Chapter-1 1

SEXUALLY REPRODUCTION IN
FLOWERING PLANTS

Flowers

Flowers are objects of aesthetic ornaments, social,

religious and cultural value
They have always been used as symbols for
conveying important human feelings such as love,
affection, happiness, grief, mourning etc
Flowers is a modified shoot meant for sexual
reproduction
Generally, flowers has 4 whorls of modified leaves
such as calyx, corolla, androceium and gynoecium.

Whorl name Unit name

Calyx Sepal
Accessory
Corolla Petal whorls
Androecium Stamen Reproductive
Gynoecium Pistil/Carpel whorls

Pre fertilization : Structure of Events

Stamen has a slender stalk called filament
The terminal portion generally has bilobed structure called
anther
Each lobe has 2 theca i.e., they are dithecous and a
longitudinal groove separates the theca
The anther is a 4 sided (tetragonal) structure, consisting of 4
microsporangia located at the corners, 2 in each lobe
The microsporangia develops further and becomes pollen
sacs
Pollen sacs are packed with pollen grains.

Structure of microsporangium
In a T.S. it appears almost circular in outline
It is surrounded by four wall layers called epidermis, endhothecium, middle layers and a
typical stamen tapetum.
2
The outer three wall layers perform the function of protection and help in dehiscence
of anther t release pollen grains
The innermost layer tapetum nourishes the developing pollen grains.

(a) Transverse section of a young anther;

(b) Enlarged view of one microsporangium showing wall layers;

(c) A mature dehisced anther

Microsporogenesis
The process of formation of microspores from pollen mother cell (PMC) through
meiosis is called microsporogenesis.
(a)

Each cell of a sporagenous tissue is called pollen mother cell (PMC) or microspore
mother cell (MMC).

(b)

As the anther matures, the cells of sporogeneous tissue undergo meiosis to form
microspore tetrad(n).

(c)

As the microspores are formed they are arranged in a cluster of 4 cells. Hence, they
are called as microspore tetrad / pollen tetrad.

(d)

As the anther matures the pollen tetrad dissociate from each other and develop into
pollen grains.

(e) Inside each microsporangium several thousands of microspores or pollen grains are
formed that are released with the dehiscence (splitting) of anther.

Pollen grain

Pollen grains represent the male gametophytes

Pollen grains are generally spherical measuring about 25-50 micrometers in diameter
It has 2 walls namely an outer exine and inner intine
Exine is made up of sporopollenin which is one of the most resistant organic material
which can with stand high temperature strong acids and alkali.
 Exine has prominent apertures called germ 3
pores where sporopollenin is absent
Intine is a thin and continuous layer made
up of cellulose and pectin
The cytoplasm of pollen grain is surrounded
by a plasma membrane.

Structure of a mature pollen grain

Quick Note
No enzyme that degrade sporopollenin is known as far. Hence, it can be preserved as
fossils.

Formation of male gametes

When the pollen grain is mature it contains 2 cells, the

vegetation cell and generative cell
The vegetative cell is

(a) bigger in size

(b) it has abundant food reserve and

(c) a large irregularly shaped nucleus

The generative cell is small and floats in the cytoplasm of
the vegetative cell. It is spindle shaped with dense cytoplasm
and a nucleus
In over 60% of angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at this 2
celled stage and in the remaining species, the generative cell
divides mitotically to give rise to the 2 male gametes before
pollen grains are shed (3-celled stage). (a) Enlarged view of pollen grain tetrade;

(b) Stages of a microspore maturing into

a pollen grain
Quick Note
Pollen grains of many species cause serve allergies and bronchial afflications in some
people leading to chronic respiratory disorders-asthma, bronchitis etc
Parthenium or carrot grass came into India as contaminant with imported wheat. this
causes pollen allergy

Advantages of pollen grains

Pollen grains are rich in nutrients.
It is in practice in the recent years to use pollen tablets as food supplements
Pollen consumption has been claimed to increase the performance of atheletes and
race horses.

