default Value: 0
Enter Attribute Value ( to use default): 1

Attribute Name: mail_type (key attribute)

Attribute Description: mail user type
Attribute Type: INTEGER ENUM /
{ 0=Local/pop, 1=Secure Pop, 2=IMAP, 3=Secure IMAP }, /
Default Value: 0
Enter Attribute Value ( to use default): 2

Attribute Name: acl

Attribute Description: acl list
Attribute Type: INTEGER ENUM /
{ 0=all, 1=read, 2=post, 3=append }, Default Value: 0
Enter Attribute Value ( to use default): 0

Attribute Name: quota

Attribute Description: user name
Attribute Type: STRING(8), Default Value:
Enter Attribute Value:

Attribute Name: passwd

Attribute Description: password
Attribute Type: STRING(20), Default Value:
Enter Attribute Value: change_me

Attribute Name: orig_mailtype

Attribute Description: original mail user type
Attribute Type: INTEGER ENUM /
{ 0=Local/pop, 1=Secure Pop, 2=IMAP, 3=Secure IMAP }, /
Default Value: 0
Enter Attribute Value ( to use default):

#:

You also can enter the command as a single line, specifying all attribute
values as follows:
# sysman -cli -add row -comp mailusradm -group mailusers /
-data "{davisB} {1} {2} {0} {0} {pls_chg} {1}"

System Administration Methods and Utilities 1–25

1.8 The SysMan Station
The SysMan Station enables you to monitor a system, group of systems, or
an entire cluster and administer system resources. You also can launch the
SysMan Menu or invoke utilities directly from the Tools menu, or by selecting
the icon representing a system component, and pressing MB3 to display a
menu of options that apply to the selected device. Unlike the SysMan Menu,
the SysMan Station is a highly graphical interface, and only can run in a
windowing user environment such as CDE or Microsoft Windows.

______________________ Note _______________________

You only can connect between compatible server and client
versions of the SysMan Station. An attempt to connect to an
incompatible server, results in an error message or dialog similar
to the following:
System Management Server on host host name running version N,
This client running incompatible version N
Upgrade your client software to the appropriate version by
downloading it from the server.

This section provides a brief introduction to the main features of the SysMan
Station, including customized views. See the online help for SysMan Station
for more information.
To start the SysMan Station fom CDE:

1. Log in as root and select the SysMan Station icon from the CDE Front
Panel or from the SysMan Applications subpanel. (This assumes the
default CDE configuration, where the SysMan Station icon appears on
the Front Panel under the SysMan Applications subpanel.)
2. Choose the SysMan Station icon from the System Management group in
the Application Manager.

To start SysMan Station from the command prompt, enter:

#sysman -station

After invoking SysMan Station, you are connected to the local host. The
main SysMan Station window appears similar to the example shown
in Figure 1–7, except that the default display shows the Filesystems...,
Network..., Storage, and System... options that can be monitored. These
options are known as attention groups.

1–26 System Administration Methods and Utilities

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Frederic Barbarossa, abandoned the Lateran Palace, and took refuge
in the stronghold of the Frangipani, with his brothers and their
families. He there held courts, treated causes, and also waited for
opportunities. At that time the Colosseum gave its name to the
district around it. The fortifications included part of the Palatine Hill,
with the Arch of Titus, on which was a large tower.
Under Gregory IX., a.d. 1227, the Annibaldi family obtained a
decree from Frederic II., requiring the Frangipani to cede to them
one-half of the Colosseum fortress, which might have led to its
entire destruction; but Innocent IV., in 1244, rescinded the
engagement, and declared this building to be under the direct
dominion of the Holy See. During the residence of the Popes at
Avignon, the Colosseum belonged to the Annibaldi or Annibaldeschi,
who were then in the ascendant[144]. In 1312, the Emperor Henry
VII. obliged them to give it up, and placed it under the care of the
municipality, who appropriated it to bull-fights; but this only lasted
until 1332, when eighteen youths of noble families were killed by the
infuriated bulls, of which a minute account is given in the chronicle
of Monaldeschi, printed in Muratori’s collection[145].
In 1349, it was again damaged by the earthquake described in
Petrarch’s letters; after this the great families entered into a
compact, in 1362, to make the ruins common property as a quarry,
by which all might profit[146]. In 1381, the senate gave a portion of
the arcades to the Chapter of the Lateran, for a ward to their
hospital. Their badge, the head of Christ between two candlesticks,
is carved over some of the archways.
In 1438, Eugenius IV. built two walls to connect the Colosseum
with the monastery of S. Pietro in Vincoli, in order to prevent the evil
doings that were going on there; but after the death of that Pope,
the Roman people went in a crowd and pulled down those walls
which had shut them out of the great building. The monks stated to
Flaminius Vacca that they had preserved the deed of gift, and if they
ever had a pope from their monastery, it would be acted upon[147].
 In the fifteenth century, the great palace of S. Mark of Venice,
built by Paul II., 1464-1471, at the south end of the Corso, the
Farnese in 1534, the Cancelleria in 1495, the Borghese in 1590, and
many other edifices[148], were built out of this quarry.
In the sixteenth century it was used for miracle plays; this practice
began under Paul III. in 1540[149], a purpose to which it had
previously been applied on Good Friday in each year by the
“Confraternity of the Gonfalone;” this is mentioned as early as 1263.
We have one vestige of this remaining, a view of Jerusalem with
the Crucifixion, painted on the wall over the principal entrance then
in use at the north end over the arch, and seen in going out as we
look up. It shews to what a height the earth had then been raised to
make this a convenient place for such a picture.
Sixtus V. proposed to turn it into a cloth manufactory, and
drawings for that purpose were actually prepared by his architect,
Fontana[150], in 1590; but the design was abandoned at the death
of the Pope.
In 1703 it was again damaged by an earthquake, and soon
afterwards Clement XI. destroyed the lower arches of the western
side of the corridor, and used some of the stone to build the steps at
the Port of Ripetta, on the Tiber. He employed other parts as a
warehouse for saltpetre for the neighbouring manufactory of
gunpowder, on the hill adjoining, near the church of S. Pietro in
Vincoli, still indicated by the name of the street, and this
manufactory continued in use until 1811.
In 1728, Benedict XIII. consecrated the whole area, at the
instigation of a Carmelite friar, Angelo Paoli. A small chapel was
made under one of the archways, and dedicated to S. Maria della
Pietà. In 1741, a hermit was appointed to reside here, but in the
following year he was stabbed by an assassin, and although the
wound did not prove fatal, the Pope ordered the closing of every
ingress by gates locked and barred. About the same period,
Leonardo da Porto Maurizio, a Minorite friar, drew immense
congregations to his sermons in the Colosseum.
In 1749, Benedict XIV. ordered the erection at his private expense
of the central cross, and the fourteen stations of the Via Crucis,
which remained until 1874, when they were removed for the ground
to be excavated.
In 1756, a grand mass was celebrated here by the Cardinal Vicar
of Rome under Benedict, in the presence of a very numerous
assembly. The same ceremony was repeated a few years afterwards
under Clement XIII.
The outer arcade on the south-western side of this colossal
building was entirely destroyed in the middle ages by the Pontifical
families, who used it as a stone-quarry for building their great
palaces. This enables us to see more clearly the construction of the
walls of the corridors and front of the three periods:—

First, the arches on the ground-floor, built of travertine.

