5 Marks

1. Explain how to avoid mode jumping in Magnetron. {5 marks} {IMP}

ANS:-
Mode jumping refers to the phenomenon where the operating frequency shifts Suddenly from one mode of
oscillation to another. This can occur due to changes in the operating conditions, such as variations in the
magnetic field, temperature, or voltage. To maintain stable operation and avoid mode jumping, several
techniques can be employed:
1. Design resonant cavities with dimensions that ensure sufficient frequency spacing between modes to
minimize accidental transitions.
2. Maintain a stable and consistent magnetic field using high-quality permanent magnets to prevent
variations that could induce mode jumping.
3.Implement effective cooling systems and select materials with low thermal expansion to minimize
temperature fluctuations that affect cavity dimensions.
4. Use feedback control systems to monitor and adjust operating parameters in real time to stabilize the
frequency.

2. Calculate coupling factor of directional coupler when the incident power is 600 mW and power in
auxiliary waveguide is 350 mW. {5 marks} {IMP}
ANS:-
Incident power
Coupling factor =
power in auxiliary waveguide

Pi
C = 10 log10 dB
Pt
600
C = 10 log10
350
C = 2.34 dB

3. Explain E-plane Tee and H-plane Tee with their properties. {10 marks for both, 5 marks each} {IMP}
ANS:-
1. E-plane Tee:-
 The E-plane Tee is a waveguide junction where the additional arm is connected along the electric field (E-
field direction of the wave propagating in the main waveguide.
 It consists of three ports: one main waveguide port and two side ports.
 The side ports are connected in the plane of the electric field.
Properties:
 The main port and the two side ports are arranged in such a way that the electric field is perpendicular
to the side ports.
  When a signal is fed into the main port, it is split between the two side ports with equal amplitude but
without a phase difference.
 The E-plane Tee offers some isolation between the output ports. If power is applied to one of the side
ports, it does not significantly affect the other side port.
 The E-plane Tee typically has an impedance matching of Z0, ensuring minimal reflections.
2. H-plane Tee:-
 The H-plane Tee is a waveguide junction where the additional arm is connected along the magnetic field
(H-field) direction of the wave propagating in the main waveguide.
 It also consists of three ports: one main waveguide port and two side ports.
 The side ports are connected in the plane of the magnetic field.
Properties:
 The main port and the side ports are arranged such that the magnetic field is perpendicular to the side
ports.
 When a signal is fed into the main port, it is split between the two side ports, with equal amplitude and
a 180-degree phase difference. This results in a cancellation effect when signals are fed into both side
ports simultaneously.
 The H-plane Tee provides higher isolation than the E-plane Tee, especially when power is applied to
one of the side ports.
 The H-plane Tee has an impedance matching of Z0, allowing for effective signal transfer.

4. What is microwave frequency their bands and application. {5 marks} {IMP}

Ans:-
Band Frequency Range Appication
HF Band 3 to 30 MHz Long-range communication.
VHF Band 30 to 300 MHz FM radio broadcasting.
UHF Band 300 to 1000 MHz Mobile phones, Wi-Fi.
L Band 1 to 2 GHz GPS and satellite communications.
S Band 2 to 4 GHz Weather radar.
C Band 4 to 8 GHz Satellite television broadcasting.
X Band 8 to 12 GHz Radar systems.
Ku Band 12 to 18 GHz Satellite communications.
K Band 18 to 27 GHz Police speed detection radar.
Ka Band 27 to 40 GHz High-resolution satellite imaging.
V Band 40 to 75 Ghz Point-to-point communication.
W Band 75 to 110 GHz Millimeter-wave radar.
mm Band 110 to 300 GHz Advanced imaging systems.

5. A transmission line has the following parameters: R = 2 Ω/m, G= 0.5 mmho/m, f = 1

GHz, L = 8nH/m, C = 0.23 pF Calculate the characteristics impedance and propagation
constant. {5 marks} {IMP}
Ans:-

