PL/SQL: Structure,

Elements, and More

Explore the core concepts of PL/SQL, including its structure, essential
elements, operator precedence, control structures, iterative controls,
and more.

by SURESH R
PL/SQL Overview
What is PL/SQL? Purpose of PL/SQL Key Features
PL/SQL is a procedural language PL/SQL enables developers to PL/SQL provides features like
extension for the SQL programming integrate SQL statements with variables, data types, control
language, allowing developers to write procedural logic, making databases structures, exception handling, and
powerful, efficient database more versatile and enhancing their more, allowing for more complex and
applications. capabilities beyond simple data robust database applications.
retrieval and manipulation.
PL/SQL Structure
The structure of PL/SQL (Procedural Language/Structured
Query Language) consists of several key elements that
work together to create robust and efficient database
applications. These include blocks, declarations,
executable statements, and exception handling.
PL/SQL Elements

Declarative Elements Procedural Elements Syntactical Elements

PL/SQL code consists of declarative The procedural elements of PL/SQL, PL/SQL has specific syntax rules for
elements like variables, constants, and including conditional statements, variables, statements, and other
data types that define the structure loops, and logic, define the dynamic language constructs that must be
and input/output of the program. behavior and flow control of the properly formatted for the code to
program. execute correctly.
Operators Precedence
In PL/SQL, operators have a well-defined order of precedence that determines the sequence in which operations are performed. Understanding this precedence
is crucial for writing correct and unambiguous code.

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Operator Precedence
The order of precedence for PL/SQL operators, from highest to lowest, is:
arithmetic, concatenation, comparison, and logical operators.
Control Structure
Conditional Statements
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PL/SQL provides IF-THEN, IF-THEN-ELSE, and CASE
statements to execute code based on specific conditions.

Branching Logic
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The control structure allows you to branch your program's
execution flow based on evaluated expressions, enabling
complex decision-making.

Flexibility and Readability

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Well-structured control flow improves the readability and
maintainability of your PL/SQL code, making it easier to
understand and debug.
Conditional Statements
IF-THEN-ELSE CASE Statement
The most basic conditional statement in PL/SQL is the The CASE statement provides a more flexible way to
IF-THEN-ELSE statement. This allows you to execute a handle multiple conditions. It evaluates a single
block of code based on a specific condition. expression and executes the appropriate action based on
the result.
Iterative Control

Loops
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Repetitive execution of a block of code

FOR Loop
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Iterate a fixed number of times

WHILE Loop
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Iterate until a condition is met

LOOP
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Unconditional infinite looping

Iterative control structures in PL/SQL allow for the repeated execution of a block of code. The primary loop constructs are FOR, WHILE, and the
unconditional LOOP. These provide the ability to iterate a fixed number of times, continue until a condition is met, or loop indefinitely.
Iterative Control
Loops Loop Types
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Loops allow you to PL/SQL provides several
repeatedly execute a block loop types, including the
of code until a certain basic LOOP, FOR LOOP,
condition is met. This is and WHILE LOOP, each
essential for automating with their own use cases
repetitive tasks and and syntax.
processing data sets.

Loop Control
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You can control loop execution using statements like EXIT,
CONTINUE, and GOTO to skip iterations, exit the loop, or jump
to a specific point.
Cursors
Cursors are a key feature in PL/SQL, allowing developers to work with
data one row at a time. They provide a way to retrieve and manipulate
data from a database table or view.

