AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

AMM 103: CALCULUS I

Instruction Hours: 45
Pre-
Pre-Requisites: None
Purpose of the course
To introduce the concept of Limit and their properties, differentiation and the Methods of
finding derivatives and their applications to real life situations
Expected Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course the learner should be able to:
i) Use the various rules of finding derivatives to differentiate functions
ii) Apply differentiation to find the stationary points of a function
iii) Use the method of logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative of a function
iv) Find the higher order derivatives
Course Content
Hyperbolic functions: definition, graphs, identities and Osborne’s rule, solution of
equations relating hyperbolic functions, logarithmic form of inverse hyperbolic functions.

Limit of a function: Properties; Continuity; Uniform continuity, Differentiability of

functions: Properties of derivatives; Continuity and differentiation; Differentiation by first
principles, Rules of differentiation; Sum, product, Quotient and chain rules; Algebraic;
Logarithmic differentiation; Derivatives of Trigonometric and Hyperbolic functions;
Derivatives of inverse circular and hyperbolic functions.

Parametric and implicit differentiation including second and higher derivatives, and
application to equations of tangent and normal. Curve sketching and asymptotes.
Application of derivatives: Small change; Rate of Change; stationary points.

Partial Derivatives: Introduction to functions of more than one independent variable.

First order and second order partial derivatives. Total derivatives, rates of change of a
function, stationary points of a surface

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Teaching / Learning Methodologies: Lectures; Tutorials; Class discussion

Instructional Materials and Equipment: Handouts; White board
Course Assessment: Examination - 70%; Continuous Assessments (Exercises and Tests) -
30%; Total - 100%
Recommended Text Books
1. Tom M. Apostol (2007); Calculus, Volume I, 2nd Ed; Wiley.
2. Alex (2009); Calculus Ideas and Applications; John Wiley and Sons.
3. Hunt Richard A (2009); Calculus; (2nd Edition); Harper Collins College Publishers.
4. Thomas G.B., and Finney R.L (2009) 11th Edition; Calculus and Analytical geometry,
Wesley
Text Books for further Reading
1. Bradley Smith (2009); Calculus; Prentice Hall- Gale.
2. Stein Sheran K. (2008); Calculus with analytic Geometry; McGraw Hill.
3. Boyce William E and DiPrima, Richard C.(2008); Calculus; John Wiley.
4. Hirst K. E and Hirst K. E (2005); Calculus of One Variable; Springer

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Hyperbolic Functions

Hyperbolic function are functions that describe the geometry of a hyperbola. They are
analogous to trigonometric functions and are usually applied in the modelling the
geometry of hanging cables such as the power transmission cables, electromagnetic
theory, heat transfers and relativity.

There are six hyperbolic functions and are defined as follows;

1) Hyperbolic sine of usually denoted by sinh and defined by

−
sinh =
2
Where = 2.71828183 … is the base to the natural logarithm

2) Hyperbolic cosine of , denoted by cosh and defined by

+
cosh =
2
3) Hyperbolic tangent of denoted by tanh and defined by

− sinh
tanh = =
+ cosh

ℎ csch
reciprocal of sinh . Thus
4) Hyperbolic cosecant of which is denoted by and is the

1
ℎ =
sinh
5) Hyperbolic secant of denoted by sech . This function is the reciprocal of cosh .
Thus

1
sech =
cosh
donoted by coth
tanh
6) Hyperbolic cotangent of and defined as the reciprocal of

1
coth =
tanh
Examples

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

sinh 0 = = =0
! # #
" "
1)

cosh 0 = = = =1
$ ! #$# "
" " "
2)

tanh 2.5 = = = 0.9866143

&.' !&.' #".#(")* +.+("+(,
&.' $ !&.' #".#(")*$+.+("+(,
3)

sech 1.4 = = = = 0.46492199

# " "
0123 #.) 4.5 $ !4.5 ).+,,#***6$+.")7,*7*7
4)

specified function from the available function eg. tanh 2.5

These values can also be obtained by using the scientific calculator and choosing the

5) Find the value of that satisfies the equation 3 sinh + 4 cosh =5

Solution

To solve this equation, we make use of the definition for cosh 89: sinh as given
above

i.e. cosh = and sinh =

; $ !; ; !;

" "

substituting these into the given equation, we get

− +
3< =+ 4< ==5
2 2

Multiplying both sides by 2 yields

3> − ? + 4> + ? = 10

Or 7 + = 10

At this point we multiply both sides by which yields

7 "
+ 1 = 10

9 8 89@A9@ B @ C

7 "
− 10 +1=0

We let D = E F BℎA ℎ D " = > ?" = "

, substituting back, we get the equation

7D " − 10D + 1 = 0

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Which is a quadratic equation, to solve this equation, we make use of the quadratic
formula. Thus

−G ± √G " − 48
D= Bℎ 8 = 7, G = −10 89: =1
28
Substituting, we get

10 ± √10" − 4 × 7 × 1 10 ± √72
D= =
2×7 14

Thus either D = = 1.320377

#+$√6"
#)

Or D = = 0.108194
#+ √6"
#)

But D =

from which

= log D = ln D

When D = 1.320377, = ln>1,320377? = 0.277917

And when D = 0.108194, = ln>0.108194? = −2.22383

6) Find the value of that satisfy the equation 5 cosh + 3 sinh =6

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Inverse Hyperbolic
Hyperbolic Functions

1) Consider the function D = sinh . On plotting this function, we obtain the curve
below

exists in the entire Domain −∞ < < ∞. The inverse function is denoted by
Which is symmetric about the origin. It is therefore noted that the inverse of this function

8 A9ℎ sinh #

Thus we have D = sinh #

which is the inverse of the function D = sinh

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

2) Hyperbolic cosine

Consider the function D = cosh . The graph of this function is of the form

We note that the function is symmetric about the D − 8 A . The function D = cosh is

−∞ < < ∞.
therefore not an injective function which implies that it has no inverse in the domain

The function is however injective in the restricted Domain 0 < < ∞ and its inverse is
given by

D = cosh #

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

12

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

The inverse of the other four functions can be determined in a similar way

Example

Find

1) cosh # >1.32?

2) sinh # > 3.257?

3) tanh #>0.108?

4) sech # >0.45?

5) ℎ # >2.3?

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Logarithmic form
form of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Inverse hyperbolic functions are also known as the area hyperbolic functions and usually
denoted by adding a prefix “ar” before the name of the function.

eg 8 ℎ = cosh #

8 C89ℎ = tanh #

Consider the function D = tanh #

Then by definition of the inverse function, we can transpose and write

= tanh D

Where
P
− P
tanh D = P+ P

Substituting back, we get

P
− P
= tanh D = P+ P

or

− P P
= P
+ P

We now transpose this to make D the subject

> P
+ P?
= P
− P

P
+ P
= P
− P

P
− P
= P
+ P

>1 − ? P
= >1 + ? P

P
Multiplying both sides by yields

>1 − ? "P
= >1 + ?