6. Compare stripline and microstrip line. {5 marks} {IMP}

Ans:-
Feature Stripline Microstrip Line
Structure Conductor sandwiched between Conductor on top of a dielectric
two parallel ground planes, fully substrate with a single ground plane
enclosed in dielectric. underneath.
Electromagnetic Confined within the dielectric Distributed between the conductor
Field Distribution between the ground planes, and ground plane, quasi-TEM mode.
purely TEM mode.
Losses Lower radiation losses, Higher radiation losses, generally
potentially higher dielectric lower dielectric losses.
 losses.
Impedance Control Better impedance control due to More challenging impedance
fully enclosed structure. control due to open structure.
Size Requires more vertical space More compact, thinner structure.
(thicker structure).
Applications Used in high isolation, high Common in RF/microwave circuits,
shielding applications, and antennas, and general PCBs.
multi-layered PCBs.
Fabrication More complex and costly to Easier and cheaper to fabricate,
Complexity fabricate due to multiple layers. single-layer structure.
7. List any four applications of Smith Chart? {5 marks} {IMP}
Ans:-
i) To obtain reflection coefficient (Γ).
ii) To obtain VSWR (S).
iii) To obtain impedance.
iv) To find Zin.
v) To obtain lengths of a open & short circuit transmission lines to have a particular C or L.
vi) For impedance matching.
 10 Marks
(Klystron mese and magnetron mese ek aa sakta he)
(diode vala ek question 5 marks ke liye and ek 10 marks ke liye aa sakta he)
(gunn diode ya tunnel diode mese koi ek aa sakta he 5 marks ke liye ya fir 10 marks ke liye)
(IMPATT diode aa sakta he 10 marks ke liye)
1. A two cavity klystron has the following parameters Vo = 1000V, Ro = 40 KΩ, Io = 25 mA, f = 3 GHz
Gap spacing in either cavity d = 1 mm, Spacing between the two cavities L = 4 cm and effective shunt
impedance excluding beam loading Rsh = 30 KΩ. Find the input gap voltage to give maximum voltage
V2. {10 marks} {IMP}
ANS:-
2. A two cavity Klystron amplifier has the following parameters: Vo = 1200V, Ro = 30 KΩ, Io = 25 mA
and f = 10 GHz Gap spacing in either cavity: d = 1 mm, Spacing between the two cavities: L = 4 cm,
Effective Shunt Impedance, excluding beam loading: Rsh = 30 KΩ
1. Find the input gap voltage to give maximum voltage.
2. Find the voltage Gain neglecting the beam loading in the output cavity
3. Find the efficiency of the amplifier neglecting the beam loading
Note: For maximum V2, J1(X) = 0.582 at X = 1.841 {10 marks} {IMP}
ANS:-
3. A magnetron has following parameters
inner radius : 0.15 m, Outer radius : 0.45m
Flux density of magnetic field Bo : 1.2 Wb/m2
Determine Hull cut off voltage Cut off magnetic field density when beano voltage Vo = 6000V Cyclotron
frequency in GHz if B = 0.3 Wb/ m {10 marks} {IMP}
ANS:-
4. Derive field equations for TE modes in rectangular waveguides. What are degenerate
modes? {10 marks} {IMP}
Ans:-

Degenerate Modes:-
Degenerate modes occur when two or more modes have the same cutoff frequency. In a
rectangular waveguide, this typically happens when different pairs of mode indices (m,n) result
in the same cutoff frequency.
5. Derive field equations for TM modes in rectangular waveguides. What are degenerate
modes? {10 marks} {IMP}
Ans:-

Degenerate Modes:-
Degenerate modes occur when two or more modes have the same cutoff frequency. In a
rectangular waveguide, this typically happens when different pairs of mode indices (m,n) result
in the same cutoff frequency.

6. Design of single series open stub using smitchchart.

Ans:-
https://youtu.be/-2RhifARdG0?si=egpjdfOLUd6kagbo

7. Design of single series short stub using smitchchart.

Ans:-
https://youtu.be/FegYG4GobNk?si=8M5gEwsYd01dOuw3

8. State and prove condition for negative resistance in Gunn Diode. Explain Two -Valley model theory.
Explain two valley model theory for Gunn diode with suitable diagram. {10 marks}/{5 marks} {IMP}
ANS:-
 Negative resistance in a Gunn diode is a crucial phenomenon that allows the diode to generate microwave
 oscillations. It occurs in the negative resistance region of the current-voltage I - V characteristic curve of
the diode.

Condition for Negative Resistance:-

The negative resistance occurs when the derivative of the current with respect to the voltage is negative:
𝑑𝐼
< 0
𝑑𝑉
Proof:- To demonstrate this condition, we can consider the I - V characteristics of the Gunn diode:

 In the linear region, an increase in voltage results in a proportional increase in current.