Cursors can be used to perform various operations, such as fetching,

updating, and deleting data, making them a powerful tool for working
with complex data scenarios.
Cursor Types

Implicit Cursor Explicit Cursor Cursor Attributes

Automatically created by the PL/SQL Manually declared by the Special variables that provide
engine to handle SQL statements. programmer. Allows for more control information about the cursor's state,
Useful for simple queries, but limited and complex logic, like fetching rows like row count, error status, and more.
in functionality. one-by-one.
Cursor Attributes

Cursor Attributes Debugging and Optimization PL/SQL Integration

Cursor attributes provide valuable Cursor attributes are essential for Cursor attributes are seamlessly
information about the state and behavior debugging and optimizing database integrated into PL/SQL, allowing
of a cursor during its execution. They queries. They help identify performance developers to leverage their power within
allow developers to track the number of bottlenecks, validate the logic of procedural code. This integration enables
rows processed, determine if a record was cursor-based operations, and ensure the dynamic control and monitoring of
found, and check the open/closed status efficient processing of data. cursor-based operations.
of the cursor.
Procedures
PL/SQL procedures are named program units that can
accept input parameters, perform specific tasks, and
optionally return output parameters. Procedures are
essential for encapsulating and reusing logic within a
PL/SQL application.
Procedures can be called from other PL/SQL blocks, such
as anonymous blocks, functions, or other procedures.
They can also be called from outside of PL/SQL, such as
from SQL statements or client applications.
Procedure Parameters
Parameter Types Default Parameters
Procedures can accept various Procedures can define default
parameter types, including IN, parameter values, allowing
OUT, and IN OUT parameters. callers to omit arguments and
IN parameters pass values into use the defaults instead. This
the procedure, OUT parameters makes procedures more flexible
return values, and IN OUT and reusable.
parameters do both.

Parameter Passing
When calling a procedure, arguments can be passed by position or by
name. Passing by name is more explicit and can help with readability
and maintainability.
Procedure Overloading
Defining Overloaded Procedures Parameter Differences
PL/SQL allows you to define multiple procedures with the The parameter lists for overloaded procedures must differ
same name but different parameter lists. This is known as in the number, data types, or order of the parameters. This
procedure overloading. allows you to call the same procedure name with different
arguments.
Functions
Functions in PL/SQL are reusable code blocks that perform a specific
task and return a value. They take input parameters, execute a series of
statements, and return a result.

Functions can be used to encapsulate complex logic, improve code

readability, and promote reusability across an application.
Function Parameters

Parameter Types
PL/SQL functions can accept different types of parameters, including IN, OUT, and IN OUT
parameters. These allow you to pass data into the function and receive data back.

Default Values
Function parameters can be assigned default values, so if a value is not provided when the
function is called, the default will be used instead.

Overloading
Functions can be overloaded, meaning you can have multiple functions with the same name
but different parameter lists. This allows for more flexibility in how the function is used.
Packages
Packages in PL/SQL are a collection of related functions, procedures,
variables, and cursors that are grouped together to provide a modular
and reusable structure for your code. They help organize your
application's logic and promote code reuse.
Packages consist of two main parts: the package specification and the
package body. The specification defines the public interface, while the
body contains the implementation details.
Package Structure
Package Specification Package Body Encapsulation
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The package specification The package body contains the Packages allow you to
defines the public interface of actual implementation of the encapsulate related data and
the package, including the procedures, functions, and logic, making your code more
procedures, functions, and variables declared in the package modular, maintainable, and
variables that are accessible to specification. secure.
the outside world.
Package Specification
Overview Structure Accessibility Advantages
The package specification The package specification Anything declared in the The package specification
defines the public begins with the PACKAGE package specification is promotes modularity,
interface of a PL/SQL keyword, followed by the accessible from outside encapsulation, and
package. It declares the package name. It then lists the package. Private information hiding. It
procedures, functions, the public elements, each elements can be declared allows you to change the
variables, constants, and with their signatures and in the package body, implementation details
cursor types that can be optional comments. which is invisible to the without affecting the
accessed outside the client code. client code.
package.
Package Body

