NETWORK MODELS

K . Srinivas
Department of Electrical Engineering
DEI Faculty of Engineering
 Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies
A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture.

A list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per

layer, is called a protocol stack.
 Design Issues for the Layers
▪ A mechanism for identifying senders and receivers (naming and
addressing)
▪ Rules of transfer (simplex, half-duplex, full-duplex)
▪ Error control (error correction and error detection)
▪ Ordering and sequencing
▪ Flow control, congestion control
▪ Message or packet size (disassembling and reassembling),
Internetworking
▪ multiplexing and demultiplexing
▪ routing
▪ security
 Connection-Oriented and
Connectionless Services
Layers can offer two different types of services to the layers above them: Connection-
Oriented and connectionless.
Initial Destination Packet Error Flow Option
Issue
setup address sequence control control negotiation

Connection only needed

required guaranteed ✔ ✔ Yes
Oriented during setup

not needed for

Connectionless
possible every packet
not ✗ ✗ No
guaranteed
Connection-Oriented and
Connectionless Services

Six different types of service

Message And Byte Streams Are Different
 Two networks each provide reliable connection-oriented service. One of
them offers a reliable byte stream and the other offers reliable message
stream. Are these identical? If so, why is the distinction made? If not,
give an example of how they differ.
 In a message stream, the network keeps track of message boundaries. In a
byte stream, it does not. For example, suppose a process writes 1024 bytes
to a connection and then a little later writes another 1024 bytes. The
receiver then does a read for 2048 bytes. With a message stream, the
receiver will get two messages, of 1024 bytes each. With a byte stream,
the message boundaries do not count and the receiver will get the full 2048
bytes as a single unit. The fact that there were originally two distinct
messages is lost.
 The Difference Between A Confirmed Service
And An Unconfirmed Service
 In a confirmed service, there is a request, an indication, a response
and a confirmation.
 In an unconfirmed service, there is just a request and an indication.
 Connection establishment: Confirmed service, since an explicit
response is required
 Data transfer: Can be confirmed or unconfirmed, depending
whether or not the sender needs an acknowledgement
 Connection release: This is a disconnect service, therefore it is
unconfirmed since there is no response
 Service Primitives

Five service primitives for implementing a simple

connection-oriented service
 Service Primitives

Packets sent in a simple client-server interaction

on a connection-oriented network
The Relationship of Services to
Protocols

The relationship between a service and a

protocol
 The Relationship of Services to
Protocols
▪ Each layer uses the services of the
layer just below it.
▪ Between machines layer K on one
machine communicates with layer
K on another machine.
▪ The communication is governed by
a set of agreed upon rules and
conventions called Protocol. The passing of data and N/w information down the
▪ The processes on each machine layers of the sending device and back up through the
that communicate at a given layer layers of the receiving device is made possible by an
are called Peer-to-Peer processes interface between each pair of layers.
Each interface defines the information and services
a layer must provide to the layer above it.
 The Relationship of Services to
Protocols

A service defines what operations the layer is prepared to

perform on behalf of its users, but it says nothing at all about
how these operations are implemented.

A protocol, in contrast, is a set of rules governing the format

and meaning of the frames, packets, or messages that are
exchanged by the peer entities within a layer. Entities use
protocols in order to implement their service definitions.
 The OSI Reference Model
In the late 1970s, to promote the compatibility of network designs, the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) proposed an architecture
model called the open systems interconnection references model (OSI model).

services
layer N layer N
PDUs (protocol data unit)
layer N-1 layer N-1

actual data flow on the lowest level

 THE ISO OSI MODEL
• Established in 1947, the International Standards
2.14

Organization (ISO) is a multinational body

dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards.
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of
network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first
introduced in the late 1970s.
 THE OSI MODEL
2.15

▪ OSI model allows any two different systems to communicate

regardless of their underlying architecture.
▪ The purpose of OSI is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without requiring
changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and
software.
▪ It is a model for understanding and designing a N/w
architecture that is flexible, robust and interoperable.
 Seven layers of the OSI model
2.16

User Support Layers that allow

interoperability among
unrelated s/w systems
Link between the two groups
which ensures that what the
lower layers have sent is in a
form that the upper layers can
use
N/W Support Layers that deal
with the physical aspects of
moving data from one device
to another
 The Interaction Between Layers In The OSI
Model
2.17
 An exchange using the OSI model

The data portion of a packet at N-1 carries the whole packet from level N. This concept
is called encapsulation where level N-1 is not aware of which part is header and which
part is data.
2.19

The physical layer is responsible for the movement of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
 Physical layer
2.20
 The physical layer is also concerned with
the following
Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium
• The physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface between
the devices and the transmission medium.
• It also defines the type of transmission medium.
Representation of bits
• The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits sequence of Os or
1s) with no interpretation.
• To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or
optical.
• The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how Os and I s are
changed to signals).
 Physical layer
Data rate
• The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined
by the physical layer.
• In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is
how long it lasts.