 In the negative resistance region, increasing the voltage leads to a decrease in the current. This is evident
when the slope of the I -V curve becomes negative.
 This behavior can be mathematically represented as:
I(V) = I0 + g(V − V0 )
 Where g is the conductance, and at certain values of V, the conductance becomes negative, leading to
negative resistance.

Two-Valley Model Theory:-

 The Two-Valley Model is a theoretical framework used to explain the operation of Gunn diodes,
specifically how negative resistance is achieved.
 In a semiconductor like GaAs (Gallium Arsenide), the conduction band has two valleys: the low-field
valley and the high-field valley.
 Electrons can transition between these valleys depending on the applied electric field.
 At low electric fields, electrons occupy the low-field valley, where they have low mobility.
 As the electric field increases, electrons gain energy and move to the high-field valley, where they have
higher mobility.
 However, as the electric field continues to increase, some electrons can fall back into the low-field
valley before they reach the high-field valley. This results in a decrease in current despite the increase
in voltage, leading to negative differential conductivity.
 The transition of electrons from the low-field valley to the high-field valley can lead to bunching. As
electrons move through the high-field region, they can gain enough energy to oscillate, resulting in
 microwave generation.

9. Construct a four port circulator using two magic Tees & a gyrator. Explain working of same at all
four parts. {10 marks} {IMP}
ANS:-
- The construction of a four port circulator using two magic T’s and a gyrator is shown below.

- the port number 1 to 4 follows the ports of a ciculator. In clockwise circulator the signal flow is:
1 ->2 2 ->3 3 ->4 4 ->1
Operation:-
Signal applied to port 1
 Signal is applied to port 1 results in equal and in phase signals at point a and b. These signals travel
towards point c and d.
 The signal at a is travelling in opposite direction through gyrator resulting in no phase shift. It appears
as it is at point c. thus signals at a and b appear in phase at c and d.
 The in phase inputs at c and d results in maximum signal out of port 2 and no signal from port 4.
 Thus signal applied to port 1 comes out of port 2 and no signal goes to other ports 3 and 4.
Signal applied to port 2
 Signal is applied to port 2. It results in equal and in phase signals at c and d.
 The signal at c travels to point e and then through gyrator where it is shifted in phase by 180° as it
arrives at a. But signal at d is applied as it is to point b.
 The 180° phase difference between signals at a and b results in maximum signal output at port 3 and
no signal at port 1.
 Thus signal applied to port 2 is appering only at port 3 and no signal output from 1 and 4.
 Similarly it can be proven that signal input at 3 -> 4 and 4->1.

10. Explain characteristics and working principal of tunnel diode. Explain working of Tunnel diode and
its application in microwave engineering. {5/10 marks} {IMP}
ANS:-
A tunnel diode is a heavily doped p-n junction semiconductor that exhibits negative resistance due to quantum
tunneling.

Characteristics:
- Shows a negative resistance region where current decreases with increasing voltage.
- The peak current IP is followed by a drop to the valley current IV in the negative resistance region.

Working Principle:
- In a normal diode, electrons need to gain sufficient energy to overcome the depletion barrier. However, in a
tunnel diode, the barrier is so thin that electrons can tunnel through it without needing significant energy. This
is possible due to quantum mechanics, where there is a finite probability of electrons passing through the thin
barrier.
Operation:
- Zero Bias: At zero bias, there is no current as the Fermi levels on both sides are aligned, and no tunneling
takes place.
- Forward Bias (Region 1 - Positive Resistance): As a small forward bias is applied, electrons from the
conduction band of the n-type region start tunneling directly into the valence band of the p-type region. This
results in a rapid increase in current, reaching the peak current (IpI_pIp ).
- Forward Bias (Region 2 - Negative Resistance): As the forward bias increases beyond the peak, the energy
levels shift such that fewer electrons have the opportunity to tunnel, leading to a decrease in current. This
forms the negative resistance region.
- Forward Bias (Region 3 - Normal Diode Behavior): Beyond a certain voltage, the current starts increasing
again due to normal forward conduction.

Application:
oscillators: Generates high-frequency oscillations.
Amplifiers: Used in microwave amplifiers.
Switching: Suitable for high-speed switching applications.