From which

1+
"P
=
1−
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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

1+
2D = ln < =
1−
1 1+
D= ln < =
2 1−
But D = tanh #

Hence

1 1+
tanh #
= ln < =
2 1−

Exercise

1) Express the following inverse functions in logarithmic form

a) cosh #

b) sinh #

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

tanh = 12 ln > 2 + 1?
−1 2
2) Prove that < 2 +2=

Proof

Let y = tanh R S
&
#
& $"

= tanh D
&
Then & $"

But tanh D =
T !T
T $ !T

Thus on substituting back, we get

"
− P P

"+2
= P+ P

From which
"> P P?
+ => "
+ 2?> P
− P?

" P
+ " P
= " P
− " P
+2 P
−2 P

Group the like terms together and simplify

" P
− " P
−2 P
=− " P
− " P
−2 P

−2 P
= −2 " P
−2 P

−2 P
= −2> "
+ 1? P

P
Multiplying both sides by yields
−2 P
⋅ P
= −2> "
+ 1? P
⋅ P

−2 "P
= −2> "
+ 1?
Dividing both sides by −2, we get
"P
= "
+1
From which (by definition of logarithms)
2D = ln> "
+ 1?

And D = " ln> + 1?

# "

But y = tanh R S
&
#
& $"

Thus tanh R S = " ln> + 1?

#
& # "
& $"

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

coth R S = ln
& $#
#
& #
3) Prove that

Proof
Let D = coth R S
& $#
#
& #

= coth D
& $#
& #
Then

But coth D = =
# T $ !T

VWX3 P T !T

Thus on substituting back, we get

"
+1 P
+ P

"−1
= P− P

On cross multiplying

> "
+ 1?> P
− P?
=> P
+ P ?> "
− 1?
" P
− " P
+ P
− P
= " P
− P
+ " P
− P

" P
− " P
+ P
+ P
= " P
+ " P
− P
+ P

2 P
=2 " P

"
Multiplying both sides by , we get
P P
2 P
⋅ =2 " P
⋅
2 2
"P
= "

From which

2D = ln "
= 2 ln

Thus we get D = ln

but D = coth R S
& $#
#
& #

+1
Thus
"
coth #
Y "−1
Z = ln

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

IDENTITIES

Consider the expressions cosh + sinh 89: cosh − sinh

cosh + sinh = > − ?+ > − ?

# #
" "
i)

cosh + sinh = ------------------------- 1

cosh − sinh =" > − ?− > − ?

# #
"
ii)

cosh + sinh = ------------------------ 2

Multiplying equation 1 by equation 2, we get

>cosh + sinh ?>cosh − sinh ? = ⋅

cosh" − sinh" =1 ---------------------------- 3

Dividing both sides of equation 3 by cosh" we get

cosh" sinh" 1
− =
cosh" cosh" cosh"
1 − tanh" = sech" -------------------------------4

Similarly, dividing both sides of equation 3 by sinh" , B @ C

cosh" sinh" 1
− =
sinh" sinh" sinh"

coth" − 1 = ℎ" --------------------------- 5

Equations, 3, 4 & 5 are valid for all values of x and are known as the Identities

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Osborne’s Rule

States that the six trigonometric ratios used in trigonometric identities relating general
angles can be replaced with their corresponding hyperbolic functions, but the sign of any
direct or implied product of two sines is reversed.

examples

Trigonometric Identity Hyperbolic Identity

"
+ sin" =1 cosh" − sinh" =1

1 + tan" = sec " 1 − tanh" = sech"

cot " + 1 = "

coth" − 1 = ℎ"

Other identities

1) sinh> ± D? = sinh cosh D ± sinh D cosh

2) cosh> ± D? = cosh cosh D ∓ sinh sinh D

3) sinh 2 = 2 sinh sinh D

4) cosh 2 = cosh" − sinh"

Also cosh 2 = 2 cosh" − 1

And cosh 2 = 1 + 2 sinh"

Example

1) Solve the equation 6 sinh" − 7 cosh + 1 = 0

Solution

cosh" − sinh" =1
We use the identity

And transpose to get

sinh" = cosh" − 1

Substituting this into the given equation, we get

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

6>cosh" − 1? − 7 cosh + 1 = 0

6 cosh" − 6 − 7 cosh + 1 = 0

6 cosh" − 7 cosh − 5 = 0

We set D = cosh thus the equation becomes

6D " − 7D − 5 = 0

Which a quadratic equation thus we use the quadratic formula to solve

−G ± √G " − 48
D= , Bℎ 8 = 6, G = −7 89: = −5
28
Substituting, we get

7 ± √49 + 120
D=
12

D = − " >A9\8]A: A9 D = cosh BℎA ℎ A ^ ACA\ ?

#
Thus either

D=
,
_

But D = cosh

Therefore = cosh #
D

When

5 5
D= Cℎ 9 = cosh #
< = = ±1.09861
3 3

2) Solve the equation 7 cosh 2 − sinh = 10

3) Solve the equations

a) 3 cosh 2 − 4 sinh = 4

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

b) cosh 2 + 2 cosh =3

solution

we substitute

cosh 2 = 2 cosh" − 1

Thus we get

2 ℎ" − 1 + 2 ℎ =3

2 ℎ" + 2 ℎ −4=0

Dividing both sides by 2, we get

ℎ" + ℎ −2=0

Let D = ℎ

Then the equation becomes

D" + D − 2 = 0

Whose roots are

−1 ± √1 + 8
D=
2
−1 ± 3
D=
2

D= = 1 Or
#$_
"

−1 − 3
D= = −2
2
But D = ℎ which is positive thus

D=1

Thus we have

1= ℎ

From which

= ℎ # >1? = 0
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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Functions

Consider the relation D = 4 + 5 then for each choice of

compute the corresponding value of D
that we make, we can

e.g. 1) when = 2, D = 4>3? + 5 = 17

2) When = 7, D = 4>7? + 5 = 33

and D is known as a function. The

and D are known as variables.
Such a relationship between the two quantities
quantities

corresponding value of D .
In this function, we first assign a value to the variable and then compute the

We therefore call the independent variable or the input variable while D is known as
the dependent or the output variable.

We say that D is a function of and write in notations D = E> ?. Where E in this case
defines the relationship between the two variables.

function E and the set of all possible values of D is known as the Co-
The set of all values that the variable may assume is known as the Domain of the

domain D of the function E then the set of all values of D is known as the Range of the
Co-Domain. Given the

function E.

Example.