Synchronization of bits.
• The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but also must
be synchronized at the bit level.
• In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
 Physical layer

Line configuration
• The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to
the media.
• In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected
through a dedicated link.
• In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several
devices.
Physical topology
• The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make
a network.
 Physical Layer

Transmission mode
• The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission
between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
• In simplex mode, only one device can send; the other can only
receive. The simplex mode is a one-way communication.
• In the half-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive, but
not at the same time.
• In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two devices can send
and receive at the same time.
2.25

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
 Data Link Layer
2.26
 Hop-to-hop Delivery
2.27
 Data Link layer
• The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable
link.
• It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).
Framing
The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.

Physical addressing
If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link layer adds
a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame.
If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver address is
the address of the device that connects the network to the next one.
 Data Link Layer

Flow control
• If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the
rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a
flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.

Error control
• The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.
• It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames.
• Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the
frame.
 Data Link layer

Access control
• When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data
link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has
control over the link at any given time.
2.31

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
 Network Layer
Source-to-destination delivery
2.32
 Network Layer
2.33
 Network Layer
Logical addressing
• The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the
addressing problem locally.
• If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing
system to help distinguish the source and destination systems.
• The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper
layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender
and receiver.
 Network Layer

Routing
• When independent networks or links are connected to create intemetworks
(network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called
routers or switches) route or switch the packets to their final destination. One
of the functions of the network layer is to provide this mechanism.
 Transport layer
2.36
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.
 Reliable Process-to-process Delivery
2.38
of a Message
 Transport Layer

Service-point Addressing
• Computers often run several programs at the same time. For this
reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one
computer to the next but also from a specific process (running program)
on one computer to a specific process (running program) on the other.
• The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address
called a service-point address (or port address).
• The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport
layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
 Transport Layer
Segmentation and reassembly.
• A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each
segment containing a sequence number.
• These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the
message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify
and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
 Transport Layer
Connection control
• The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented.
• A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet
and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine.
• A connection oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer
at the destination machine first before delivering the packets.
• After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.
 Transport Layer
Flow control
• Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control.
• However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a
single link.
Error control
• Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control.
• However, error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than
across a single link.
• The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the
receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication).
• Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.
 Session layer
2.43
2.44

Note
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.
 Session Layer
• The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and
network) are not sufficient for some processes.
• The session layer is the network dialog controller.
• It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems.

Dialog control
• The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog.
• It allows the communication between two processes to take place in
either half-duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a
time) mode.
 Session Layer
Synchronization
• The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization points,
to a stream of data.

• For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert

checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received
and acknowledged independently.

• In case of a crash during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that need
to be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523.
• Pages previous to 501 need not be resent.
2.47

The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression,

and encryption.
 Presentation Layer
2.48
 Presentation Layer
Translation
• The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on.
• The information must be changed to bit streams before being transmitted.
Because different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation
layer is responsible for interoperability between these different encoding
methods.
• The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-
dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at the
receiving machine changes the common format into its receiver-dependent
format.
 Presentation Layer
Encryption
• To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.
• Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to
another form and sends the resulting message out over the network.
• Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back
to its original form.

Compression
• Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information.
• Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of
multimedia such as text, audio, and video.
2.51

Note
The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
 Application Layer
• The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the
network.
• It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file
access and transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed
information services.

Network virtual terminal

• A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal, and it allows a
user to log on to a remote host.
• To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host.
• The user's computer talks to the software terminal which, in turn, talks to the host, and
vice versa.
• The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own terminals and allows
the user to log on.
 Application Layer
File transfer, access, and management.
• This application allows a user to access files in a remote host (to make
changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use
in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote
computer locally.

Mail services
• This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.

Directory services
• This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.
 Application layer

2.54
 Summary of layers

2.55
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match

those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite
was defined as having four layers: host-to-network, internet,
transport, and application. However, when TCP/IP is
compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite
is made of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport,
and application.
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model
 Addresses in TCP/IP

2.58
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP