Process Instrumentation 3A (PINA301)

TOPIC 3 - INSTRUMENT ENGINEERING

N.B Prescribed/Recommended Books

Instrument Engineers Handbook (Vol. 1): Process Measurement & Analysis
Instrument Engineers Handbook (Vol. 2): Process Control and Optimization
Process Industrial Control Handbook
PINA NOTES
PAST EXAM PAPERS

Mthabiseni Mbokazi
 INSTRUMENT ENGINEERING - Notes
ELECTRICAL INTRINSIC SAFETY: SECTION 7.2 (VOL.1) HAZARDOUS ZONES
➢ Hazardous Zones – are classified zones in industrial plants, they relate to combustible equipment found in
industrial plants, bp, chemical plants, paint shops, flour mills where there are explosive zones.
➢ This is needed if the level transmitter is to be installed in a tank, the type of material has to be taken into
consideration.
➢ Explosion is created by aspects of Ignition Source (spark, friction, static electricity etc.), Oxidizer (air with oxygen),
and Flammable Substances (carbon base materials, wood ships, flammable gases).

Flammable Substances
➢ Flammable Gas – Hydrogen, compounds of hydrogen and oxygen that require very little to react with the
atmospheric oxygen.
➢ Flammable Liquids/Vapours – Hydrocarbons such as acetone, lighter fluids. Even at room temperatures sufficient
quantities of these hydrocarbons can evaporate to form a potentially explosive atmosphere.
➢ The Flash Point of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which sufficient vapours are given off to form a flammable
vapor-air mixture above the liquid.
➢ Flammable Solids – Dust, Fibres and flyings. A dust cloud settles on surfaces, unless removed it can build up and
serve a fuel for subsequent ignition.

Sources of Ignition
➢ Open flames
➢ Hot gas
➢ Lightning
➢ Electromagnetic radiations
➢ Ionizing radiations
➢ Static electricity
➢ Spark or arcs from electrical equipment or wiring.
Principles For Ensuring Electrical Equipment Does Not Become Source of Ignition (Page 922, Vol. 1)
1. Immigrate the source of ignition.

2. Remove the oxygen by containing the circuitry or seal if off

3. Move the flammable material.

Methods Used for Protection

1. Confine the Explosions – since the explosive can penetrate, the electrical equipment can be ignited.
➢ This prevents the spread of the explosion to the surrounding atmosphere.
I. Explosion Proof Enclosure
II. Dust ignition proof enclosure.
III. Conduit and cable seals

2. Isolate the Hazard – the equipment has an enclosure to prevent the ingress of a potentially explosive mixture and/or
contact with sources of ignition arising from the functioning of the equipment.
I. Pressurization and Purging – keep atmosphere away from ignition source. Compressed air is pushed inside the
housing of devices. The electrical equipment is kept at a pressure slightly higher than the atmosphere surrounding
the enclosure.
II. Oil Immersion – for high voltage electric system circuits breaks. Equipment is submerged in oil to a depth sufficient
to quench any sparks that may be produced.
III. Hermitic Sealing – done with glass metal welding sealing. The electrical contact is sealed within a glass tube.
IV. Encapsulation (Plotting) – proxy or gel-like substance is used. Potting compound completely surrounding all live
parts and thereby excluding the hazardous atmosphere has been proposed as a method of protection.
V. Restricted Breathing - relates to air being pushed into a device. This is a form of sealing the enclosure with gaskets

3. Limit the Energy – Potentially explosive mixtures can penetrate the enclosure but must not be lighted. Sparks and
raised temperature must occur at certain limits.
I. Intrinsic Safety – reduces power going into the device.
II. Pneumatics - using pneumatic transmitters. Use compressed the air instead of wires.
III. Fibre Optics

Class Definition (Page 920, Vol. 1)

➢ Class I – Flammable vapours and gases may be present.
➢ Class II – Combustible dust may be found.
➢ Class III – Hazardous because of the presence of ignition fibres or flying.

Division 1 – ignitable concentrations of hazards exist under normal operation conditions where hazard is caused
by frequent maintenance or equipment failure.

o Hazardous liquid is contained in a tank.

o Liquid is contained under normal conditions.
o Hazard will be caused when an ignition source enters the tank like arcs, sparks or lightning.
Division 2 – ignitable concentrations of hazards are handled, processed, or used, are normally in closed containers or
closed systems.
➢ They can only escape if there is a rupture or breakdown of such containers or systems.
➢ The rupture causes the hazardous substances to enter the environment.