Second, the first-floor, also of travertine, not long after the
other.
Third, the upper storey, of brick on the inner side, of the
beginning of the third century.

We also see the numerous holes left by the iron clamps with which
the edges of the stones were bound together, according to a Roman
fashion which has been in use from the time of Servius Tullius to the
present time. On the north-eastern side the front is perfect, and we
see the ornamental columns and cornices in the two lower storeys,
and in the upper one the corbels for the masts to carry the awning,
with holes in the cornice to let them pass through. One of the arches
of the lower storey has been restored in the time of the Gordians,
a.d. 220-238, and is a good example of the still good construction of
that period, though not so good as that of the time of Titus and
Vespasian[151].
 In 1810, when Rome was incorporated in the French Empire, the
Governor, Baron Daru, placed the Colosseum under the direction of
the Roman architect Valadier, to carry on regular excavations, which
were continued for four years, from 1810 to 1814; of these works
the Comte de Tournon[152], then prefect, has written an account.
In 1812, under the French, the ruins of the walls and the surface
of the vaults were weeded of the vegetation which threatened their
ultimate destruction, and the uprooting of the shrubs had become
necessary to save the walls. In sixty years they had again grown up
so vigorously that another weeding was absolutely required, and in
November, 1870, the whole of the ruins of the Colosseum were
cleared of weeds and shrubs, under the direction of Signor Rosa,
who was appointed by the Italian Government to superintend the
works, and to carry on excavations on a large scale, from that
building to the Forum Romanum. There is no doubt that it was quite
time this clearing should take place, as the roots of the plants were
in many parts displacing the stones, and would soon have done
serious mischief. There was a great outcry against this necessary
work by the botanists and the lovers of the picturesque, but
archæologists must approve of it. Many things are now brought into
view more clearly than they were before.
A view of these excavations was taken and engraved in 1813. It
represents clearly the passages round it, and two straight parallel
channels down the middle of it for the naval fights, which were in
reality not a representation of sea-fights but of river-fights. In 1814,
and again in 1867, the subterranean passage leading from the
Amphitheatre on the side next the Cœlian was excavated as a
private speculation in search of treasure, which was not found; but
the passage was left open as we now see it[153].
In 1864-5, considerable excavations were made between the
Colosseum and the Cœlian, in search of treasure supposed to have
been buried there, but only a subterranean passage was found. The
work was interrupted by water gushing out in great abundance,—to
such an extent that the area of the Colosseum was completely
inundated, and the water was obliged to be drawn off by a steam
engine[154]. The passage then discovered is still left open; the upper
part of the vault only is removed, which formed the floor, or rather
supported the floor, of another passage on the present level of the
ground, leading from the podium, or lowest storey, towards the
Cœlian. The point where the water gushed out and stopped the
work was just outside of the site of the outer wall, long since
destroyed on that part of the building. The great excavations of
1874 shewed that this passage turned to the left or south when it
reached the outer wall, and followed the line of it until it joined the
outer end of the long straight passage down the centre of the
building.
The upper wall on the north side, where it remains perfect,
formed the back of the wooden gallery over the corridors for the
common people, and was faced with brick, but the greater part of
the ancient brickwork had fallen down, and has been copied in
modern times; a great deal of the back of the stone wall, left
exposed, shews the hasty construction[155], in the time of
Gordianus.
The remains of Aqueducts and Piscinæ have already been
mentioned[156], but some further account of them seems to be
requisite. A piscina always consists of four vaulted chambers, two
above and two below, and the middle wall of the two lower
chambers has small holes in it, for straining the water as it passes
through. The lower chamber of a piscina is also known by having no
windows in it, and the lining being of the water-cement (opus
signinum). The lower chambers of two piscinæ only remain; of the
northern one the middle wall between the two lower chambers is the
only part now visible, this is faced with opus reticulatum of the time
of Nero, and has the usual small holes for water-pipes through the
wall. The southern one is of brickwork of the third century, of the
time of Alexander Severus; of this there is much more remaining,
one end with the usual boldly projecting buttresses to support the
weight of water, and part of two other chambers of the reservoir.
 The excavations which had been made in the time of the first
Napoleon and of Pope Pius VII., 1810-1814, were filled up again
after drawings and plans had been made of them. They were not
considered satisfactory by scholars because the excavations had not
gone deep enough, having been stopped by water, as very often
happens in Rome at certain periods of the year, when the springs are
high. They were again suspended by the same cause in the spring
and summer of 1874, but Signor Rosa, with his usual energy,
obtained machinery and a steam-engine to pump the water out[157].
The whole area was found to be undermined by chambers and
passages, with walls chiefly of brick, but some of tufa, with
indications of several different periods[158].
When the Pontifical Government returned to power in 1815, Pope
Pius VII. ordered the enormous buttress to be built, for supporting
one end of the wall then left broken, and preventing the ruin from
extending further. We have already lost forty-seven out of the eighty
arches, which have been destroyed for using the materials by
previous Popes to build their family palaces, or monasteries and
churches, so that there remain only thirty-three of the external
arches of travertine. The other end of the wall, near the Meta
Sudans, was left in a dangerous state until that was also supported
by the great buttress of Leo XII. In 1828, Gregory XVI. followed the
example of his immediate predecessors, and rebuilt in brick some
arches of what had been the internal corridors, but had become
external, owing to the demolition of the great outer arcades in
earlier ages. In 1852, Pius IX. repaired the principal entrance from
the Esquiline side, and some more of the arches of the inner arcade.
Under the arena was all the machinery usual under the stage of a
large theatre; and much space was required for it. When the boards
had to be cleared off the central part, to leave open the four long
channels of water, which are seen in the view of the Colosseum
taken in 1812[159], and the space between them which was probably
flooded to the depth of a few feet for effect, the boards removed
from the centre must have been piled up at the sides, and on the
large corbels before mentioned[160]. Apollodorus, the architect, in
his celebrated reply to the Emperor Hadrian, told him that he ought
to have prepared a place for the machinery of the great
amphitheatre under the platform, and in such a manner that the
great building should have been visible from the Forum Romanum.
The site intended by him for the temple evidently was the large level
platform on the Summa Sacra Via, on which S. Francesca Romana
now stands; and the place for the machinery intended by him was
obviously that excavated in the spring of 1874, under the south-east
end of the platform immediately opposite to the Colosseum, a very
convenient place for the purpose. There still remains a rude rubble
vault, of the time of the Republic, with a small aqueduct introduced
in the time of the early Empire to carry water to the fountains at
each corner of the Porticus Liviæ, which must have been on this site,
but which did not extend to the end. There is an excellent place for
a temple at the end of the porticus or colonnade; and the platform
could easily have been extended several yards nearer to the
Colosseum: it is evident that this is what Apollodorus said that
Hadrian ought to have done, but that he had not done so.
At the south-east end, under the old entrance, at the present level
of the ground, a long passage has been found, with a series of
square-topped arches, at about fifteen feet below that level. This
has been traced further to the south, beyond the limits of the
building; it must have led from the great foss-way in that direction.
There is a large and deep drain extending from the south end of the
Colosseum, turning at an angle and passing at the foot of the
Claudium to the Meta Sudans, near the arch of Constantine. It was
continued under the present Via di S. Gregorio, and the south-east
end of the Palatine[161].
In one part, near the south end, on the western side of the central
passage at the lowest level, which is twenty-one feet below the
present level of the ground and the top of the walls of the
substructure, the two ancient tufa walls (before mentioned) remain
nearly perfect, with the vertical grooves opposite to each other,
evidently for lifts to slip up and down, and in each instance in the
wall on one side a hollow is cut, for the counter-weight to work up
and down[162]. These lifts are very near together in the outer
passage, in front of the podium, but far below the bottom of it.
Behind each of them is a small square chamber under the passage
in front of it, with a narrow entrance to it, and a small stream of