Points to Remember
Viability : pollen grains once they are shed, they have to land on stigma before
they lose viability if they have to bring about fertilization.
4
The period for which pollen grains remain viable is highly variable and to some
extent depends on temperature and humidity.
Example : In rice and wheat, pollen grains lose viablity within 30 minutes of their
release.
In some members of Rosaceas, leguminosear and solanacear they maintain
viability for months
Pollen grains of a large number of species can be stored in liquid nitrogen (-196 C).
Such stored pollen can be used as pollen banks in crop breeding programmes
The pistel, megasporangium (Ovule) and embryo sac
Gynoecium (pistil) / oarpel : It is a female reproductive structure of a flowers. It
consists of stigma, style and ovary containing ovules inside. o

Types of Ovary
(a)

Monocarpellary Ovary : A gynoecium

with a single carpel or pistil

Example : peas and beans

(b)

Multicarpellary Ovary : A gynoecium

having more than one carpel or pistil.

Example : Hibiscus

(c)

Apocarpous Ovary : A gynoecium

consisting of free carpels .i.e., not
focused.
(a) A dissected flower of Hibiscus showing pistel

(d) Example : Michelia champaka

(b) Multicarpellary, syncarpous pistel of Papaver

(c) A multicarpellary, gynoecium of Michelia

Syncarpous Ovary : A gynoecium

(d) A diagrammatic view of typical anatropous

consisting of fused carpels.

ovule
Example : Lady’s finger, papaves

Pistil

Each pistil has 3 parts namely stigma, style and ovary

Stigma serves as a landing platform for pollen grains
The style is the elongated slender part beneath the stigma. The pollen tube grows
through tissue of style
The basal bulged part of the pistil is the ovary
The ovary is a hallow structure having one or several chambers called ovarian cavity
(locules)
After fertilization, the ovary matures into fruit
The areas where ovules are attached within ovaries are called placenta. The
arrangement of ovules on the placenta is called placentation
Arising from the placenta are the megasporangia, commonly called ovules
The number of the ovules in an ovary may be one.

Example : papaya, water melon orchids

 5
Megasporangium (Ovule)
Anatropous ovule is a type of ovule with the funicle bent back on itself and the
micropyle facing the placenta. It may be unitegmic or bitegmic (one layered or two
layered).
Ovule is an integumented megasporangium
located within the ovary
It consists of an embryosac, nucellus and
integuments
After fertilization the ovule develops into a seed
The ovule is attached to the placenta by means of
stalk-funicle
The body of the ovule fuses with funicle in the
region called hilum
Each ovule has one or two envelopes called
integuments.
Integuments encircle the ovule except at the tip where there is a small opening called
the micropyle
Opposite the micropylar end, there is chalaza, representing the basal part of the ovule
Nucellus is a nourishing tissue of the ovule found between the integuments and the
embryosac. Cells of the nucellus have abundant reserve food materials
Embryosac is located in the nucellus
An ovule generally has a single embryo sac formed from a megaspore through reduction
division.

Quick Note
Megaspore mother cell is found inside the embryosac. It is diploid in nature. It divides
through meiosis to produce 4 haploid megaspore cells. A female gametophyte is haploid
in nature.

Megasporogenesis
The process of formation of megaspores from the megaspore mother cell is called
megasporogenesis.
(a)

Megaspore mother cell is a large cell containing dense cytoplasm and a prominent
nucleus.

(b)

Ovules generally differentiate a single megaspore mother cell (MMC) in the micropylar
region of the nucellus.

(c)
A diploid (MMC) undergoes meiosis to produce 4 daughter haploid cells.