Class And Divisions for Different Materials

Class Division Group Flammable Material

Class I Division 1 & 2 A Acetylene

Class I Division 1 & 2 B Hydrogen, Butadiene, Ethylene Oxide,

Propylene Oxide
Class I Division 1 & 2 C Ethylene, Cyclopropane, Ethyl Ether

Class I Division 1 & 2 D Propane, Acetone, Ammonia, Benzene,

Butane, Ethanol, Gasoline, Methanol,
Natural Gas

Group E—Atmospheres containing metal dust, including aluminium, magnesium and their commercial alloys, and
other metals of similarly hazardous characteristics.
Group F—Atmospheres containing carbon black, or coal or coke dust.
Group G—Atmospheres containing flour starch or grain dusts.
Summary Of Protection Methods
Method Advantage Disadvantage
• Highly reliable • Operates on low power levels
• Small for ease of installation • Requires careful planning and
• May be calibrated and maintained without engineering design.
Intrinsic Safety
disconnection power. • Expensive
• Cost less, no expensive accessories required.

• High degree of safety • Difficult to install – big, bulky, and

• Operates at normal power levels unlike intrinsic heavy
Explosive Proof
safety. • Expensive – requires heavy conduit
and seals
• Reduces hazard classification • Additional costs of pumps, ducts, and
Pressurized
filters
• Simple method • May contain PCBs in oil, potential
Oil Immersion
health hazard
Hermitic Sealing • Low cost • Operates at reduced current levels
Restricted • Low cost • Seal failure potential
Breathing
• Easy to service system. • Slow reaction time
Pneumatic System • Safe means – powered by air • Limited number of control operations
• Limited by distance

Encapsulation • Low cost • Components generally not reusable

• Safe means – powered by light. • Limited by distance
Fiber Optics • Ideal for clean rooms • Beams effectiveness affected by dust
and mist.
INTRINSIC SAFETY
Advantages Disadvantages
Highly reliable Operates on low power levels
Small for ease of installation Require careful planning and engineering designs
May be calibrated and maintained Needs specific intrinsic safety rating

➢ The IS device in the event of some problem with the level transmitter it will reduce the amount of current flowing,
thereby reducing the amount of power in entering the explosive zone.
➢ If there is no IS device the power going from the controller to the LC may cause a hazard.
➢ Short between the tank and the LT, can cause damage in the circuit and creating fire or arc then explosion will
occur.

INTRINSIC SAFETY DEVICE USING ZENER DIODES

Transmitter Fault Path PLC, DCS/CONTROLLER

▪ It works for one transmitter.

▪ On the positive V and I, current will pass to the Transmitter - through the Fuse and Resistor.
▪ When there is a fault on the transmitter like short circuit more current will be pulled, the cathode of D1 will it
break.
▪ The diode will conduct in a negative direction.
▪ The current will pass through the two Zener diodes (D2 & D3) instead of going through the resistor.
▪ Thereby reducing high current, the high voltages and current will go to the ground.

➢ The ground connection is important because the high current will go to the ground. If there is no ground high
current/surges will go back to the transmitter.
➢ The fuse will blow or break circuit by opening.
 Example 2

ZENER BARRIER – INVASION OF HIGH VOLTAGE

ZENER BARRIER – SHORT CIRCUIT ACROSS OUTPUT
▪ High current in the input terminals of the Zener
▪ In the event of a short-circuit in the hazardous area.
barrier, the diode will conduct in the reverse
▪ The series resistor in the Zener barrier will limit the
direction/short.
short-circuit current to a safe level so that the integrity
▪ High currents are diverted to earth.
of the system is maintained.
▪ If diode fails to short, the fuse will blow and open the
circuit, maintaining safety.

HAZARDOUS ZONES: INTRINSIC SAFETY USING ZENER BARRIERS

SIGNAL WIRING PRACTICES (SECTION 1.8, VOL.2)
Types Of Noise That Affect Instrument Signal Cables
1. Process Noise.
2. Electrical Noise

1. Process Noise
.

Signal

➢ Since PT is installed in the pipe it is called an Intrusive Measurement

➢ PT has a signal, and the signal represents the pressure on the pipeline plus the pressure due to the mounting
abnormalities.
➢ Oscillating Signal on the fluctuating flow parts and vertices.
➢ This can even happen in a tank when the level transmitter is incorrectly mounted.
➢ Instead of measuring the level, the liquid splashing will be measured.
➢ The signal give incorrect readings.