water running in front for the use of the animals, as these are plainly
the dens for the wild beasts to be placed in temporarily, and there is
just space enough for the animal to pass through into the wooden
cage (pegma[163]), which had two doors, one at the side, the other
at the top. When the cage on the lift was pulled up to the level of
the floor of the stage or arena, under one of the trap-doors, the
upper part was pulled up by a cord from below along with the trap-
door, and the animal thus placed at liberty sprang out on to the
stage. In the original pavement, which remains round a great part in
the passages, behind the place for each of the lifts, is a round hole
for the socket of a pivot to work in, evidently for the windlass for
winding up the cord[164]. It is calculated that there was one of these
lifts in front of each arch, and a den behind each, all round the
enceinte of the building, so that all the wild beasts could spring on
to the stage at once with tremendous effect. The persons in the
lower gallery were protected by strong nets, and by bars that turned
round on pivots, so that the claws of wild beasts had no hold upon
them.
Under the long passage which comes in at the south end is a large
drain at a considerably lower depth; there are gratings in the paved
floor of the passage above opening into it, which had unfortunately
been stopped up in some of the great floods, but was partially
cleared out as far as the Meta Sudans in 1875. The paved floor of
the passage over the drain under the arena is three feet above the
level of the pavement, which is of herring-bone brickwork (opus
spicatum), and the passage before mentioned goes all round the
building nearly under the edge of the podium. Modern iron steps
have been placed for people to descend to the bottom of the
building, and under these is seen the ancient iron grating to prevent
anything being carried off by the rush of water[165]. From this it is
evident that the great drain was to carry off the water used in the
canals for the naumachia, when the Emperor “ordered the water to
be let off and the boards to be replaced.” There are evident marks of
a great flood-gate or sluice drawn up, as a portcullis, at the entrance
to this drain. It also appears that the vessels were floated down on
the wooden framework on which they were dragged along, now
made visible, but it does not appear that they could have been
floated up also to the level of the canals. The space between the
wooden floor of the stage, called the arena, and the original
pavement being twenty-one feet, the canals were ten feet deep, and
yet room is left for the passages and machinery under them.
Possibly, but not probably, the whole central space could be floated,
excepting just at the south end, where room was left for the
machinery. The vessels were probably never removed from the
building, but left under the vaults, and dragged out when required.
The tufa walls with the grooves for lifts belong to the earliest part
of the building, and must be earlier than the time of Nero[166], as
has been shewn; and his stagnum navale, or naumachia, his
venationes, or wild-beast hunts, and gymnasium, which are recorded
as belonging to his great palace, could have been nowhere else but
on this spot.
We now see distinctly the large corbels[167] all round the building
at a certain height, about six feet below the present level of the soil,
for carrying the boards of the great floor covered with sand called
the arena, upon which the athletes wrestled, the wild beasts were
killed, and the persons condemned to death were torn to pieces by
wild beasts; so that the martyrdom of the early Christians who were
condemned to death in this manner took place on the sand of the
arena, and not on the soil of the area. These corbels, in some
instances, at the south end of the building, have the ends of them
built into the old tufa wall, which is cut away to receive them. This
old wall is not so regular in plan as the great work of the Flavian
Emperors, the architect of which probably intended to destroy these
old walls ultimately. Dio Cassius (himself a Roman senator) gives a
vivid description of scenes which took place in this Amphitheatre[168]
in his presence, in the time of Commodus (as has been said), which
leaves no doubt about the matter. Similar scenes are described in
the time of Nero. The whole of the arena was, in fact, supported in
all directions by the walls of the chambers or passages not more
than ten feet apart; one object of which, no doubt, was to carry the
great boarded floor, that could be removed at pleasure by the order
of the emperor, and replaced as readily[169].
The excavations of 1874 and 1875[170] very much astonished the
people in Rome, and more especially the English visitors, who had
been long accustomed to consider the area and the arena to be the
same thing; they were amazed to see the whole of the area
undermined with walls[171]. The walls that were first seen are for
the most part brick walls of the fifth century, and the inscription[172]
found there in 1814 records that they had been repaired by
Lampadius, prefect, a.d. 442. This was after they had been much
damaged by an earthquake. Another inscription records repairs of
the arena and the podium by Basilius, prefect and consul, a.d. 508,
after another earthquake. A long subterranean passage[173] at a
considerable depth, leads out at the south-east end in the direction
of the church of S. Clement; this passage passes under a number of
square-topped arches or doorways, and has rather the appearance
of having been a state entrance at the time that the level of the
street was as low as that passage, that is, before the filling-up of the
foss-ways, which began in the second century. On each side of this
passage is a long narrow vaulted chamber parallel to it, under the
corridor, and in the pavement of each of these chambers is a series
of six round holes lined with hard copper or bronze, for a pivot to
work in; they are somewhat worn, and in a straight line one behind
the other. The most probable use for these was for a windlass or
capstan to be worked in each, and by these means to drag along the
vessels in the canals before mentioned, as extending down the
centre of this colossal building.
 It has also been mentioned that a very ancient wooden frame,
calculated for the keel of a vessel to slide upon, remained on the
ground in 1875, just within the passage at the south-east end of the
building, as if the vessels used in the sham fights could be placed
out of sight in the lofty central passage. This is said by those
accustomed to dockyards to have all the appearance of a dry dock,
or a cradle for vessels to stand upon[174]. We read of the vessels
being divided into two nations or sides, there were probably six on
each side, and each nation occupied one of the canals. It is probable
that the surface between the two canals on either side of this central
passage, just under the level of the arena (which was twenty-one
feet above the brick floor), was flooded with two or three feet in
water, but the keels of the vessels were in the canals. On either side
of the passages before mentioned[175] are remains of other walls of
tufa, with vertical grooves in them, as if for lifts; the brick walls,
between those of tufa, have been introduced at a later period, and
in these instances the grooves are not opposite each other. This
shews that great alterations have been going on at different periods
in these subterranean works, some of which are earlier than the
existing building, and others considerably later[176]. In one place,
near the south-east entrance, the two old stone walls, with the
vertical grooves, remain in their original places facing each other, so
that lifts might work up and down in them.
Architects had long wondered where the builders could possibly
have obtained such an immense mass of materials in so short a
time, it was therefore evidently natural that they should make use of
anything that served their purpose. It appears that in some parts the
galleries for the spectators of the old Naumachia were thus made
use of as they stood, without actually rebuilding them. The great
tufa blocks of the second wall of Rome were also used as old
materials for the substructure of the great stone arcades; but the
builders, who had to add the upper gallery, were afraid to trust the
soft tufa to carry so great a weight[177], and therefore built piers of
travertine about four feet wide[178]. These piers to support the
upper gallery go right through the walls of all the lower galleries,
from the top to the bottom of the building (as has been said on p.
12).
The architectural details of the Colosseum are much admired by
architects; the cornice-mouldings of the lower storey are good
examples of the style of the latter part of the first century[179]. The
supply of water for the naval fights must have been from the
Aqueducts; the water was brought from the Cœlian in a shallow
channel, carried upon a lofty double colonnade, or arcade[180]. It
has been mentioned[181] that there are slight remains of three
reservoirs to receive it, which can be traced by remains of the
particular cement used only for the aqueducts[182]. The
continuations of the shallow channel along the corridors can be seen
in many places, and are shewn in the photographs[183].
In the upper storey of the third century, on the exterior, the
corbels for the masts to rest upon, and the holes in the cornice for
them to pass through, have been mentioned[184]. On the interior of
this wall, now that it has been stripped of plaster, and the wooden
gallery that had been built up against it has been destroyed, we see
clearly how hastily it has been built of old materials[185]. In other
parts it has been cased with modern brickwork, but the corbels for
fastening the masts on the inside are preserved[186].