11. Explain the principle of operation of IMPATT diode with suitable diagram and waveforms. {10
marks} {IMP}
ANS:-
The IMPATT diode generates negative resistance using a phase shift between the current and the applied
voltage, where this phase shift exceeds 90°. IMPATT (Impact Avalanche and Transit Time) diodes are high-
power microwave sources and are among the most powerful solid-state devices for millimeter-wave
frequencies. They create dynamic negative resistance based on transit time effects, making them ideal for
high-power oscillators and amplifiers. They are made using materials like Silicon (Si), Gallium Arsenide
(GaAs), and Indium Phosphide (InP).

The negative resistance in IMPATT diodes comes from two effects:

1. Impact Ionization Avalanche Effect: This causes a 90° phase shift between the current and ac voltage.
2. Transit-Time Effect: This adds another 90° delay, making the total phase shift greater than 90°, resulting in
negative resistance.

Principle of Operation of IMPATT Diode:

The IMPATT diode has a layered structure with a P+NIN+ profile. When a reverse bias voltage (Vb) is
applied, a high electric field (around 400 kV/cm) is created across the junction, causing minority carriers to
flow.
A sinusoidal RF signal is added to the reverse bias, giving the total voltage as:
V(t)=Vb+V1cos(ωt)
When the RF voltage swing increases beyond Vb, electron-hole pairs are generated, initiating a current across
the junction.
The high velocity of electrons and holes causes impact ionization, creating more electron-hole pairs and
triggering an avalanche effect.
This process is delayed, so the current peak lags the RF voltage by 90°, creating the negative
resistance needed for oscillation. This phase delay enables the IMPATT diode to be used in high-power
microwave oscillators and amplifiers.
12. Write short note on
i. VSWR measurement {5 marks} {IMP}
ANS:-
VSWR, or Voltage Standing Wave Ratio, is a measurement that tells us how well a radio frequency (RF)
signal is being transmitted through a transmission line (like a coaxial cable) without being reflected back.
When there is a mismatch between the transmitter and the antenna (or load), some of the signal gets reflected,
creating standing waves.
VSWR values range from 1:1 (perfect match, no reflection) to higher ratios indicating more reflection (e.g.,
2:1, 3:1). A high VSWR means a poor match and more power loss, which can lead to inefficiency and even
damage equipment if too high. Measuring VSWR helps ensure that the system is optimized for the most
efficient signal transmission.
Formula for VSWR
VSWR is calculated using the following formula:
Vmax
VSWR =
Vmin

Where:
 Vmax is the maximum voltage in the standing wave.
 Vmin is the minimum voltage in the standing wave.
It can also be calculated in terms of the reflection coefficient (Γ), which represents the ratio of reflected to
incident voltage:
1 + |Γ|
VSWR =
1 − |Γ|

ii. Impedance Measurement in microwave circuit. {5 marks} {IMP}

ANS:-
- Using slotted waveguide and the load ZL in the circuit below. The position of Vmax and Vmin can be accurately
determined.

- Now the load ZL is replaced by a short circuit as shown by figure below and the shift in minimum is
measured.

Iii. Transmission line equations {5 marks} {IMP}

Ans:-
Transmission line equations describe the behavior of electrical signals traveling along a transmission line, such
as a coaxial cable, microstrip line, or any conductor used to transport electrical power or signals. These
equations are crucial for analyzing and designing high-frequency circuits and communication systems.

- If the minimum is shifted to the left, then the impedance is inductivee and if it shifts to the right, it is
capacitive.

13. Explain any two methods of power measurement {10 marks} {IMP}
ANS:-
1. Bolometer Method (for Low Power Measurement)
 Principle: Bolometers, such as thermistors and barretters, are temperature-sensitive devices whose
resistance changes with applied power. They measure low microwave power by detecting changes in
resistance caused by heating due to absorbed power.
 Types:
 Barretter: A wire bolometer with a positive temperature coefficient, where resistance increases
with temperature.
 Thermistor: A semiconductor with a negative temperature coefficient, where resistance decreases
with temperature.
  Procedure:
 The bolometer is placed in a bridge circuit. Initially, the bridge is balanced by adjusting a resistor.
 Microwave power is applied, causing the bolometer to heat up, change its resistance, and unbalance
the bridge.
 A DC voltage adjustment rebalances the bridge, with the change in voltage indicating the
microwave power.