(d) In majority of flowering plants one of the megaspores is functional while the other three
degenerate. Only the functional megaspore develops into female gametophyte (embryo
sac). This method of embryo sac formation from a single megaspore is termed as
monosporic development.
6

parts of the ovule showing a large megaspore mother cell, a dyad and a tetrad
of megaspores

Difference between Microsporogenesis and Megasporogenesis

Microsporogenesis Megasporogenesis
It is the process of formation of It is the process of formation of
microspores from the pollen mother megaspore from the megaspore
cells through meiosis mother cells through meiosis
It occurs inside microsporangium of It occurs in nucellus of ovule.
the anther
Many microspore mother cells are Only one megaspore mother cell is
differentiated. differentiated.
Microspore mother cell produces Megaspore mother cell produces a
tetrad if microspores linear tetrads
All four microspore tetrad cells are Three megaspores degenerate and
fuunctional (pollen grains) only one megaspore becomes
functional and develops into
embryo sac.

Female gametophyte
(a)

The nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically to form 2 nuclei which
moves to the opposite poles, forming the 2 nucleate embryo sac.

(b)

Two more sequential mitotic nuclear divisions result in the formation of the 4 nucleate
and later the 8 nucleate stages of the embryo sac.

(c)

After the 8 nucleate stage, cell walls are laid down leading to the organisation of the
typical female gametophyte or embryo sac.

(d)

Six of the 8 nuclei are surrounded by cell walls and organized into cells, the remaining
2 nuclei called polar nuclei are situated at the central region.

(e)

3 cells are grouped together at the micropylas end and constitute the egg apparatus.
The egg apparatus consists of 2 synergids of 1 egg cell.

(f) The synergids have sperical cellular thickenings at the micropylas tip called filiform
apparatus, which play an important role in giving the pollen tubes to penetrate into
the synergid.
 7
(g)
3 cells are at the chalazal end are called antipodals.

(h)
The large central cell with 2 polarnuclei.

(i) Hence, a typical angiosperm embryo sac at maturity and is 8-nucleated and 7 celled.

(a) 2,4 and 8 nucleate stages of embryo sac and a mature embryo sac

(b) A diagrammatic representation of the mature embryo sac

Pollution
Transfer of pollen grains to the stigma of a pistil is called pollination.

Kinds of pollination
Autogam
Geitonogam
Xenogamy

Autogamy : Transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of the same flower.
Condition for autogamy
Flowers requires synchrony in pollen release and stigma
receptivity the anther and stigma should lie close to
each other, so that self pollination can occur
Chasmogamous flower : Flowers with exposed anther
and stigma.

Example : Oxalip, commelina and viola (common pansy

Cleistogamous flower : Flowers which do not open at all
(Anther and stigma lie close to each other)

Example : Oxalis, commelina and viola

Cleistogamous flowers

2. Geitnogamy : Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the another
flower of the same plant.
3. Xenogamy : Transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of a different plant.
8

Quick Note
Xenogamy is the only type of pollination which during pollination brings genetically
different types of pollen grains to the stigma.

Agents of pollination

Biotic
Abiotic

Example : Animals Example : Wind, Water

Quick Note
Majority of plants use biotic agents for pollination and only a small proportion of
plants use abiotic agents
To compensate the loss of pollen grains, the flowers produce enormous amount of
pollen grains than the number of ovules available.

Characteristics of anemophilous flower

Pollination of wind
Pollen grains should be light in weight
Flowers must produce large number of pollen
grains
They should be non sticky and powdery so that
they can be transported easily by the wind
currents
They should have well exposed stamens, so that
the pollen grains can easily disperse into wind
currents
The flower must have feathery stigma to easily
trap air borne pollen grains
Wind pollinated flowers often have a single ovule
in each ovary and numerous flowers packed into
an inflorescence.
Example : Corn cob-the tassels we see are A wind pollinated plant showing
nothing but the stigma and style which wave in compact inflorecence and well-
the wind to trap pollen grains. exposed stamens

Quick Note
Wind pollination is quite common in grasses.
 9
Hydrophily (Pollination by Water)
Example : Vallisnaria, Hydrilla, Zostera (sea-grass) etc
Pollination by water is quite rare in flowering plants and is limited to above 30 genera
and mostly monocotyledons
Water is the regular mode of transport for the male gametes among the lower plant
groups like algae, bryophytes and pteridophytes
In aquatic plants like water hydrate and water lily, the flowers emerge above the
surface of water and are pollinated by insects/wind but not by water.