The Evidence of the Construction, and Comparison.

It is well known that the first principle of the modern science of
archæology is comparison. To compare small remains of one place
with more perfect remains of the same kind, and as far as may be,
of the same period, in other places. By these means, what has been
destroyed in one is frequently supplied by the corresponding part in
another. This is remarkably the case with regard to the
amphitheatres, which are very numerous; there was one to every
Roman town of importance, and such large buildings have almost
invariably left remains visible[187]. It appears nearly certain that the
Colosseum in Rome was the earliest, and that this was the type
generally followed more or less closely by the others. This was a
gradual development, and not merely one original design; the
magnificent front and stone corridors of the Flavian emperors, which
constitute what is usually considered to be the amphitheatre, were
in fact built round a theatre previously existing[188]; that the names
of theatre or amphitheatre were used indifferently is implied in many
instances, and is distinctly shewn by an inscription found in the
Colosseum itself, and preserved on the spot, in which it is called
theatrum, and not amphitheatrum[189]. The theatre, or
amphitheatre, round which the corridors were built, has been shewn
to have been in parts of the time of Nero[190], and other parts
earlier, most probably the work of Scaurus in the time of Sylla[191].
This colossal building was finished and consecrated by Titus in the
year 80[192].

Capua.
The great amphitheatre at Capua is almost of the same size as the
Colosseum in Rome, and a remarkably exact copy of it; some say
that it was called by the same name, but this is rather doubtful, as
persons who have resided at Capua for years say they have never
heard it so called; the name is not of much importance: the plan and
arrangements are identical, and although the superstructure has
been almost entirely destroyed, the substructures at Capua are far
more perfect than in Rome; and here we have the mouth of an
aqueduct perfect in these substructures, and remains of canals for
water, with the very massive walls to support them, exactly as in
Rome. The great drain to carry off the water also remains, but on
rather a different plan; instead of being carried under a low arch at
the end of the great central passage, as in Rome, the water is
conveyed into a large and deep well in the centre of the building,
with four small channels running into it, beside the great central
opening. From this well there is a large and deep drain leading to
the river. There are the same dens for wild beasts under the podium,
and in the pavement the same sockets for pivots to work in, to pull
up the cages, or pegmata, or lifts. The arena, instead of being a
boarded floor, is of brick, carried on vaults, with numerous square
apertures for the trap-doors. The central passage is vaulted at the
two ends, but open in the greater part. Round each of the openings
there is a deep groove, as if a wooden cover had been fitted tightly
over each and made water-tight, so that the surface of the arena
might be flooded for naval fights; but there is reason to believe that
only rowing-boats, drawing little water, were used in this instance,
and not galleys.
The earliest part of the building at Capua is of the time of the
Emperor Hadrian, but only a small part of that period remains, as
shewn by the construction (reticulated work with a framework of
brick). Most of the walls in the substructure are faced with brick of
the second or third century, with later repairs[193].