In general

i) The Domain (D) of a function is the set of all possible inputs of the function

ii) The Range (R) is the set of all outputs of the function.

iii) The Co-Domain is the set of all possible outputs of the function

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

The function may in general be viewed as a mapping from the set of inputs to the set of
outputs and we write in notations

E: a → c

eg. The above function can be written as E: →4 +5

thus we have

E: 1 → 4>1? + 5 = 9

E: 2 → 13

Example

1) let d = e1, 2, 4, 6f and define E: d → ℝ by E> ? = "

− 3. Find the range of E

Composite functions

Let A, B, and C be three sets and let E: d → h and @: h → i be two functions.

Let ℎ: d → i be another function then the function ℎ is said to be a composite of the

functions E 89: @. We write in notations

ℎ =E∘@

This function is defined as

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

E ∘ @> ? = Ek@> ?l

eg. Consider the functions ℎ> ? = 2 "

− 12 + 17, E> ? = 2 "
− 1 89: @> ? = −3

Then taking any input say =5

We have

ℎ>5? = 2>5" ? − 12>5? + 17 = 50 − 60 + 17 = 7

if we now compute E ∘ @>5? we have

@>5? = 5 − 3 = 2

Ek@>5?l = E>2? = 2>2" ? − 1 = 7

Thus we have

E ∘ @>5? = 7 = ℎ>5?

Therefore function ℎ is a composite of E 89: @

Infact

E ∘ @ = E>@? = 2@" − 1

E ∘ @ = 2> − 3?" − 1

E ∘ @ = 2> "
− 6 + 9? − 1

E∘@=2 "
− 12 + 17 = ℎ> ?

Example: Given the functions E> ? = 3 + 2 and @> ? = 4 − 7, find

i) E∘@

ii) @∘E

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Inverse Functions

Definition 1: A function E: d → h is said to be bijective if corresponding to each input

there exist one and only one output and conversely corresponding to each
output, there exist one and only one input.

Definition 2: Let E: d → h be a bijective function then there exist another function

@: h → d such that E ∘ @ = @ ∘ E = .

The function @ is known as the inverse of the function E and is denoted by E #

Example

1) Given the function E> ? = 5 − 2, find E #> ?

Solution

We first transpose to make the subject

E =5 +2

1
= >E − 2?
5
We now replace E GD E #
and interchange the variables.

Thus we have

#>
1
E ? = > − 2?
5

2) Given the functions E> ? = 2 − 1 and @> ? = 3 + 2. Find

#> ?
i) E

ii) @ #> ?

iii) E ∘ @> ?

iv) > E ∘ @? # > ?

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Limit of a Function

The limit of a function E> ? as approaches

attains when is very close to the value .
is the ultimate value that the function

We write in notations

]AF >E ?
=]
→
Example

]AF > "

− 1?
→3
1) Find

]AF
R S
"
→1 $_
2) Find

]AF
R S
& , $7
→2 "
3) Find

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

]AF
R S
#
→1 #
4) Find

Solution

If we substitute = 1, we get

]AF 1 1 1
< == =
→ 1 −1 1−1 0
# #
+ +
We note however that cannot be determined, i.e is undefined

To determine this limit, we use the method of investigation

We investigate the behaviour of the function E> ? =

#
#
as approaches 1.

We note that may approach 1 from two directions

i) From values that are less than 1

ii) From values that are greater than 1
When x approaches 1 from values that are less than 1, the we say that x is approaching 1
from below and write in notations

]AF 1
< =
→1 −1
This limit value is also known as the left-hand limit because is approaching 1 from the
left-hand side.

If on the other hand approaches 1 from the values that a re greater than 1, the we say
that is approaching 1 from above and call the limit the right-hand limit. This limit value
is usually denoted by

]AF 1
$< =
→1 −1

Case 1: the left-

left-hand limit
limit

We start with any value of which is less than 1 and then increase this value towards 1

In this case we pick any value say = 0 and compute the corresponding value of

1
E> ? =
−1

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

= 0, E>0? = = = −1
# #
+ # #
When

We now increase the value of say to = 0.3

= 1.3, E>1.3? = +._ = = −1.4286

# #
# +.6
When

We now repeat this process until we move very close to = 1. The results are shown in
the table below.

x 0 0.3 0.7 0.9 0.95 0.99 0.999 0.9999 0.99999 0.9999999

f(x) -1 -1.4286 -3.333 -10 -20 -100 -1000 -10000 -100000 -10000000

1 the E> ? becomes very large in magnitude. We therefore say that the function
We note from the above results that the values are all negative and as comes closer to

approaches negative infinity as approaches 1 and write in notations

]AF 1
< = = −∞
→1 −1

Case 2: The right-

right-hand limit

move towards 1. We choose = 2 as a starting point and summarize the results in the
We now repeat the process above but start with a value which is greater than 1 then

table below

x 2 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.01 1.001 1.00001 1.000001

f(x) 1 1.4286 2 3.3 5 10 100 1000 100000 1000000

We note that the results in this case are all positive and the value of E> ? becomes very
large as comes closer and closer to 1. We say that the limit approaches and write

]AF 1
$< ==∞
→1 −1

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

2
-2 -1 1 2 3 4

-2

-4

-6

-8

]AF #
R S
→∞
5) Find

Solution
10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

]AF 1
< ==0
→∞

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

]AF
R & $) S
" ,
→∞
6) Find

Solution

To evaluate this limit, we divide each term in the numerator and the denominator by the
highest power of in the denominator.

2 5
]AF 2 −5 ]AF " − "
< == m n
→∞ "+4 →∞ " 4
"+ "

2 5
]AF 2 −5 ]AF − " 0−0
< " == m n= =0
→∞ +4 →∞ 1+4 1+0

]AF "
R S
_
→∞ _ $(
7) Find

Solution
We divide each term in both the numerator and denominator by
2 3
2 −3 −
]AF < = = ]AF m n
→o 3 + 8 →o 3 p +8p

3
2 −3 2− 2−0 2
]AF < = = ]AF m n= =
→o 3 + 8 8 3 + 0 3
3+
→o

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Let E> ?89: @> ? be two functions then the following properties hold
Properties of Limits

]AFkE> ? ± @> ?l = ]AFkE> ?l ± ]AFk@> ?l

→q →q →q
1)

]AFkE> ? ⋅ @> ?l = ]AFE> ? ⋅ ]AFk@> ?l

→q →q →q
2)

tuvkr> ?l
]AF Rs> ?S = tuv
r> ? ;→w
→q ks> ?l
3)
;→w

y
]AFxkE> ?l z = {]AFkE> ?l|
y
→q →q
4)

]AFk}E> ?l = }]AFkE> ?l where } is a constant

→q →q
5)

If ^> ? = 8+ + 8# + 8" "

+ 8_ _
+ ⋯ + 8y y
then ]AFk^> ?l = ^> ? ie. The limit
→q
6)

of a polynomial of any degree 9 can be obtained by substitution.

if c> ? = is a rational function where ^> ?89: •> ? are two polynomials then
•> ?
€> ?
7)

]AFkc> ?l can be obtained by substituting = provided that •> ? ≠ 0

→q

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Continuity of a Function

]AF >E>
A function E> ? is said to be continuous at a point = ?? exists and
→
if the

]AF ]AF
kE> ?l = kE> ?l = E> ?
→ → $

A point where the function fails to be continuous is said to be a point of discontinuity.

