Q1) Explain applications for FA, PDA and TM

Finite Automata (FA)

1. Lexical Analysis in Compilers: FAs help break down code into tokens
like keywords and operators, making it easier for a compiler to process
code.
2. Pattern Matching and Text Search: Regular expressions, which can be
represented by FAs, are used to search for patterns in text files (e.g.,
finding all email addresses in a document).
3. Network Protocols: FAs model the sequence of messages or steps in
communication protocols, ensuring that data is transmitted and received
in the correct order.
4. Control Systems and Digital Circuits: FAs are used to manage states in
simple systems like vending machines, traffic lights, or digital circuits
that move between states based on input.

Pushdown Automata (PDA)

1. Parsing in Compilers: PDAs are used to analyze nested structures in
programming languages (e.g., loops within loops), which is essential in
parsing context-free languages.
2. Natural Language Processing (NLP): PDAs can help analyze and
understand sentence structures that have a nested or hierarchical structure,
common in human languages.
3. Mathematical Expression Evaluation: PDAs manage complex expressions
with nested parentheses, keeping track of open and closed brackets
through the stack.
4. XML/HTML Parsing: PDAs are helpful in web development for
verifying that tags in documents like HTML or XML are correctly nested
and closed.

Turing Machines ™
1. Algorithm Design and Computability: TMs are used to explore which
problems can be solved by machines, laying the foundation for
understanding what is computable.
 2. Solving Decision Problems: TMs determine if a language is recursively
enumerable, solving problems like the Halting Problem (checking if a
machine stops or runs indefinitely).
3. Artificial Intelligence: TMs model logical reasoning processes, which
helps in creating AI that mimics human problem-solving.
4. Formal Language Theory: TMs analyze complex languages, especially
those that cannot be handled by simpler automata, and help understand
the structure of different language types.

Q2) Explain variants of Turning Machine

1. Multi-Tape Turing Machine: Has multiple tapes to read/write

simultaneously, increasing efficiency for complex tasks.
2. Non-Deterministic Turing Machine (NDTM): Can explore multiple paths
at once, useful in theoretical study of complex problems (e.g., NP
problems).
3. Universal Turing Machine: Can simulate any Turing machine, forming
the basis for general-purpose computers.
4. Linear Bounded Automaton (LBA): Uses a tape limited to the input size,
ideal for context-sensitive languages in limited-memory environments.
5. Probabilistic Turing Machine: Makes random choices in its computation,
useful for algorithms that benefit from randomness, like cryptography.
6. Oracle Turing Machine: Accesses an “oracle” to solve certain problems
instantly, helping in the study of complex problem classes.
7. Quantum Turing Machine: Uses quantum bits for parallel processing,
foundational for quantum computing in areas like cryptography and
optimization.

Q3) State and Explain pumping lemma theorem for regular language and
Explain pumping lemma with the help of diagram to prove that given
language is regular language. (Any language will be given)

Pumping Lemma for Regular Languages

The Pumping Lemma is a property used to prove whether a language is regular
or not. It provides a way to show that certain languages cannot be represented
by finite automata, and therefore, are not regular.
Statement of the Pumping Lemma:

For any regular language L, there exists a pumping length p such that any string
s in L with s≥ p can be divided into three parts s = xyz where:
1. Xy ≤ р.
2. Y > 0,
3. Xyz ∈ L for all I > 0 (i.e., repeating y any number of times still results in
a string in L).
If a language does not satisfy these conditions, it is not regular.

Explanation of the Pumping Lemma with an Example and Diagram

Let’s use an example to illustrate the Pumping Lemma and show how it can be
applied to prove that a given language is not regular.
Example Language: L = ab n ≥ 0, which represents strings with an equal
number of a’s followed by b’s (e.g., “ab”, “aabb”, “aaabbb”).
1. Assume L is regular. Then there must be a pumping length p as per the
Pumping Lemma.
2. Take a string s = ab in L, where s≥ p.
3. According to the Pumping Lemma, we can split s into xyz, where xyp
and y > 0.
• This means x and y consist only of a’s because xy ≤ p, the portion of the string
within the first p characters.
4. Now, pump y (repeat it multiple times). For example, if y = ak, repeating
y would create a string with more a’s than b’s, such as ap+kbp, which is
not in L.
5. This violates the structure of L, proving that the language Lab” n ≥ 0 is
not regular.