Puteoli or Pozzuoli.
This amphitheatre is very much smaller than either the Colosseum
in Rome, or the amphitheatre at Capua; the superstructure is in a
very ruinous state, but the substructure is almost perfect, and the
work is much more highly finished than in either of the others. There
are considerable remains of rich stucco ornament on the vault over
the passage to one of the side doors. The arena is nearly intact, and
is of brick, carried on vaults, what the Italians call pensile; this word
does not mean literally hanging, but hollow underneath; and this
brick floor is full of square holes for trap-doors; round the edge of
each is a deep groove, as if for a cover to fit into, which may very
well have been made water-tight. Signor Scherillo, a native of
Pozzuoli, and now a canon of the cathedral at Naples, has published
several papers on this amphitheatre in the Atti dell’ Accademia di
Archeologia, Letteratura e belle Arti di Napoli. He is of opinion that
the arena was flooded to the depth of about three feet, or about half
way up the podium; the water would only cover the two or three
lower steps, and there were probably also water-tight doors at the
foot of them. At a short distance in front of the podium is a channel
about a foot deep, in which probably a beam of wood has lain, and
at intervals of ten or twelve feet is a square hole, evidently for a
beam of wood to have stood in, no doubt the lower part of the
frame for the netting to keep off the wild beasts from the people in
the lower gallery, as in the Colosseum, and probably carried up as
poles or masts to receive the lower ends of the cords to carry the
awning; there are also remains at the top of the outer wall of the
same arrangement of fixing the masts there as in the Colosseum,
and the same thing can be seen in many other amphitheatres where
the outer wall remains perfect. This amphitheatre is entirely of the
time of Hadrian, a beautiful piece of construction. It seems to have
been a favourite show-place of the Emperors on state occasions, for
the upper classes and foreigners, when the fleet was assembled in
the Bay of Naples, in which the Cape of Misenum is one of the
promontories near this spot. The enormous reservoir of water for the
supply of the fleet, called the Piscina Mirabilis, is also not far off; and
the amphitheatre belonged to the great imperial villa, originally of
Nero, in the bay adjoining.
This amphitheatre has been shamefully used in the Middle Ages,
the arena having been made into a cabbage garden, with a deep
bed of earth upon it. The upper parts of the walls had probably been
damaged by the great earthquake, and in order to get rid of the
numerous broken columns and capitals lying about, the gardeners
threw them down the openings into the vaults below, where they
are stacked up under the arches like so many mere blocks of stone,
to put them out of the way. Fortunately it is owing probably to the
vaults having thus been made use of, that they have been so well
preserved, and also because there was not much call for building-
stone in the neighbourhood, as the ruins of the villa and the temples
had supplied as much as was wanted.
 Verona.
In many of the Italian cities, as well as in Gaul and Britain, the
amphitheatre was made of earth and wood only, the seats cut out in
banks on the slope of a hill or of an agger, in districts where stone
was scarce. In the Circus Maximus also the seats for the plebs on
the Aventine seem to have been made in that manner, the stone
galleries were on the Palatine only.
At Verona, as in many other instances, the outer wall has been
almost entirely destroyed; two bays, or four arches of it only remain,
but these are sufficient to shew the plan, and that it was three
storeys high, the Tuscan order of columns being used throughout.
The upper storey seems to have been for the passage round the
seats over the corridors; the two lower ones with the seats remain
nearly perfect, forming a fine double arcade on the outer side
without columns, now made visible by the demolition of the outer
corridor and wall. In its present state it is one of the finest buildings
of its class. There seems to be no historical evidence of its date; in
Murray’s Handbook it is said to be of the time of the Flavian
Emperors, but no authority for this is given, and it is not probable.
The measurements given by Maffei do not quite agree with those
taken by Alvino[194], but the variations are not great; and as one is
taken in Neapolitan palms of ten inches, the other in Veronese feet,
the apparent variation probably arose only from the different mode
of calculating. None of them agree with those in Murray’s
Handbooks, which are taken from the Lectures of Mr. Woods. The
general proportions may be judged of by the number of persons that
each would contain; Publius Victor states that the Colosseum had
87,000 places, and Maffei states that this at Verona had 77,000, this
would make it one-eighth less. The variations are not of much
importance. The outer wall was partly destroyed by an earthquake in
1184, and the stones were then used as building material, as in
other places, but this was soon stopped. The unusually perfect state
of the seats arises from the care taken of them in the Middle Ages,
very much to the credit of the inhabitants at that period. As early as
1228, it was agreed that each podesta (or mayor) should expend
500 lire (about £20[195]) on the repairs of this building; and in 1435
penalties were inflicted on any one who removed any of the stone.
This shews that the people of Verona were more civilized than the
Romans at that period. In 1545 a special officer was appointed to
take charge of it. The restoration of the seats has been carefully
done, and is not perceived without some examination. This
restoration was begun by voluntary subscription as early as 1568,
and continued as late as 1805. The arches were numbered on the
exterior, as in the Colosseum; the four that remain have the
numbers LXIIII to LXVII over them. The arrangement of the masts
and poles for the awning are the same as in Rome, and were
managed in the same manner. The plan of the vomitoria is also
nearly the same. No excavations appear to have been made under
the arena; a plan and section of the substructures under the
galleries is given by Maffei, they are similar to those in Rome. He
does not appear to have been aware that there was likely to have
been anything under the arena; he mentions the conduits of
aqueducts, and drains for carrying off the water, which seem to
shew that naumachia were held here, but we have no information as
to how they were managed.
The proportions of the three principal amphitheatres, as given in
the work of Alvino[196], in Neapolitan palms[197] of ten inches are:—

Colosseum. Verona. Capua.

Length of interior 639 522 645
Breadth of interior 527 417 530
Length of arena 298 252 289
Breadth of arena 186 149 174
Height of first order 35 29 36
Entire height of interior 174 91 169
No. of orders[198] 4 3 4
Actual height of ruins 171 62 75
No. of arches 80 72 80
 Circuit 170 134 178
Gates 2 1 2
Width of arches 15 12 15
½
Breadth of pilasters 8 6⅓ 8

The Amphitheatre at Pola, in Istria.