Points to Remember

Mechanism of pollination in Vallisnaria and sea grass

In Vallisnaria, the female flower reach the surface of water by the long stalk ad the
male flowers or pollen grains released on to the surface of water which are carried
passively by water currents. Some of them eventually reach the female flowers and the
stigma finally
Whereas in sea grasses, female flowers remain submerged in water and the pollen
grains are released inside the water. Pollen grains in many such species are longer and
ribbon like which are carries by water. Some of them reach the stigma and achieve
pollination
In most of the water pollinated species, pollen grains are protected from wetting by a
mucilaginous covering
Both wind and water pollinated flowers are not very colourful and not produce nectar,
hence they are not attracting insects, birds etc.

Zoophily (Pollination by Animals

Example : Bees, butterflies, flies, beetles wasps, ants, moths, birds (sunbirds and
humming birds) and bats
Among animals insects particularly honey bees are the major biotic pollinating agents
Even in large animals such as lemurs (primates), arboreal (tree dwelling) rodents,
reptiles (gecko lizard and garden lizard) have also been reported as pollinators
Often flowers of animal pollinated plants are specifically adapted for a particular
species of animal
Majority of insect pollinated flowers are large, colourful, fragnant and rich in nectar
When flowers are small the number of flowers is clustered to make them conspicious
(clearly visible)
The flowers pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul odours to attract these animals
Nectar and pollen grains are the usual rewards to the animals to achieve pollination
The body of the animal gets a coating of pollen grains which are generally sticky and
comes in contact with stigma to bring pollination
In some species floral rewards are in providing safe places to lay eggs.
Example : Tallest flower Amorphophallus (6 feet height)
10
Similar relationship exist between species of moth and plant Yucca where both
cannot complete their life cycle without each other
Moth deposits its eggs in the locule of the ovary and the flower in turn gets
pollinated by the moth larvar of moth comes out of eggs as seeds develop.

Outbreeding devices
Continued self pollination results in inbreeding depression. Hence to avoid this
flowering plant have developed many devices to discourage self pollination and
encourage cross pollination.
(a)

In some species, pollen release and stigma receptivity are not synchronised. Either
the pollen is released before the stigma becomes receptive or stigma becomes
receptive much before the release of pollen.

(b)

In some other species the anther and stigma are placed at different positions so that
the pollen cannot come in contact with the stigma of the same flower.

(c)

The third device to prevent inbreeding is self-incompatibility. This is genetic

mechanism and prevents self-pollen from fertilising the ovules by inhibiting pollen
germination or pollen tube growth in the pistil.

(d)

Another device to prevent self-pollination is the production of unisexual flowers.

In several species such as papaya, male and female flowers are present on different
(e) plants that is each plant is either male or female (dioecy). This condition prevent
both autogamy and geitonogamy.

Pollen pistil interaction

(a)

Pollination does not guarantee the transfer of the right type of pollen (compatible)
on the stigma.

(b)

Often pollen of the wrong type, either from other species or from same plant (if it is
self-incompatible) land on the stigma.

(c)

Pistil has the ability to recognise the pollen, whether it is of the right type
(compatible) of the wrong type (incompatible).

(d)

If it is in compatible, the pistil rejects the pollen by preventing pollen germination on

the stigma or pollen tube growth in the style.

(e)

If it is right type, the pistil accepts the pollen and promotes post pollination events
that leads to fertilization.

(f)

The acceptance or rejection is mediated by chemical components of the pollen

interacting with those of the pistil.