Diagram Explanation
In the case of regular languages, finite automata (FA) can be used to loop or
“pump” strings, but the language L = ab n ≥ 0 requires memory (to count a's and
match them with b’s), which FAs lack.
Thus, using the Pumping Lemma, we conclude that Lab” n ≥ 0 is not regular, as
it fails to meet the conditions of the lemma.
Q4) Non-Deterministic PDA

Non-Deterministic Pushdown Automaton (NPDA)

Definition: A Non-Deterministic Pushdown Automaton (NPDA) is a type of
automaton that, unlike a deterministic PDA, can make multiple possible
transitions from a given state based on the current input symbol and the symbol
at the top of the stack.

Features:
1. It can have multiple possible moves for the same input and stack symbol.
2. It can take epsilon (ε) transitions, meaning it can change state without
consuming any input.
3. It can recognize context-free languages, which are more complex than
regular languages.

Example: NPDAs are used to recognize languages like , where the number of ‘s,
‘s, and ‘s must be the same.

Q5) Finite State Machine (FSM)

Definition: A Finite State Machine (FSM) is a simple computational model with

a finite number of states, transitions between states, and an input alphabet. It
processes an input string one symbol at a time, transitioning through states
based on the input.

Features:
 1. FSMs are used to recognize regular languages (languages that can be
described by regular expressions).
2. They can be Deterministic (DFA), where each state has exactly one
transition for each input symbol, or Non-Deterministic (NFA), where
there can be multiple possible transitions.
3. FSMs do not have memory like a stack, meaning they cannot recognize
languages that require matching pairs or nested structures.
Example: FSMs are used in applications like lexical analysis in compilers,
simple pattern matching, and traffic light control systems.

Q6) Explain the Ways of acceptance of PDA

A Pushdown Automaton (PDA) can accept a language in two main ways:

1. Acceptance by Final State: In this method, the PDA accepts the input
string if, after processing the entire input, it reaches a designated final
state. The stack can either be empty or not empty at this point. The key
idea is that the PDA successfully recognizes the language when it finishes
reading the input and ends in one of the accepted states.
2. Acceptance by Empty Stack: In this approach, the PDA accepts the input
string if, after reading the entire input, its stack is empty. The PDA does
not need to reach a final state. Instead, the condition for acceptance is that
the stack has been completely emptied, which typically happens when the
PDA has matched all the symbols or structures in the input.

Q7) Differentiate between the following:

i) NPDA and PDA
ii) FA, PDA and TM
iii) Moore and Mealy Machine.
iv) NFA and DFA.
 Q.8) Write a short note on:
i. Chomsky Hierarchy
ii. Decision properties of regular language.
iii. Post correspondence problem.
iv. Variants of Turning machine.
v. TM Halting problem
vi. Recursive and Recursive enumerable language.
vii. Arden’s Theorem
viii. Conversion of Moore to Mealy Machine
ix. Rice Theorem

i) Chomsky Hierarchy:

The Chomsky hierarchy is a classification of formal languages into four types,

based on the generative power of their grammars. The hierarchy is as follows:

Type 0 (Recursively Enumerable Languages): These languages can be generated

by a Turing machine. There are no restrictions on the rules of the grammar,
making it the most general class. Any language that is accepted by a Turing
machine falls into this category, but it may not necessarily halt for all inputs.

Type 1 (Context-Sensitive Languages): These can be generated by context-

sensitive grammars, where rules are of the form αAβ → αBβ, and the length of
the strings on the left-hand side is not shorter than the right-hand side. Context-
sensitive languages can be recognized by linear-bounded automata.

Type 2 (Context-Free Languages): These languages are generated by context-

free grammars, where the production rules are of the form A → α, where A is a
non-terminal, and α is a string of terminals and non-terminals. Context-free
languages can be recognized by pushdown automata, which use a stack for extra
memory.
Type 3 (Regular Languages): These languages can be generated by regular
grammars or recognized by finite automata, which have a finite amount of
memory. Regular languages are the simplest class and can be described using
regular expressions. They are widely used in lexical analysis and text search.

ii) Decision Properties of Regular Languages:

Regular languages possess several important decision properties, which make

them highly useful in computation:

Emptiness: It is decidable whether a regular language is empty, i.e., contains no

strings. This can be determined by checking if the automaton or regular
expression has any reachable accepting states.

Finiteness: It is decidable whether a regular language is finite. This can be

determined by checking if the corresponding automaton has a loop or if the
regular expression contains recursive patterns.