How to Reduce Effects of Process Noise

➢ To reduce the noise, level transmitter can be moved away to prevent the liquid from splashing.
➢ On the end of the wire transporting the signal filters can be employed.
➢ Or the filter can be inside transmitter.
2. Electrical Noise
Noise

Signal

➢ Electrical noise an effect where there is a signal coming in.

➢ The noise will add itself to the signal from the transmitter.
➢ Too much noise gives misrepresentation, it has to be reduced.
➢ To reduce the noise all the sources of noise have to be known.
SOURCES OF NOISE

➢ Between es and em if there is em- es we get Normal Mode

➢ Any noise internal to this e.g. contact resistance, drift in the temperature variation.
➢ Use common ground.
➢ Anything affecting the top and bottom cable externally is a Common Mode Noise.

EXTERNAL CONDITIONS OR SOURCES OF NOISE

1. Inductive Pickup
➢ Current is induced on the signal wire.
➢ The power cable emits electromagnetic waves, these waves affect the voltage and current Flowing on the signal
wire.

Powe r Cable

Signal Wire

2. Ground Loops
➢ Connecting two grounds, current signal circulates on the ground.
3. Electrostatic Coupling

➢ When an object at a higher potential/volt than the signal wire is close to it.
➢ The object will discharge on the signal wire.
➢ The common mode noise sees 20 V, the object discharge on the signal line.
➢ Then it will shoot up to 70 V (50 + 20), then a spark on the wire will be created.

4. Ineffective Temperature Compensation

➢ Added to the measurement. Neglects the effects of Ambient Temperature

5. Variable Contact Resistance

➢ The resistance is shorted due to some variable resistance.
➢ Measures dirt in the form of resistance
R1

R2m O/P
Load Cells
R2

R1m

➢ Load cells - devices used to measure the load of something.

➢ If R2m is operating due to dust and dirt the resistance of R2m will be bridged out.
➢ Due to some variable resistance dirt is measured.

6. Electrochemical Corrosion
➢ The resistance is shorted due to some variable poor resistance.
➢ Measures dirt in the form of resistance.
➢ Connection points ( 𝑹𝟏 & 𝑹𝟐) can change over time
➢ The wire can be corroded on the connection points

Power
Supply

➢ The connection points are resistance points (𝑹𝟏 & 𝑹𝟐).

➢ These points can change over time because if there are a lot of chemicals around the transmitter the chemicals
with corrode on the wire connection points.
➢ The chemical corrodes away the wire slowly breaking the contact, or point connected to the transmitter.
Sources Of Noise

PRACTICAL WIRING CONSIDERATIONS (SECTION 1.8, VOL.2)

1. Use Specified ‘STP’ Rated Cable Only
➢ STP is a cable designed for connecting instrument devices.
➢ It is Twisted to negate the effect of any electromagnetic induction that may be imposed to this cable.
➢ The nature of it being twisted reduces the noise and it shielded to reduce noise as well.

Shielding

➢ It is grounded on one end to prevent ground loop.

2. Never Use Ground as Signal Wire
3. Avoid Splicing Cable Wire.
➢ Too many joints would result in a variable contact resistance or electrochemical corrosion.
4. Do Not Run Signal Wires Close to Or in The Same Trunking as Power Cables.
➢ This can cause electrochemical induction.
➢ It can be run perpendicular to prevent electromagnetic noise.

5. Unused or Spare Cables Must Be Grounded at One End.

➢ This will prevent ground loops.
6. Cable Shielding Must Be Grounded at One End Only
➢ Shield in one end to avoid ground loops.
➢ Reduce points to prevent the variable contact resistance and electromagnetic corrosion.
➢ Use one ground to prevent circulating current.
Signal Wiring Practices: 2 Wire versus 4 Wire
Two Ways of Connecting a Transmitter
2 Wire
4 Wire

2 Wiring Circuit System

▪ PLC that sends out current is connected to a power supply.

▪ One wire goes to the transmitter, the other wire goes to the power supply.

4 Wiring Circuit System

▪ There is no power supply on the controller.
▪ Two wires go directly to the transmitter, the power supply is near the transmitter.

Instrument Wiring Diagrams (Loop Drawings)

▪ Compressor pumps Air In, PIC- Pressure Indicating Controller operates the Pressure Control Valve – PCV.
▪ If pressure increases in the tank, PIC will open up PCV.
▪ Thereby releasing the pressure in the Air Outlet
Instrument Wiring Diagrams (Loop Drawings)

Signal Wiring Practices: Instrument Wiring Diagrams (Loop Drawings)