Example.

Consider the function E> ? =

#
#
1)

the at = 1 we have

]AF
kE> ?l = −∞
→1

And

]AF
kE> ?l = ∞
→ 1$

Thus we note that the left hand limit is not equal to the right hand limit

]AF ]AF
ie.
kE> ?l ≠ kE> ?l
→1 → 1$

Therefore, the function E> ? = =1

#
#
is not continuous at

2) Consider the function E> ? is defined by

2 +4 −2 ≤ <1
E> ? = ƒ
+1 1≤ <5

The domain of this function is the set [−2, 5]

At =1

]AF ]AF >2

kE> ?l = + 4? = 2>1? + 4 = 6
→1 →1

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

]AF ]AF >

kE> ?l = + 1? = 1 + 1 = 2
→ 1$ →1

Thus we note that

]AF ]AF
kE> ?l ≠ kE> ?l
→1 → 1$

And therefore, the point = 1 is a point of discontinuity of this function.

We now plot the graph of this function.

We note that in the interval −2 ≤ < 1, the function is defined by E> ? = 2 + 4 thus
we can tabulate the function as follows

x -2 -1.8 -1.6 -1.4 -1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
f(x)=2x+4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4 4.4 4.8 5.2 5.6 6

However, the value of is strictly less than 1 and therefore E> ? only approaches 6 as
approaches 1.

Similarly, in the interval 1 ≤ < 5, the function is defined by E> ? = + 1 and can be
tabulated as follows

x 1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3 3.4 3.8 4.2 4.6 5

f(x)=x+1 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4 4.4 4.8 5.2 5.6 6

We now plot theses values on the same axis

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Consider the function E> ? =

‡ (
"
3)

≠2
Solution

At = 2
We note that the domain of this function is the set

_
−8
]AFkE> ?l = ]AF Y Z
→" →" −2
> " + 2 + 4?> − 2?
]AFkE> ?l = ]AF ˆ ‰
→" →" −2
]AFkE> ?l = ]AF> " + 2 + 4? = 12
→" →"

We now define another function @> ? such that

_
−8
@> ? = ƒ − 2 , ≠2
12, =2
We observe that ]AFk@> ?l = 12 89: @>2? = 12 thus @> ?is continuous at all points. The
→"
function @> ? is said to be a continuous extension of E> ? at = 2.

4) Show that the function E> ? = = 3 hence

‡ _ & $, #,
_
has a continuous extension at
find this continuous extension.

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

5) Find the continuous extension of the function E> ? = =1

‡ #
& #
at

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

6) Plot the graph of the function

+2
−1 ≤ < 1
E> ? = ƒ "
1≤ <2
2 −3 2≤ <3

7) Plot the graph of the function

3 +2 0≤ ≤3
E> ? = Š
−1 3< ≤5

Find ]AF { |
‹uy
→+
8)

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

5) Determine whether the function defined below is continuous at =3

_
− 27
≠3
E> ? = Œ −3

27 =3

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Differential Calculus

Derivative of a function

The derivative of a function E> ? is another function E • > ? defined by

E> + • ? − E> ?
E • > ? = ]AF ˆ ‰
Ž →+ •

Provided that the limit exists

Whenever this limit exists, then we say that the function E> ? is differentiable or has a
derivative.

When D = E> ? then the derivative of D with respect to the variable

= E • > ? and is also known as the differential coefficient.
is denoted by
•P
•

Example

1) Use first principles to find the derivative of the function E> ? = 2 + 5

Solution

E> ? = 2 + 5

Replacing BACℎ + • , we get

E> + • ? = 2> + • ? + 5 = 2 + 2• + 5

But E>• ? = ]AF { |

r> $Ž ? r> ?
Ž →+ Ž

2 + 2• + 5 − >2 + 5?
E • > ? = ]AF ˆ ‰
Ž →+ •

2•
E • > ? = ]AF ‘ ’ = ]AF >2? = 2
Ž →+ • Ž →+

2) Use first principles to find the derivative of the function E> ? = "
+3

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Use first principles to find the derivative of the function E> ? =

_
$#
3)

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

4) Use first principles to find the derivative of the function E> ? = sin

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

5) Use first principles to find the derivative of the function E> ? = √

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Rules of Differentiation

If D = 8 = 89 where 8 89: 9 are constants

y •P y #
•
1) then

D = A9>8 ? then =8 >8 ?

•P
•
2)

D= >8 ? then = − 8 A9>8 ?

•P
•
3)

D= =8
“ •P “
•
4) then

D = ]9> ? then =
•P #
•
5)

6) Differentiation is a linear operator

i.e. • k8E> ? ± G@> ?l = 8 • kE> ?l ± G • k@> ?l where 8 and G are constants

• • •

7) The derivative of a constant is zero

i.e. if D = } where } is a constant, then =0

•P
•

Example

1) Find the derivative of the functions below

a) D=5 7

b) D= >3 ?

c) D = A9>2 ?

d) D= _
+ 4 ]9

Find the coordinates of the point on the curve D = 3 √ "

‡
2) where the gradient is 1.

Find the gradient of the curve D = " at the point R4, )S

_ _
√
3)

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

DIFFERENTIATION OF A PRODUCT AND QUOTIENTS

1) Differentiation of a product – The Product Rule

Let D = ” ⋅ \ where ” 89: \ are functions of ,

Then

:D :\ :”
=” +\
: : :
Which is known as the product rule

Example

given D = > + 3? >2 ?

•P "
•
1) Find

2) Find the derivative of the functionD = >3 )

+ 4 ?> _
− 8?

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

given D = 7√ + ]9>4 ?
•P
•
3) Find

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

DIFFERENTIATION OF A QUOTIENT – THE QUOTIENT RULE

Let D =
•
–
then

:” :\
:D \ : − ” :
=
: \"
This differentiation method is known as the quotient rule

Example

Find the derivative of the function D = " q—‹ )

" ‡ ,
1)

Example 2

given that D =
•P & )
• ‡ "
Find

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Chain Rule

We consider a function of the form D = Ek@> ?l

This method is used when we require to differentiate a composite function

To find the derivative, we first set ” = @> ?