(g)

Pollen grain germinates on the stigma to produce a pollen tube through one of the
germ pores.

(h)

The contents of the pollen grains moves into the pollen tube. Pollen tube grows
through the tissues of the stigma and style and reaches the ovary.

(i) In some plants pollen grains are shed at 2 celled condition (a vegetative cell and a
generative cell). In such plants the generative cell divides and forms the 2 male
gametes during the growth of pollen tube in the stigma.
 11
(j) In plants which shed pollen in the 3 celled condition, pollen tubes carry the 2 male
gametes. Pollen tube after reaching the ovary enters the ovule through the micropyle
and then enters one of the synergid through filiform apparatus.

Quick Note
All the events from pollen deposition on the stigma until pollen tube enters the ovule
are together referred to as pollen pistil interaction.

Artificial hybridisation
It is one of the major approaches of crop improvement programme
Here only the desired pollen grains are used for pollination and the stigma is protected
from contamination.
It involves 2 techniques :
(i)
Emasculation

(ii) Bagging
Emasculation : Removal of anthers from the flower bud before the anther dehisces
using a pair of forceps
Bagging : Emasculated flowers have to be covered with a bag of suitable size, generally
made up of butter paper to prevent contamination of its stigma with unwanted pollen
When the stigma of bagged flower attains receptivity, mature pollen grains collected
from anthers of the male parent are dusted on the stigma and the flowers are rebagged
and the fruits are allowed to develop
If the female plant produces unisexual flowers, there is no need for emasculation. But
the female flower buds are bagged before the flowers open. When the stigma becomes
receptive, pollination is carried using the desired pollen and the flowers are rebagged.

Double fertilisation
The process of fertilisation that involves both syngamy
and triple fusion is known as double fertilisation.
After entering one of the synergids the pollen tube release
the male gametes into the cytoplasm of the synergid
One of the male gamete move towards the egg cell and
fuses with its nucleus thus completing the Syngamy
This results in the formation of a zygote.
The other male gamete move towards the 2 polar
Fertilised embryo sac showing zygote
nuclei located in the central cell and fuses with them
and primary endosperm nucleus
to produce a triploid primary endosperm nucleus.
As this involves the fusion of 3 haploid nuclei, it is termed as triple fusion
Hence, as 2 types of fusion, syngamy and triple fusion take place in an embryo sac it is
called as double fertilization which is a unique event among flowering plants.
12
The central cell after triple fusion becomes the primary endosperm cell (PEC) and
develops into the endosperm while the zygote develops into an embryo.

Post fertilisation : Structures and Events

After double fertilisation, the post fertilisation changes are the formation of
endosperm and embryo development maturation of ovules into seeds and ovary into
fruit.

(a) Endosperm
It is a nutritive tissue that helps in
nourishment of developing embryo
The primary endosperm cells divides
repeatedly and forms a triploid
endosperm tissue
The cells of this tissue are filled with
reserve food materials and are used
for the nutrition of the developing
Stages in embryo development in a dicot embryo.

In the most common type of endosperm development, the PEN undergoes successive
nuclear divisions to give rise to free nuclei. This stage of endosperm development is
called free nuclear endosperm
Substequently, cell wall formation occurs and the endosperm becomes cellular. The
number of nuclei formed before cellularisation varies
The coconut water from tender coconut is free nuclear endosperm i.e., made up of
thousand of nuclei and the surrounding white kernel is the cellular endosperm
Endosperm may either be completely consumed by the developing embryo
Example : pea, ground nut, beans etc before seed maturation or it may persist in the
mature seed.

Example : castor and coconut and can be used up during seed germination

(b) Embryo : The structure in plants that develops from the zygote before germination is
called embryo.
Embryo develops at the micropylar end of the embryo sac where zygote is situated
Most of the zygotes divide only after certain amount of endosperm is formed so that
proper nutrition could be provided to the developing embryo
The early stages of embryo development (embryogeny) are similar in both
monocotyledons and dicotyledons
The zygote give rise to the pro embryo and subsequently to the globular, heart shaped
and mature embryo.