2. Calorimeter Method (for Medium Power Measurement)

 Principle: This method measures power by observing the temperature rise of a load (often water) due to
absorbed microwave energy.
 Procedure:
 Microwave power is absorbed by a load with high specific heat, such as water.
 The temperature rise of the load is measured at the inlet and outlet, which correlates with the
microwave power absorbed.
 By knowing the mass, specific heat, and flow rate of the load, the power can be calculated.

14. Explain the method to measure microwave frequency. {10 marks} {IMP}
ANS:-
Measuring microwave frequency using a klystron oscillator involves determining the frequency of the signal
generated by the klystron. Klystrons are often used in laboratories as tunable sources of microwave signals,
and one common approach to measuring frequency involves using a slotted line or a waveguide cavity
resonator along with a frequency counter.
Here’s a step-by-step breakdown of the method:
1. Set Up the Klystron Oscillator and Components
 Connect the klystron oscillator to a waveguide or coaxial setup that is designed for microwave
frequencies.
 Place a frequency meter or resonant cavity (such as a cavity wavemeter) near the output of the
klystron.
2. Tuning the Klystron Frequency
 Adjust the repeller voltage on the klystron to change its output frequency. By varying the repeller
voltage, you can tune the klystron to output a range of microwave frequencies.
 Monitor the frequency response while adjusting the voltage to reach the desired frequency range.
3. Frequency Measurement Using a Cavity Wavemeter
 A cavity wavemeter is a device with a tunable resonant cavity that can match the frequency of the
microwave signal. When the cavity’s resonant frequency matches the microwave frequency, it absorbs
maximum power, indicated by a dip in the output.
 Slowly tune the cavity wavemeter while observing the power meter. The frequency at which the power
dips (or peaks in reflection) corresponds to the microwave frequency generated by the klystron.
 The dial on the cavity wavemeter is calibrated to show the frequency directly, or it can be used in
conjunction with a frequency chart.
4. Alternative: Frequency Counter Method
 If available, a frequency counter can be directly connected or coupled to the output waveguide. The
frequency counter will then display the microwave frequency based on the direct signal input.
 This method requires equipment capable of operating at high frequencies and is generally more precise
but may not always be available in all laboratory settings.
5. Confirm and Calibrate
 To ensure accuracy, calibrate the klystron frequency measurement by comparing with a known
frequency standard if available, as small variations in voltage and cavity positioning can affect measurements.
Using a klystron with a cavity wavemeter or frequency counter is a precise method for determining microwave
frequency, commonly used in labs where tunable microwave sources are required.

Extra question
1. A travelling wave tube (TWT) has the following characteristics: Beam Voltage Vo = 2KV, Beam
current Io = 4 mA, frequency f = 8 GHz, Circuit length N = 50, Characteristics impedance Zo = 20 Ω.
Determine
a)Gain parameter
b) The power gain(Ap) in decibels
c) All four propagation constants
ANS:-
2. Write note on Microwave Solid State Devices.
ANS:-
Microwave Solid State Devices are semiconductor devices used in microwave systems for signal generation,
amplification, and modulation. They include:
1. Gunn Diode: Used for microwave oscillation, based on negative differential resistance.
2. IMPATT Diode: High-power microwave oscillator utilizing avalanche effect and transit time.
3. Tunnel Diode: Negative resistance device for amplifiers and oscillators.
4. PIN Diode: Acts as a switch or attenuator in RF applications.
5. Varactor Diode: Voltage-controlled capacitance used for tuning and frequency control.
6. MESFET/HEMT: High-gain transistors for amplifiers and oscillators.
Applications: Widely used in radar, communication, and microwave transmitters and receivers.

3. Explain microstrip line working with geometry

Ans:-
- Microstrip line is one of the most popular types of planar
transmission lines, primarily because it can be fabricated by
photolithographic process.
- The geometry of a microstrip line is as shown in fig.(a). It
consists of a thin conductor of width w and a group plane
separated by a low-loss dielectric material with relative
permittivity εr . The sketch of the field lines is shown in fig.(b).
Advantage:-
As shown in fig(a), the top surface of the microstrip is easily accessible so it is very convenient
to mount discrete devices and make minor adjustments in the microstrip circuit. Also this
microstrip is easily integrated with other passive and active microwave devices.

4. Load impedance ZL = 50+j150Ω and characteristics impedance Zo=50Ω, calculate

reflection coefficient and VSWR
Ans:-
5. Design of double stub using smitchchart.
Ans:-
https://youtu.be/lGvlQy7_TJI?si=2b_1HGiaYoabiXoJ