Thus D = E>”?

We now differentiate D with respect to ” and ” with respect to

Thus we get

:D :D :”
= ⋅
: :” :
This differentiation method is known as the chain rule

Example 1

given that D = > − 3?)

•P "
•
Find

Solution

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Example 2

Find the derivative of the function D = cos>3 + 5?

Solution

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Logarithmic Differentiation

Laws of Logarithms Applied to Functions

Logarithms may be applied to change problems involving products to additions or

quotients to differences.

We consider the three laws of logarithms and apply them to functions involving
quotients, products and powers.

Let E> ? 89: @> ? be two functions and 9 be a constant, then

1) ln Rs> ?S = ln E> ? − ln @> ?

r> ?

2) lnkE> ? ⋅ @> ?l = ln E> ? + ln @> ?

3) lnkE> ?l = 9 ⋅ ]9 E> ?
y

Example

1) Consider the function D =

2˜X
‡$

Taking logarithms on both sides, we get

sin
ln D = ln < _+
=

ln D = ln>sin ? − ln> _
+ ?

2) Consider the function D = >3 "

− 4? cos 2

Taking logarithms on both sides, we get

ln D = lnk>3 "
− 4? 2 l

ln D = ln>3 "
− 4? + ln>cos 2 ?

Differentiation by Use of Logarithms

Example 1

Prove that • lnkE> ?l = r> kE> ?l

• # •
?•

Proof

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Let D = lnkE> ?l

And let ” = E> ?

Then D = ln ”

Differentiating D with respect to ”, we get

:D 1
=
:” ”
Differentiating ” with respect to , we get

:” :
= E> ?
: :
Applying the chain rule, we have

:D :D :”
= ⋅
: :” :
:D 1 :
= ⋅ E> ?
: ” :
or

: 1 :
lnkE> ?l = kE> ?l
: E> ? :

Since D = lnkE> ?l and ” = E> ?

Example 2

given the function D = > − 4 ? cos

•P "
•
Find

Solution

Taking logarithms on both sides we have

ln D = lnk> "
− 4 ? cos l

ln D = ln> "
− 4 ? + ln cos

Differentiating both sides with respect to , we get

d : d
ln D = ln> "
−4 ?+ ln cos
dx : dx
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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

From example 1 above, we have

: 1 :D
ln D =
: D:

: 1 : 1 2 −4
ln> "
−4 ?= > "
−4 ?= >2 − 4? =
: "−4 : "−4 "−4

: 1 : sin
ln cos = cos =− = − tan
: cos : cos
Substituting back, we get

1 :D 2 −4
= " − tan
D: −4

Multiplying both sides with respect to D yields

:D 2 −4
= D< " − tan =
: −4

Example 3

Differentiate the function D = 012‡ with respect to

2˜X

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Example 4

given the function D = 3

•P
•
Find

Solution

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Example 5

Differentiate the function D = sec

Solution

1
D = sec =
cos
Taking logarithms

1
ln D = ln < =
cos
ln D = ln 1 − ln cos

ln D = − ln cos since ln 1 = 0

Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get

: :
ln D = − ln cos
: :
1 :D 1 :
=− cos
D: cos :

1 :D 1 sin
=− >− sin ? = = tan
D: cos cos

Multiplying both sides with y, we get

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

:D
= D tan = sec tan
:
Since D = sec

Differentiation of Hyperbolic Functions

Example 1

given the function D = cosh

•P
•
Find

Example 2

Find the derivative of the function D = sinh

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Example 3

Find the derivative of the function D = tanh

Solution

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Differentiation of Inverse Circular and Hyperbolic Functions

We consider an inverse circular function say D = tan #

To differentiate such a function, we proceed as follows

i) Transpose to make , the subject

Thus = tan D

ii) Differentiate with respect to D

= sec " D
•
•P

iii) Choose an appropriate identity and express the right hand side as a function of

in this case we consider the trigonometric identity

sec " D = 1 + tan" D

Where tan D =

Thus sec " D = 1 + "

Substituting back, we get

:
= 1+ "
:D

iv) Take the reciprocal on both sides

:D 1
=
: 1+ "

Identities

Trigonometric Hyperbolic

cos " D + sin" D = 1 cosh" D − sinh" D = 1

sec " D = 1 + tan" D sech" D = 1 − tanh" D

"
D = 1 + cot " D ℎ" D = 1 − coth" D

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Example 1

given D = sin R S
•P #
• "
Find

Solution
Transposing

= sin D
2
= 2 sin D

Differentiating both sides with respect to y, we get

:
= 2 cos D
:D

Using the identity

cos " D + sin" D = 1

We have

cos D = ›1 − sin" D = √1 − " since = sin D

Substituting back, we get

:
= 2›1 − "
:D

From which

:D 1
=
: √1 − "

Differentiate the function D = cosh R_ S

Example 2
#

Solution

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Consider the function D = ) + 3 " − 2

Higher Order Derivatives

Differentiating D with respect to we get

:D
=4 _+6 −2
:

= 4 _ + 6 − 2 is a function of . We can therefore differentiate this function again

•P
Which is known as the first order derivative. We note that the derivative
•

: :D :
with respect to , thus we have
< == >4 _ + 6 − 2?
: : :

:"D
Or
= 12 " + 6
: "
We call & the second order derivative of D with respect to and is usually obtained by
•& P
•
differentiating D twice with respect to .
Similarly differentiating the second order derivative with respect to we get the third

:_D
order derivative given by
= 24
: _
In general if D = E> ? and 9 is a positive integer then • & is known as the 9•ž order
•œ P

derivative and is obtained by differentiating D, 9 − CAF with respect to .

Given the function D = _

+ cos 2 , find the second order derivative
Example 1

:D
Solution
= 3 " − 2 sin 2
:
:"D
= 6 − 4 cos 2
: "
Example 2

Given that D = 2 "

+ , find the first and second order derivatives hence prove that
"• P
−2 + 2D = 0
& •P
• & •

D=2 "+
Proof

:D
=4 +1
:
:"D
=4
: "

Substituting these values, we have

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

:"D :D
"
−2 + 2D = " >4? − 2 >4 + 1? + 2>2 " + ?
: " :
: D
"
:D
"
−2 + 2D = 4 " − 8 " − 2 + 4 " + 2 = 0
: " :

Given that D =
2˜X
Example 3

:"D :D
find the first and second order derivative hence prove that
"
+4 + > " + 2?D = 0
: " :

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Parametric Differentiation

Consider the function

D= "
−4 +3 (1)

if we complete the square on the right-hand side then the function becomes

D = > − 2?" − 1

Letting = C + 2 then the function becomes

D = C" − 2 89: =C+2

Thus the function is broken down into two other functions

D = C" − 2 , =C+2 (2)

Equations (2) are known as the parametric equations for the curve D = "
− 4 + 3 and
the variable C is known as the parameter.