Dicotyledonous embryo
A typical dicot embryo consists of an embryonal axis and two cotyledons.
 13
The portion of embryonal axis above the level of
cotyledons is the epicotyl, which terminates with the
plumule (stem tip)
The cylindrical portion below the level of cotyledons
is hypocotyl that terminates at its lower end in the
radicle (root tip)
The root tip is covered with a root cap.

A typical dicot embryo

Monocotyledonous embryo
Embryos of monocots posses only one cotyledon
In the grass family, the cotyledon is called scutellum that is situated towards one side
of the embryonal axis
At its lower end, the embryonal axis has the radicle and root cap enclosed in an
undifferentiated sheath called coleorhiza
The portion of the embryonal axis above the level of attachment of scutellum is the
epicotyl
Epicotyl has a shoot apex and few leaves primordial enclosed in a hallow foliar
structure called coleoptile.

Seeds

(a) Seed is the final product of sexual reproduction.

(b) It is often described as a fertilised ovule. Seeds are formed inside fruits.
(c)
A seed consists of seed coat(s), cotyledon(s) and an embryo axis.

(d)

The cotyledons of the embryo are simple structures, generally thick and swollen due to
storage of food reserves.

(e)

Mature seeds may be non-albuminous or ex-albuminous.

Non albuminous seeds have no residual endosperm as it is completely consumed
during embryo development. Ex : pea, groundnut
Albuminous seeds retain a part of endosperm as it is not completely used up during
embryo development. Ex : wheat, maize, barley, castor

(f)

In some seeds such as black pepper and beet, remnants of nucellus are also persistent.
This residual, persistent nuclellus is the perisperm.

(g)
Integuments of ovules harden as tough protective seed coats.

(h)

The micropyle remains as a small pore in the seed coat. This facilitates entry of oxygen
and water into the seed during germination.

(i)

As the seed matures, its water content is reduced and seeds become dry. The general
metabolic activity of the embryo slows down and embryo enter a state of inactivity
called dormancy.

(j) If favourable conditions are available (moisture, oxygen and suitable temperature) they
germinate.
14 Quick Note

As like ovules mature into seeds, transformation of ovules into seeds and ovary into
fruit proceeds simultaneously. The wall of the ovary develops into the wall of fruit
called pericarp.

Structure of some seeds

False fruits of apple and strawberry

Advantages of seeds
Seeds have better adaptive strategies for dispersal to new habitats and help the
species to colonise in other areas
As they have sufficient food reserves, young seedlings are nourished until they are
capable of photosynthesis on their own
The hard seed coat provides protection to the young embryo. Being products of sexual
reproduction, they generate new genetic combinations leading to variations
Seed is the basis of our agriculture. Dehydration and dormancy of mature seeds are
crucial for storage of seeds which can be used as food throughout the year and also to
raise crop in the next season.
 Quick Note 15

Seeds of a large number of species live for several years. There are several records of
very old yet viable seeds. The oldest is that of a lupine, Lupinus arcticus excavated from
Arctic Tundra. The seed germinated and flowered after an estimated record of 10,000
years of dormancy. A recent record of 2000 years old viable seed is of the date, palm,
Phoenix dactylifera discovered during the archeological excavation at King Herod’s
palace near the Dead Sea.

Fruits

Fleshy
Dry

Example : Guava, Example : Ground nut,

orange, mango etc mustard etc

Classification of Fruits
True fruit
False fruit
Parthenocarpic fruits

True fruit : The fruits that develop only from the ovary.
Example : Mango, Kiwi fruit, Blue berry etc
False fruit (or) pseudocarp : The fruits in which thalamus also contributes to the fruit
2.
formation.
Example : Strawberry, Cashew, Apples etc
Parthenocarpic fruit (or) seedless fruit : In few plant species the ovary develops into
3.
fruit without fertilisation.
Example : Banana

Quick Note
Parthenocarpy can be included through the application of growth hormones and such
fruits are seedless.