This fine structure is built of beautiful white stone, almost marble,
in large blocks without mortar, but it had metallic fastenings, which
have all disappeared, and left their marks behind them. There are
two rows of arches, and above a line of square windows; also a
curious stone parapet, with very distinct indications of arrangement
for spreading the velarium or vela (the awning). There is only one
line of columns, but there was originally a second, and most of the
bases of them are still in situ. The amphitheatre is built against a
rocky mountain, which causes the northern part of the ellipse to be
much lower than the outer one. There are numerous passages and
substructures, except on the rocky half of the building. There are
two principal entrances facing each other, and in a line with them is
a trench exactly similar to the one in the Colosseum, and at Capua,
&c. These canals for conducting water into the arena can still be
seen, and there seems no doubt of its having been used for
naumachia. There are but few remains of the seats, except a large
accumulation of débris, and traces of the stairs and vomitoria. The
whole line of the podium is also perfectly preserved, but no trace of
the concentric euripus found in other amphitheatres. The most
puzzling parts of the structure are four rectangular towers, which
appear to have had no special staircases leading to them from the
ground; antiquaries, with all their ingenuity, have not yet given any
satisfactory explanation of these objects. They were most probably
for the music, as in the circus of Maxentius on the Via Appia, near
Rome, where one tower remains at each end of the carceres[199].
 The amphitheatre at Nîmes, in Aquitaine, still has a wooden floor
with trap-doors in it; the present floor is not ancient, but no doubt
replaces an old one; there is no staircase, and the only access to the
passages below is by a step-ladder, and the arrangement of the
substructures is quite different from that in Rome, or at Capua, or
Puteoli. There are large masses of stone at intervals to support the
floor, and wide passages between them. On two of these massive
piers are inscriptions, with the name of the architect, the same
inscription repeated twice, in characters of the third century. There
are no signs of naumachia, or of aqueducts; the seats and the
superstructure are more perfect than usual, and have a very fine
effect.
At Arles the superstructure also is very grand, but there are no
substructures under the arena visible. It is partly cut out of the rock,
the lower part supported by massive substructures, but no passages
in them are visible. Excavations have not been made there, and the
doorways appear to be filled up to half their height, as at the Porta
Tiburtina in Rome.
At Bordeaux the ruins of the amphitheatre are called the (arènes)
arena, and it evidently had a boarded floor covered with sand, as in
the Colosseum; and the superstructures, with the seats, are more
perfect than in Rome. There is a great general resemblance, but the
details are not the same. The Colosseum is the only amphitheatre
which has double corridors round it, and the absence of this outer
passage makes a different arrangement of the stairs to the vomitoria
necessary in this and other amphitheatres, where the people went
straight out through each archway.

Substructures compared.
In treating of the amphitheatres in general, and corroborating the
account given in this work of the Colosseum, it must be borne in
mind that in every theatre a considerable space is required behind
the scenes for the use of the actors. The performances in an
amphitheatre would equally require such space for the performers
when off the stage, and the only space to which they could possibly
retire is under that stage which is called the arena, because it was
covered with sand; and it has been shewn that in these
substructures there are numerous passages and contrivances for the
machines to send up the wild beasts to be hunted, the men and the
dogs to hunt them, and the athletes for the wrestling matches; we
have also canals for water for the keels of the vessels, in some
instances, but not in all; in some cases, the vessels employed could
only have been rowing-boats, rates. We have also mention of battles
with swords in the naumachia, and of many men being killed. This
seems to make it clear that the principal amusement consisted in the
crew of one vessel trying to board the other, and the defendants
preventing their doing so in every way that they could, either by
throwing them off into the water, or with swords and spears.
At Pozzuoli, where the substructures are nearly perfect, there are
remains of an intermediate passage, as if for men to run along; and
this has been traced to communicate with the Emperor’s seat, and is
thought to have been for messengers to go with orders, and to give
the necessary directions. All that remains of this intermediate
passage are the corbels for carrying a wooden gallery upon. There
are similar corbels for an intermediate passage between two floors in
the Colosseum, but here in the upper part, apparently for the sailors
to run along to furl or unfurl the awning, not in the substructures;
there also appear to have been separate stairs and vomitoria for that
passage, and as we know that several hundred sailors were
employed in the Colosseum, such an arrangement would be quite
necessary.
Mention has frequently been made of the great central passage,
which exists not only in the Colosseum, but in all other
amphitheatres where substructures were made. This passage
appears to have served for several useful purposes; there are traces
of machines in it for lifting up some large object, not only in the
Colosseum but also at Capua; and the things to be lifted up in all
probability must have been the vessels for the naval fights. This
central passage is mentioned or implied in several instances in the
classical authors; it had the appearance of a gulf dividing the earth
or arena into two parts. Apuleius calls it vorago terræ (a gulf of the
earth); Martial, the via media, or middle way; and Petronius, ruina
terræ, from the appearance of a swallowing-up the machines and
the gladiators.
The machines used for these public amusements were evidently
numerous and important, and required a good deal of space to stow
them away, more even than was afforded by the vaults and
passages under the arena in the Colosseum. This is implied by the
celebrated letter of Apollodorus, the architect, to the Emperor
Hadrian, in which the architect told the Emperor that he ought to
have built the Temple of Roma at the south end of the Summa Sacra
Via, and to have made room for this machinery of the amphitheatre
in vaulted chambers under it (as before mentioned); that he did not
do so is evident, for the excavations of 1874 brought to light rude
concrete walls of the time of the Republic, with a small aqueduct of
the time of the Early Empire, made to carry water to the fountains at
the corners of the porticus above. The accounts which we have in
classical authors, of the machinery employed in the amphitheatre,
remind us very much of that used for a Christmas pantomime in one
of the London theatres, and all these great shows were very much of
the character of a pantomime. To begin at the top, the cords which
carried the velarium, or awning, were strong enough for a rope-
dancer, and were called by the name of catadromus; and we have
an account in Suetonius, in the time of Nero, of an elephant being
taught to walk upon these cords with a Roman cavalier on his
back[200]. We also have an account of an actor trying to play the
part of Icarus, and fly down from the top, falling dead at the feet of
Nero, and sprinkling him with his blood[201].
The pegmata have been mentioned as cages for wild beasts, and
this was evidently one meaning of the word, as used by Seneca in
his Epistles, quoted in a previous page, but this was one meaning
only; the same name was applied to a wooden framework of any
kind, sometimes evidently what we now call scenery, either fixed or
moveable. Josephus mentions pegmata used in the triumphal
procession of Titus, one of which was three storeys high, and
another four, on which were representations of the capture of
Jerusalem. Another is mentioned by Calpurnius as representing the
Tarpeian rock[202], and the victims were thrown from the top of it on
to the arena, or into the gulf, and killed on the spot. Apuleius also
describes one as representing Mount Ida, with trees, and shrubs,
and fountains, on which appeared from time to time Paris and
Mercury, and the three goddesses, Juno, Pallas, and Venus, with a
number of animals to complete the scene[203]. Another is described
by Claudian as representing Mount Etna[204], with the flames
burning at the top. Others representing Vulcan and Cyclops; these
were in the shows of Carinus and Numerianus, and are mentioned
by Vopiscus[205]. It is evident that this scenery must have been
prepared below and sent up from the central passage, as there was
no room anywhere else for sending it up. Martial[206] also mentions
pegmata as rising, from this middle way, and that a person could see
from thence the Colossus among the stars. As the Colossus stood on
an elevated platform on the Summa Sacra Via, just in a line with this
middle way, and was itself 120 ft. high, it is quite probable that the
head of it could be seen from below, over the upper gallery.
The dens for the wild beasts in the substructures under the
podium are found both at Capua and at Pozzuoli, just as in the
Colosseum, and the technical name for such a den was
catabolus[207]. Besides the mention by Herodian of a hundred lions
leaping on to the arena at once, as “if out of the earth,” (mentioned
in page 26), the same thing is mentioned by several other authors at
different periods, both of lions and of other wild beasts. Vopiscus
mentions this in the life of Probus[208], and that all the doorways
were stopped for a time; and he distinctly mentions the animals
coming out of the caves below. Ammianus Marcellinus[209] also
mentions the doorways being often stopped for the wild beasts.
Statius mentions the same[210], and Julius Capitolinus, both in the
time of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. In each case a hundred
lions are mentioned, and in the latter that they were killed with
arrows; and in the time of Probus, not only a hundred lions, but also
a hundred Lybian leopards, a hundred Syrian ones, a hundred
lionesses, and three hundred bears. Lampridius[211] also mentions in
the time of Gordianus the almost incredible number of a thousand
bears, in addition to a hundred Lybian leopards.
To protect the people in the lower gallery from these wild beasts,
a strong netting was provided (as has been mentioned); this was of
gold wire, fixed in a wooden frame, and at the top was an ivory rod
which turned round, so that if an animal should attempt to cling to
it, he would necessarily fall back. This net was called retia, and at
Puteoli or Pozzuoli it was either of gold, or gilt; and this was the case
in the Colosseum also, and in other instances. Our authority for this
is Calpurnius in his Eclogues[212].
The naval fights with the larger vessels were sometimes held in
the Circus Maximus, which could be flooded to the depth required by
stopping up at the lower end the stream that runs through it, which
is in fact a branch of the small river Almo, but was in this part called
the Euripus. This name was also given to the canals for the
naumachia, as in the Colosseum. This must have been the case,
because the Emperor Heliogabalus upon one occasion filled these
canals with wine, which could not have been done in the Circus
Maximus, where the Euripus was a natural running stream of water;
but in the Colosseum a canal supplied with water from an aqueduct,
which could be let in or drawn off at pleasure, might very well have
been filled with wine during an abundant season, when in Rome the
wine is sometimes worth less than the vessel that holds it, so that
large quantities are frequently wasted for want of casks to put it in.
In all wine-growing countries, the same thing occurs from time to
time in superabundant seasons. It is true that these naval fights
were called Circensian games, because they were sometimes held in
a circus (as has been said), but the same name was given to them
when they were held in the amphitheatre, as in this instance, by
Lampridius[213]. Martial[214] distinguishes very clearly both the one
and the other, and makes it evident that the stagna of Nero were
used for the naumachia of the Cæsars.
That the vaults under the arena were called caveæ, caves (or
cavities), has been already mentioned, and is evident from many
passages in classical and mediæval authors; as in Tertullian and in
Prudentius[215], when describing the scenes that had taken place in
the amphitheatre as the wicked rites in which the gladiators were
killed on the arena, and the impious games in which the sad
spectacles of funereal character were brought up from the caves,
worthy only of the infernal Jupiter (whom the Christians call Satan).