Differentiation in Parameters

Consider a function D = E> ? defined in terms of a parameter say C by parametric

equations

D = E# >C?

= E" >C?
•P
•
To find the derivative we apply the chain rule as follows;

= ו
•P •P ••
• ••
(3)

=
•• #
• Ÿ;
But (4)
Ÿ

Substituting equation (4) into equation (3) yields

=•
•P •P/••
• /••
(5)

Equation (5) is known as the parametric rule

Similarly the second order derivative is given by;

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

ŸT ŸT
•R S •R S
= = ×
•& P Ÿ; Ÿ; ••
• & • •• •
(6)

ŸT
Ÿ< =
Ÿ;
=
•& P Ÿ
• & • /••
or (7)

equation (7) is the parametric rule for the second order derivative.

Example
•P
•
1) Find given the function

D = 3C " − 6C

= 3C + 1

Solution

Applying the parametric rule

=•
•P •P/••
• /••

D = 3C " − 6C , = 6C − 6
•P
••

= 3C + 1 , =3
•
••

Substituting we get;

= = 2C − 2
•P 7• 7
• _

equations below at a point ¢ = £/3

2) Find the first and the second derivatives for the function defined by the parametric

= 3>¢ − sin ¢?

D = 3>1 − cos ¢?

Solution:

= 3>¢ − sin ¢? , = 3 − 3cos ¢

•
•¤

D = 3>1 − cos ¢? , = 3 sin ¢

•P
•¤

Applying parametric rule we get

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

= = = sin ¢/>1 − cos ¢?

•P •P/•¤ _ 2˜X>¤?
• • /•¤ _ _ 012>¤?

When ¢ = £/3

= sin £/3/>1 − cos £/3? = >√3/2? />1 − 1/2? = √3

•P
•

ŸT
Ÿ< = Ÿ
Ÿ;
>>2˜X ¤?/># 012 ¤? ?
= = ٴ
•& P Ÿ¥
• & • /•¤ • /•¤

Ÿ Ÿ
<># 012 ¤? ‹uy¤ 2˜X ¤ ># 012 ¤?=
>>sin ¢?/>1 − cos ¢? ? =
• Ÿ¥ Ÿ¥
•¤ ># 012 ¤?&
Where

= = ># =−
012 ¦ 012& ¤ 2˜X& ¤ >012 ¤ #? #
># 012 ¤?& 012 ¤?& # 012 ¤

= _>#
•& P #
• & 012 ¤?&

When ¢ = £/3

= =− =−
•& P # # )
• & _># 012 §/_?& 4 & _
_R# S
&

3) A ladder 26m long rests on a horizontal ground and leans against a vertical wall.
The foot of the ladder is pulled away from the wall at the rate of 6m\s. How fast is
the top of the ladder sliding down the wall when the foot is 10m away from the
wall?

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

4) A police cruiser, approaching a right-angled intersection from the north, is chasing a

speeding car that has turned the corner and is now moving straight east. When the
cruiser is 0.6 km north of the intersection and the car is 0.8km to the east, the
police determine with radar that the distance between them and the car is
increasing at 20 kph. If the cruiser is moving at 60 kph at the instant of
measurement, what is the speed of the car?

Solution
y

:D :
= −60
s

:C = 20
:C

= + D"
x
" "

:AEE 9CA8CA9@ G Cℎ A: BACℎ ^ CC CB @ C

2 =2 + 2D ••
•‹ • •P
•• ••

From which

: :D
: < −D =
:C :C
=
:C

Where =› " + D " = √0.8" + 0.6" = 1

Substituting we get

: k20 − 0.6 × >−60?l

= = 70 }F/ℎ
:C 0.8
Implicit Differentiation

equation for which the function has not been solved explicitly. e.g. " + D " − 4 = 0 is an
An implicit function is any function whose relation to the variable is given by an

implicit function

To differentiate an implicit function

• Differentiate both sides with respect to

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

• Apply product rule to differentiate any term of the form D

y v

: : y
:D v
> y v?
D = Dv + y
: : :

Apply the chain rule to differentiate any term of the form D v

:D v :D v :D :D
•

= × = FD v # ×
: :D : :
•P
•
• Transpose the resulting equation to make the subject

Example 1

D + − 2D + 5 = 0
•P " _ _
•
Find given the implicit function

Solution

> " _?
D +• > _?
− • >2D? + • >5? = 0
• • • •
•

D_ • > "?
+ >D _ ? + 3 −2• = 0
• " • " •P
•

" • >D _ ? •P
2 D_ + +3 −2• = 0
" •P
•P •

2 D_ + 3 D
" " •P
+3 −2• = 0
" •P
•

On transposing we get;

:D 2 D _ + 3 "
=
: 2 − 3 "D"

D_ − 5 D + = 2D
•P
Example 2
_
Find • given the implicit function

Solution

: :
> D_ − 5 D + _?
= >2D?
: :
: : :D : : :D
D_ > ?+ >D _ ? − 5 − 5D + > _?
=2
: : : : : :
:D _ :D :D :D
D_ + −5 − 5D + 3 "
=2
:D : : :

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

:D :D :D
D_ + 3 D" −5 − 5D + 3 "
=2
: : :
:D
>3 D " − 5 − 2? = 5D − D _ − 3 "
:
:D 5D − D _ − 3 "
=
: 3 D" − 5 − 2

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Tangent and Normal

A tangent to a curve is a straight line touching the curve at one point without cutting
through. A normal on the other hand is a straight line which is perpendicular to the
tangent at the point where the tangent touches the curve

Figure 1:

Consider the curve D = E> ?, then the tangent to this curve at a point > + , D+ ? is given
by;

D = F• + •

where F• = • is the slope of the curve at > + , D+ ? and

•P
•
> ,P ?
is the y intercept of the
tangent. The normal to the curve is given by

D= +
#
v y

Where y is the y intercept.

Example

Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve 2 D " + 4 D − 5D = 0 at a
point >2, 0.5?

Solution

=)
•P "P & )P
• P$) ,

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

At (2, 0.5)

= =−
•P "k+.,& l )>+.,? ,
• )>"?>+.,?$)>"? , #)

Tangent

D = #( +
,
•

At (2, 0.5)

0.5 = ×2+ ⇒ =−
, #
#( • • #(

Thus D = >5 − 1? is the equation of the tangent

#
#(

Normal

D= +
#(
, y

At (2, 0.5)

0.5 = >2? + ⇒ =−
#( 6#
, y y #+

D= >36 − 71? is the equation of the normal.