Package Body Structure Defining Package Body Purpose and Benefits

The package body contains the The package body is defined using the The package body allows developers to
implementation details of the CREATE PACKAGE BODY statement, hide the implementation details of a
subprograms declared in the package which includes the name of the package, promoting modularity and
specification. It includes variable and package and the implementation encapsulation. This improves code
type definitions, as well as the complete details for each subprogram. organization, maintainability, and
code for procedures and functions. security.
Exceptional Handling
PL/SQL provides built-in exception handling mechanisms
to manage runtime errors. Exceptions can be predefined
system errors or user-defined errors.
Exceptions are raised when a program encounters an
unexpected condition, such as division by zero, data type
mismatch, or invalid cursor operation.
Developers can write custom exception handling logic to
gracefully manage and recover from these errors,
ensuring the application's stability and reliability.
Exception Types
Predefined Exceptions User-Defined
PL/SQL has a set of built-in Exceptions
exceptions, like Developers can also declare

NO_DATA_FOUND and their own custom exceptions

TOO_MANY_ROWS, that to handle specific errors or

handle common error business rules within the

conditions. application.

Raising Exceptions
Exceptions can be raised explicitly using the RAISE statement or
implicitly when an error condition occurs during execution.
Exceptional Handling
Exception Types Exception Handling
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PL/SQL provides various built-in The EXCEPTION clause in
exception types, such as PL/SQL allows you to intercept
NO_DATA_FOUND, and handle exceptions, enabling
TOO_MANY_ROWS, and graceful error management and
INVALID_CURSOR, that help preventing application crashes.
handle common error scenarios.

User-Defined Exceptions Exception Propagation

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You can also define your own Exceptions can be propagated up
custom exceptions to handle the call stack, allowing
unique business logic errors in higher-level blocks to handle
your PL/SQL code, providing them. This promotes modular
more targeted error handling. and robust error management.
Triggers
Triggers are special types of stored procedures in PL/SQL that
automatically execute when a specific event occurs, such as an
INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement on a table. Triggers can be
used to enforce business rules, maintain data integrity, and audit
changes to data.
Triggers are defined at the table level and can be configured to fire
before or after the triggering event. They can also be set to fire for each
row affected by the event or just once for the entire statement.
Trigger Types

System Triggers Table Triggers Database Triggers

Automatically fire when specific Fire in response to DML (INSERT, Fire in response to DDL (CREATE,
system events occur, such as logon, UPDATE, DELETE) statements on a ALTER, DROP) statements or database
logoff, or database startup/shutdown. specified table. events like startup, shutdown, or
error.
Trigger Timing
When Fired BEFORE Triggers AFTER Triggers INSTEAD OF Triggers
Triggers can fire before or BEFORE triggers execute AFTER triggers execute INSTEAD OF triggers are
after a DML (Data before the triggering DML after the triggering DML used with views, replacing
Manipulation Language) statement is carried out. statement is completed. the original DML
operation, such as They can be used to They are often used to operation and allowing
INSERT, UPDATE, or validate or modify the perform additional for more complex logic to
DELETE. This determines data being inserted, actions, such as updating be executed.
when the trigger code will updated, or deleted. other tables or sending
execute in relation to the notifications.
triggering event.
Trigger Events

Data Manipulation Timing Events System Events

Triggers can be defined to fire when Triggers can also be defined to fire at Certain system events, like user logon,
specific DML (Data Manipulation specific times, such as before or after database startup, or database
Language) events occur, such as a statement is executed, or instead of a shutdown, can also be used to activate
INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE. statement. triggers.
Trigger Structure

Trigger Components Trigger Execution Trigger Syntax

A PL/SQL trigger is composed of When a triggering event occurs, the The syntax for creating a PL/SQL
several key elements: the trigger trigger is automatically fired and the trigger includes the CREATE TRIGGER
name, the triggering event, the trigger specified code in the trigger body is statement, the trigger name, the
timing, the trigger type, and the trigger executed, allowing you to customize triggering event, the trigger timing, the
body containing the code to be database behavior based on certain trigger type, and the trigger body
executed. actions. enclosed in a BEGIN-END block.