The Arena.
That one of the modes of putting criminals to death in Rome was
to throw them to the wild beasts to be torn to pieces on the arena,
to glut the savage taste of the Roman people, is notorious; but that
many of the gladiators and other actors were also frequently killed
on the arena is not so generally known, and yet the evidence for it is
too distinct to be doubted. Seneca mentions distinctly, in one of his
Epistles[216], that a number of the bodies were exposed to view, of
men who were unable to defend themselves by their swords or their
shields. He justly says that the men were as savage as the lions or
the bears, and the usual end of these fighting men was death on the
arena. There is a representation of them in a fine mosaic picture in
the Villa Borghese, with the letter θ, and others on two of the graffiti
found in the Colosseum in 1875[217].
It is well known that the Roman people sometimes called upon the
emperor to produce the most celebrated gladiators, who had been
named in the programme for the show. Horace[218] alludes to this in
his Epistles; and Martial[219] speaks of two of these gladiators, one
called Myrinus, and the other Triumphus (a name which has misled
some of the commentators). Another gladiator of that period was
named Columbus, and was called for by the people under Claudius,
who promised that he should be exhibited if he could be found, as is
related by Suetonius[220]. Under Gordianus we are told that thirty-
two elephants, and about a thousand gladiators were exhibited; it is
probable that many of these were killed in the fight. It has already
been stated that Commodus fought himself with the gladiators on
the arena.
There was a particular costume for the athletes, and also for the
emperor when he went on to the arena, and Commodus gave
offence by not complying with the custom which had been
established by Titus at the opening, as is mentioned by
Suetonius[221]. The carrying out of the dead bodies from the arena
is also mentioned by Quintilian[222] as done with pomp.
Lampridius[223] expressly says that Commodus acted contrary to the
established custom, and was not dressed in the proper manner; and
that his helmet was carried out of the theatre by the gate by which
the dead bodies were usually carried out, which was considered a
bad omen, and he was murdered soon afterwards. This is also
mentioned by Dio Cassius (as quoted on page 23).