#
#+
Thus

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Curve sketching

Some General strategies for graphing polynomials

The following steps may be helpful in sketching a general polynomial.

1. Find the intercept on the y-axis.

2. Note the degree of the polynomial. There are four possibilities:

i. If the degree is an even number and the coefficient of the dominant term is
positive, then for large positive and large negative values of x, y will be large and
positive.

ii. If the degree is even and the coefficient of the dominant term is negative, the
value of y will be large and negative for large values of x (both positive and
negative).

iii. If the degree of the polynomial is odd and the coefficient of the dominant term is
positive, then for large positive and large negative values of x, the value of y will
be large positive and large negative respectively.

iv. If the degree of the polynomial is odd and the coefficient of the dominant term is
negative, then for large positive and large negative values of x, the value of y will
be large negative and large positive respectively.

3. Investigate where the curve is increasing and decreasing and whether it has any
stationary points.

4. Find the points of inflection if desired.

5. Find the intercept(s) on the X-axis if it is easy to do so.

Remember you don’t always need all these steps — calculate as much as you need to get
an idea of the shape. If a step is very difficult or laborious, leave it out.

We will illustrate the above ideas with some examples.

Example:

Sketch the graph of D = _

+ + 1.

Solution:

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

1. Find the intercept on the y-axis by putting = 0. This gives D = 1. At least we now
have one point on the graph.

2. The degree is 3. Since the degree of the dominant term ( _ ) is odd and its coefficient

will be large positive and large negative respectively. (Compute values for, say, =
positive, we know that for large positive and large negative values of x, the value of y

100 89: − 100.)

So, from what we’ve learnt so far, the curve must look something like Figure 2.

Figure 2:

3. We now find the turning point for this curve. Recall that the stationary points occur
where the derivative is zero.

=3 + 1 which is positive for all values of

•P "
•
thus the curve has no turning points.
We however note that the second derivative

=6 = 0 thus the curve has an inflexion point at =0

•& P
• &
which is zero at

We therefore complete the graph as in the figure below

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

8.75

y ( x) 2.5

2 1 0 1 2
3.75

10

Figure 3: Graph of D = _
+ +1

Example 2:

Sketch the graph of D = )

−2 "
+ 7.

Solution:

1. The D intercept is readily found to be (0,7).

2. If is large positive then y is large positive. If is large negative then D is large

positive. Notice that the curve will be symmetrical about the D- axis because appears
only as even powers. That is, E> ? = E>− ?. This symmetry also implies, in this case,
that the curve is horizontal at (0,7). Otherwise there would have to be a sharp point
(called a cusp) there, and polynomials don’t have cusps.

3. We now find the turning points

=4 −4
•P _
•

8C C8CA 98 D ^ A9C> ? • = 0 thus

•P

4 > "
− 1? = 0

Whose roots are = 0 89: = ±1

Thus the turning points are (0,7), (1, 6) and (-1, 6)

The second derivative is given by

= 12 −4
•& P "
• &
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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

= 0, = −4 thus (0, 7) is a local maximum and at = ±1 , = 8 Cℎ”

•& P •& P
• & • &
At the
points (1, 6) and (-1, 6) are local minimum points. We therefore sketch the curve as
below

15

12.5

y ( x) 10

7.5

5
2 1 0 1 2
x

Figure 4: Graph of D = )
−2 "
+7

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Differentiation and Continuity

Continuity

A function D = E> ? is continuous at each point where it is differentiable.

L’Hopital’s Rule
r> ?
s> ?
Consider the quotient

]AF ]AF
kE> ?l = 0 89: k@> ?l = 0
→8 →8
Suppose that

Then

]AF E> ? 0
Y Z=
→ 8 @> ? 0

Which is indeterminate

]AF −4 +3 0
eg
"
Y Z=
→ 3 ln> − 2? 0

To evaluate such a limit, we apply the L’Hopitals rule which states that

]AF E> ? 0
Let

Y Z= G A9: C FA98C
→ 8 @> ? 0

:
then

]AF E> ? ]AF : E> ? ]AF E′> ?

Y Z= m n= Y Z
→ 8 @> ? →8 : → 8 @′> ?
@> ?
:
Example 1

]AF
R ªX> S
& ) $_
→3 "?
Evaluate

Solution

]AF
"
−4 +3 3" − 4>3? + 3 0
Y Z= =
→ 3 ln> − 2? ln>3 − 2? 0

Which is indeterminate

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

E> ? = "
−4 +2

E •> ? = 2 − 4

@> ? = ln> − 2?

1
@• > ? =
−2
Applying the L’Hopitals rule therefore we get

]AF
"
−4 +3 ]AF 2 − 4 2>3? − 4 2
Y Z= m n= = =2
→ 3 ln> − 2? →3 1 1 1
−2 3−2
Example 2

]AF
R S
& 2˜X _
→0 & $)
Evaluate

Solution

]AF
"
− sin 3 0 − sin 0 0
Y Z= =
→0 "+4 0 0

Which is indeterminate, we therefore apply the L’Hopitals’ rule

: "
]AF − sin 3 ]AF : > − sin 3 ?
"
Y Z= m n
→0 "+4 →0 : "
> +4 ?
:

]AF
"
− sin 3 ]AF 2 − 3 cos 3
Y Z= < =
→0 "+4 →0 2 +4

]AF
"
− sin 3 2>0? − 3 cos 0 3
Y Z= =−
→0 "+4 2>0? + 4 4

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Maximum and Minimum Values

Consider the function D = E> ? shown in the figure below

As one moves along the curve from point A to point B, the value of D decreases as
increases but as one moves from point B to point C, D increases with increasing . The
point B is therefore a transition point between the region where D decreases with
increasing and the region where D increases with increasing . Such a point is known
as a stationary point of the function. For the above function there are two stationary
points ie. Point B and C.

At point B, D attains the minimum value and is therefore referred to as a relative or local
minimum while the point C is termed a local or relative maximum as D attains a
maximum value.

In general a function D = E> ? is said to have a local maximum at a point = 8 if and

only if E> ? ≤ E>8? for all values of in some open interval containing the point = 8

Similarly, a function D = E> ? is said to have a local minimum at a point = 8 if and

only if E> ? « E>8? for all values of in some open interval containing the point = 8

We now draw tangent lines at points B and C

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

We note that the two tangents are parallel to the − 8 A and therefore the rate of
change of D per unit chage in is zero at stationary points.

=0
•P
•
Thus at stationery point(s),

Thus in general, if = 8 is a stationary point of the function D = E> ? then

:D
| = E • >8? = 0
: -“

Example

Find the stationary points of the function D = _

−3 +2

Solution

:D
=3 "
−3
:
:D
8C C8CA 9 D ^ A9C , = 0 Cℎ”
:
3 "
−3=0

Or "
=1

and = ±1

thus the function has two stationary points = 1 89: = −1

Determining the Nature of the Stationary Points

Consider the function D = E> ? shown in the diagram below

The point B is a local minimum.