Membership: It is decidable whether a string belongs to a regular language. This

can be done by simulating the finite automaton or evaluating the regular
expression for the given string.

Equivalence: It is decidable whether two regular languages are equivalent, i.e.,

if they accept the same set of strings. This can be done by checking if the
difference between the two languages is empty.

Containment: It is decidable whether one regular language is a subset of

another. This can be done by converting the problem into a language
equivalence check, such as checking if the difference between one language and
the other is empty.
iii) Post Correspondence Problem (PCP):

The Post Correspondence Problem is a decision problem involving a finite set

of pairs of strings. Given a set of pairs of strings, the problem is to find a
sequence of indices such that concatenating the first strings in that sequence
results in the same string as concatenating the second strings in the sequence.
The PCP is undecidable, meaning there is no general algorithm that can solve it
for all instances. The problem was introduced by Emil Post in 1946 and is one
of the most famous undecidable problems in theoretical computer science.
Formally, you need to find indices i1, i2,…, ik
such that: ai1, ai2… aik = bi1 bi2… bik

iv) Variants of Turing Machine:

Several variants of the Turing machine have been introduced, each having
unique features while still being computationally equivalent in terms of the
languages they can recognize:

Multi-tape Turing Machine: This machine has more than one tape and head. It
allows the machine to perform more complex tasks more efficiently, but it does
not increase its computational power compared to a standard Turing machine. It
simply speeds up computation by enabling more parallel processing.

Non-deterministic Turing Machine (NDTM): In a non-deterministic Turing

machine, there are multiple possible transitions for each state and input symbol.
The machine can "guess" which transition to take, potentially exploring many
computation paths simultaneously. Though more powerful in theory, it is
equivalent to a deterministic Turing machine in terms of computational power.
Quantum Turing Machine: A quantum Turing machine incorporates principles
of quantum mechanics such as superposition and entanglement, allowing for
potentially faster computations for certain problems. This model is used in the
study of quantum computing.

Alternating Turing Machine: This variant allows the machine to enter two types
of states: existential and universal. In existential states, the machine can choose
from multiple transitions, while in universal states, all transitions must lead to
an accepting state. Alternating Turing machines are used in the study of
complexity theory.

v) TM Halting Problem:

The Halting Problem, introduced by Alan Turing in 1936, is the problem of

determining, given a Turing machine and an input, whether the machine will
halt (finish its computation) or run indefinitely. Turing proved that this problem
is undecidable, meaning there is no algorithm that can solve it for all possible
Turing machines and inputs. The only way is to run the program and check
whether it halts or not. This result is fundamental in computability theory and
shows that there are limits to what can be computed algorithmically.

vi) Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Languages:

Recursive Languages: These are languages for which there exists a Turing
machine that will always halt and correctly decide whether a string belongs to
the language. In other words, the language is decidable.

Recursively Enumerable Languages (RE): These languages can be recognized

by a Turing machine that will halt and accept any string in the language.
However, for strings not in the language, the Turing machine may never halt,
meaning these languages are semi-decidable. All recursive languages are
recursively enumerable, but not all recursively enumerable languages are
recursive.

vii) Arden's Theorem:

Arden's Theorem is a result used in the theory of regular expressions and finite
automata. It provides a method for solving certain equations involving regular
expressions. Specifically, for an equation of the form X = AX + B, where A and
B are regular expressions, the solution is given by X = A*B. This theorem is
useful in simplifying and solving regular expression equations and is widely
used in the construction of finite automata from regular expressions.

viii) Conversion of Moore to Mealy Machine:

A Moore machine is a finite state machine in which the output depends only on
the current state, whereas a Mealy machine's output depends on both the current
state and the input symbol. To convert a Moore machine to a Mealy machine:

1. For each state in the Moore machine, create a corresponding state in the
Mealy machine.
2. For each transition in the Moore machine, create a corresponding transition in
the Mealy machine, but assign the output to the transition instead of to the state.
3. The output of the Mealy machine for a state-input pair is the output of the
Moore machine for that state.

ix) Rice's Theorem:

Rice's Theorem is a fundamental result in computability theory that states that
all non-trivial properties of the languages recognized by Turing machines are
undecidable. In other words, any interesting property about the set of strings
that a Turing machine accepts, such as whether the language is finite, regular, or
contains a specific string, is undecidable. This theorem highlights the limits of
algorithmic decidability in computational theory and has far-reaching
implications for problems in programming languages, verification, and
complexity theory.