The Gates.
There were naturally four gates to this enormous structure, one at
each end, and one in the middle of each side; and the same
arrangement was followed in all the other amphitheatres. By what
names these gates were called, and whether these names were
special for each particular building, or general for all, is a question
still undecided, and also which was the state entrance. It is
commonly said that in the Colosseum the state entrance was on the
northern side, next the Esquiline Hill, because there is no number
over that arch as there is over the other arches, but this was
probably the case with all the four entrances; the other three gates
are destroyed. The excavations in 1875 have been supposed to shew
that the passage on the southern side towards the Cœlian did not
lead direct to the palace of Commodus, but was carried round the
outer line of the building to the south-east end, near S. Clemente;
the natural entrance from the palace of Nero would be from the gate
at the east end, and not on the north side. The names of the gates
are not easily fixed; one was called Porta Libitinensis, and from this
door the bodies of those who were killed were carried out, as we
learn from Lampridius in the life of Commodus[224]. They were
carried out of this gate on a special bier provided for the purpose,
called sandapila, as is mentioned by Juvenal[225], and explained by
the old Scoliast. This name is sometimes written sanavivaria, as in
the Acta Martyrum Felicita et Perpetua[226]. The word libitina
signifies death, or a funeral, or a bier; it is used also by Horace in his
Odes[227], and explained by the Scoliast in the same manner, and by
Martial in his Epigrams[228]. It appears that the name of sandapilaria
and libitinensis were synonymous. Another gate was called Porta
Prætoria, probably that at the south-east end, opening from the
road to the Vivarium at the Prætorian Camp. Another, Porta Sacra,
probably that at the north-west end, opening to the Via Sacra. The
Meta Sudans was close to this gate, and was supplied with water by
tubes, as Seneca mentions in his Epistles[229]. His fifty-seventh letter
is full of lamentation for the fate of the athletes.
The name of cochlea is given to one of the doors of the
amphitheatre, which led from the cavea to the arena. This name is
used by Varro[230], and has puzzled all the commentators; it need
hardly be said that cochlea is literally “a snail,” and the name has
been supposed to apply to some narrow doorway; but the name is
well known in mediæval Latin as applied to a winding or newel
staircase, popularly called a corkscrew-staircase, and there are two
such staircases leading from the substructures or cavea to the level
of the arena, one on either side, at the south-east end of the great
central passage in the Flavian amphitheatre, to which there can be
no doubt that this name was applied. Trajan’s column is frequently
called columna cochlea, because there is such a staircase inside of it.
 The Games in the Arena.
The importance attached to the public amusements, both by the
people and by the emperors, appears extraordinary to modern ideas.
Caligula[231] was present from morning to evening, and had a series
of the various kinds of hunting in different countries exhibited, such
as the hunts of the Africans and of the Trojans; on these occasions,
the arena was strewed with red and green foliage. At this period
Suetonius also mentions that the people assembled at midnight for
the shows of the following day, when they were gratuitous[232]. The
Emperor Claudius himself would go at daybreak to the amphitheatre,
and see the wild beasts fed, and again at mid-day[233]. The same
practice is mentioned by Pliny as used in the time of Nero[234].
Petronius also mentions the custom for two old negroes to sprinkle
the arena with scents from small bottles, which they brought for the
purpose[235]. Tacitus gives an account of the games performed
under his own direction in the time of Claudius[236].
 “During the same consulship, in the year of Rome eight
hundred, the secular games were celebrated, after an interval
of sixty-four years since they were last solemnized in the
reign of Augustus.
“Being at that time one of the college of fifteen, and
invested with the office of prætor, it fell to my province to
regulate the ceremonies. Let it not be imagined that this is
said from motives of vanity. The fact is, that in ancient times
the business was conducted under the special directions of
the quindecemviral order, while the chief magistrates
officiated in the several ceremonies. Claudius thought proper
to revive this public spectacle. He attended in the circus, and,
in his presence, the Trojan game was performed by the youth
of noble birth. Britannicus, the emperor’s son, and Lucius
Domitius, who by adoption took the name of Nero, and
afterwards succeeded to the empire, appeared, with the rest
of the band, mounted on superb horses. Nero was received
with acclamations, and that mark of popular favour was
considered as an omen of his future grandeur.”
 APPENDIX.
Scaurus.
The meaning of the word Scaurus is “club-footed,” and no doubt
the first member of the family had that peculiar formation of the
foot; but this family was a branch of the great Gens Æmilia, one
member of that family built the Basilica Æmilia in the Forum
Romanum, and another was one of the second Triumvirate. The
Scaurus who built this great amphitheatre was a man of enormous
wealth, and a great builder; he is mentioned by several of his
contemporaries, of whom one was Cicero; he was an ædile, and was
noted for his great liberality in his ædileship. His father was an
orator, and was consul in the year of Rome 688 (b.c. 35); his mother,
when a widow, married Sylla the dictator. Pliny mentions him several
times in his Natural History[237]; he calls his buildings insane works,
on account of the enormous sum expended upon them, which must
have exceeded the equivalent of two millions sterling of our money.
The temporary amphitheatre which he built would hold 80,000
persons, it was three storeys high, and had 360 marble columns in
it; these were on the ground-floor, and it is mentioned that those on
the first floor were of glass[238], a luxury before unheard of (and
apparently not repeated), on the upper storey they were of gilt
wood. Pliny thus describes this building of Scaurus:—

“Mosaic pavements were first introduced in the time of

Sylla; at all events, there is still in existence a pavement[239],
formed of small segments, which he ordered to be laid down
in the Temple of Fortune, at Præneste. Since his time, these
mosaics have left the ground for the arched roofs of houses,
and they are now made of glass. This, however, is but a
recent invention; for there can be no doubt that, when
Agrippa ordered the earthenware walls of the hot baths, in
the thermæ which he was building at Rome, to be painted in
encaustic, and had the other parts coated with pargetting, he
would have had the arches decorated with mosaic in glass, if
the use of them had been known; or, at all events, if from the
walls of the theatre of Scaurus, where it figured, as already
stated, glass had by that time come to be used for the arched
roofs of apartments. It will be as well, therefore, to give some
account also of glass[240].”
“It may possibly be observed, that this was because marble
was not then introduced. Such, however, is not the fact; for in
the ædileship of M. Scaurus, three hundred and sixty columns
were to be seen imported, for the decorations of a temporary
theatre, too, one that was destined to be in use for barely a
single month. And yet the laws were silent thereon, in a spirit
of indulgence for the amusements of the public, no doubt.
But then, why such indulgence? or how do vices more
insidiously steal upon us than under the plea of serving the
public? By what other way, in fact, did ivory, gold, and
precious stones, first come into use with private individuals?
“Can we say that there is now anything that we have
reserved for the exclusive use of the gods? However, be it so,
let us admit of this indulgence for the amusements of the
public; but still, why did the laws maintain their silence when
the largest of these columns, pillars of Lucullan marble, as
much as eight-and-thirty feet in height, were erected in the
atrium of Scaurus? a thing, too, that was not done privately,
or in secret; for the contractor for the public sewers
compelled him to give security for the possible damage that
might be done in the carriage of them to the Palace....
Already had L. Crassus, the orator, he who was the first to
possess pillars of foreign marble, and in this same Palatium
too, received from M. Brutus, on the occasion of a dispute,