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Let S denote the slope of he curve D = E> ? at any point. Then between point A and B
D decreases as increases thus the slope S is negative ie. ® = −\ . At point B, ® = 0 and
between point B and C, D increases as increases thus the slope S of the curve is positive
ie. ® = +\ .

Thus as one passes through the minimum point the slope of the curve from negative to
Zero then to positive value.

By convention, this is moving in the positive sense (direction) thus we say that the rate of
change of the slope S as one passes through the minimum point is positive

ie. • = +\
•¯

but ® = •
•P

=
•¯ •& P
• • &
thus

hence the necessary condition that a stationary point be a local minimum is that

= +\ at that point.
•& P
• &

Using a similar argument, we can infer that a stationary point is a local maximum if

= −\ at that point.
•& P
• &

= 0 then the stationary point is known as the inflexion point

•& P
• &
If on the other hand

Example 1

Find and classify the stationary points of the function D = _

−3 +2

Solution

:D
=3 "
−3
:
:D
8C C8CA 98 D ^ A9C , = 0 Cℎ”
:
3 "
−3=0
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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Or "
=1

and = ±1

thus the function has two stationary points = 1 89: = −1

to classify the stationary points, we find the second order derivative

:"D :
= >3 "
− 3? = 6
: " :
At =1

:"D
= 6>1? = +6
: "
Thus the function has a local minimum at =1

At = −1

:"D
= 6>−1? = −6
: "
Thus the function has a local maximum at = −1

Example 2

Find and classify the stationary point(s) of the function D = > + 5?

Solution

:D : :
= > + 5? > ?+ > + 5?
: : :
:D
= −> + 5? + = >− − 5 + 1?
:
:D
= >− − 4?
:

=0
•P
•
At stationary point(s),

Thus we have >− − 4? =0

From which = −4

•& P
• &
To classify this stationary point, we find
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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

:"D : :D :
= < = = >− − 4?
: " : : :

:"D : :
= >− − 4? > ?+ >− − 4?
: " : :
:"D
= >− − 4?>− ?+ >−1? = > + 3?
: "
When = −4, we get

:"D
= >−4 + 3? )
=− )
= −\
: "
Thus the function has a local maximum at = −4

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

CLASSICAL OPTIMIZATION

Revenue and Profit Functions

In business, revenue or turnover is the income that a company receives from its normal
business activities ie. the proceeds from the sale of goods and services. It is usually
obtained by multiplying the price at which goods or services are sold by the number of
units sold.

Let ^ denote the price of a commondity and the quantity sold, then the revenue c> ?
generated is given by

c> ? = ^ ⋅

If > ? denotes the cost of producing units then the profit °> ? is given by

^ EAC = \ 9” − C

or

°> ? = c> ? − > ?

This equation represents the decision maker’s objective function. Normally the objective

profit °> ? is a maximum.

of the decision maker is to maximise profit ie. to find the level of output at which the

Example 1

Find the level of output • which maximizes the profit ° given that

° = 5000 + 1200• − •"

Solution

For maximum profit

:°
=0
:•

:°
= 1200 − 2•
:•

Equating to zero and solving

1200 − 2• = 0

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

From which • = 600

= −2
•& ±
•€ &
We observe that

Thus ° is a maximum

Example 2

the product is related to the price ^ by the equation

A company has established through the statistical demand analysis that the demand of

= 1000 − 4^

While the cost of the product is related to the demand of the product by the equation

= 6000 + 50

Determine

a) The price ^ that the company should charge to maximize its profit

b) The total profit that the company will earn from this product

solution

The profit ° is given by

°=c−

Where c = ^ ⋅ is the revenue and

= 6000 + 50

Substituting back, we get

° = ^ ⋅ − >6000 + 50 ?

° = ^ ⋅ − 50 − 6000

But = 1000 − 4^

Substituting back we get

° = ^ ⋅ >1000 − 4^? − 50>1000 − 4^? − 6000

° = 1000^ − 4^" − 50000 + 200^ − 6000

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

° = −4^" + 1200^ − 56000

Differentiating with respect to p, we get

:°
= −8^ + 1200
:^

=0
•±
••
For maximum profit

Thus we solve the equation

−8^ + 1200 = 0

1200
^= = 150
8

= −8 < 0 thus he profit is a maximum

•& ±
••&
We note that

b) The profit ° is given by

° = −4^" + 1200^ − 56000

When ^ = 150, we get

° = −4>150" ? + 1200>150? − 56000

° = 34,000

Example 3

The financial department of a company that manufactures computers has established that
the price and demand functions for the product are as follows

^> ? = 1190 − 36

> ? = 4320 + 146

Where ^ is the price, is the demand and is the cost

Obtain the profit function, hence find the level of output for which the profit is a
maximum.

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Solution

Example 4

A firm has established that the price ^ of a commondity is related to the demand by

^ = 12 − 0.4
the equation

While the cost is given by

= 5 + 4 + 0.6 "

a) Obtain the level of output for which the profit is a maximum.

b) Obtain the level of output for which the sales are maximised

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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

Velocity and Acceleration

Suppose that an object moves in such a way that its position at any time C is .

where = E>C?

Then the derivative of with respect to C represent the time rate of change of the
position of the object which is the instantaneous velocity (\) of the object

Thus

:
\=
:C
The absolute value of the velocity is the speed of the object

The second derivative of can be expressed as

:" : : :\
= < ==
:C " :C :C :C

Thus the second derivative is the time rate of change of the velocity and gives the
instantaneous acceleration (8) of the object.

ie.

:\
8 ] 8CA 9 >8? =
:C
Example

1) The position (x) of a particle at any time C is given by = C _ − 3C " − 5C + 2

a) Find the velocity and acceleration of the particle at any time C

b) Find the time at which the particle will be stationary.

Solution

\=
•
••
a)

\ = 3C " − 6C − 5

:\
8=
:C
8 = 6C − 6
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AMM 103 Calculus 1 AMM 103 Calculus 1

b) when the particle is stationary (ie. Not moving) then its velocity is zero

Thus we solve the equation

:
=0 \=0
:C
or 3C " − 6C − 5 = 0

−G ± √G " − 48
C= Bℎ 8 = 3, G = −6 89: = −5
28

6 ± ›6" − 4 × 3 × >−5?
C=
2×3

6 ± √36 + 60
C=
6

6 ± √96
C=
6

6 + √96
C= = 2.633
6
or

6 − √96
C= = −0.633
6
Since C is time, then C must be positive thus C = 2.633

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