Apomixis

Formation of seeds without fertilisation is termed as apomixis.

Example : Species of Asteraceae and Grasses
Thus apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual reproduction
There are several ways of development of apomictic seeds
In some species, the diploid egg cell is formed without reduction division and develops
into embryo without fertilisation.
16 Advantages of Apomixis

(a)

Hybrid varieties of several crops are being extensively cultivated because of their
increased productivity.

(b)

Helps in conserving desired traits of hybrids, hence extensively used in agriculture and
horticulture (The segregation of traits do not take place in the seeds of apomictic
hybrids)

(c)

Maintain hybrid vigour (the tendency of a cross-bred individual to show qualities

superior to those of both parents).

(d)
Free from diseases.

(e) Accelerated breeding.

Polyembryony

“Presence of more than one embryo in a seed is called polyembryony.”

Example : Citrus and Mango
More often, as in many Citrus and Mango varieties some of the nucellar cells
surrounding the embryo sac start dividing, protrude into the embryosac and develop
into the embryos. In such species each ovule contains many embryos.

Important Questions

1 Mark What is apomixis ?

What is polyembryony ?
What is a staminate flower
Name the tissue that nourishes pollen 2 Marks
mother cells
How are pollen grains preserved What is monosporic development of
Give an example for a plant that causes embryo sac
pollen allergy What is pollen-pistil interaction
Write the function of filiform apparatus Differentiate between chasmogamous
Which type of flowers assure seed set and cleistogamous flowers
even in the absence of pollinators Distinguish between geitonogamy and
What is meant by monosporic xenogamy
development of female gametophyte What is pollination ? Mention any for
Papaya plants exhibit xenogamy only ? features of wind pollinated flowers
Why What is meant by emasculation ? When
What is emasculation and why does a plant breeder employ
Mention the organic resistant material this technique
present in the exine of pollen grains Define double fertilisation
What is the ploidy of the primary What are false fruits ? Give an example
endosperm cell What are parthenocarpic fruit ? Give
What is scutellum ? example
Differentiate coleoptile and coleorhiza.
 17
3 Marks

Draw a neat labelled diagram of 9.

What is enthamophily ? Mention the

longitudinal section of typical flower characters of insect pollinated flower.

Mention the main three events in sexual 10.

What is autogamy ? Explain the

reproduction devices that the plants have
Explain the structure of pollen grain developed to prevent it.

(male gametophyte) 11.

Explain the mechanism of pollination

What is artificial hybridization ? Name in vallisneria and sea grasses.

the techniques that are employed to 12.

Describe the outbreeding devices that

achieve this prevent the autogamy.

Write three advantages offered by the 13.

What is double fertilization ? Describe

seeds to angiosperms fertilized embryo sac with a labelled
What is seed ? Mention the types of diagram.

seeds based on the endosperm 14.

Describe the structure of dicot embryo

What is the function of tapetum with the help of a labelled diagram.

Define autogamy. Write the two 15. Explain the structure of typical
different kinds of flowers that exhibit monocot embryo with a labelled
autogamy diagram.
Cleistogamous flowers are invariably
autogamous. Justify the statement.

5 Marks

Explain the transverse section of young

anther with a labelled diagram
What is heterothallic condition ?
Differentiate between staminate and
pistillate flowers
Name the organic chemical present in
exine of pollen grain. Mention its
signification
Draw a labelled diagram of anatropous
OVULE of angiosperm
Describe the structure of mature embryo
sac
Write the events of development of
female gametophyte in correct order
Explain the structure of
megasporangium
Mention any five difference between
microsporogenesis and
megasporogenesis ?