ARI - Ship Simulator

Ship Manoeuvering
Simulator
REFERENCE ONLY
B-1, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016

Tel: +91-11- 41655123, Fax: +91-11-26858331
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Ship Maneuvering Simulator
Index
INDEX
Subject Area
1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 01-21
2. Review of Basic Principles........................................................................ 22-24
3. Standard Maneuvers................................................................................... 25-30
4. Wind and Current Effect........................................................................... 31-42
5. Shallow Water Effect.................................................................................. 43-52
6. Bank Channel & Interaction Effect.......................................................... 53-71
7. Anchoring & SBM....................................................................................... 72-79
8. Planning and Carrying out a Voyage......................................................... 80-92
9. Human Resource Development..................................................................93-94
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B-1, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016. Tel:+91-11-41655123, Fax: +91-11-26858331, e-mail: [email protected]. Visit us at www.ariworld.com
Introduction

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Introduction Page: 2
THE COURSE
The ship handling / maneuvering simulator course is designed to enhance the skill and
knowledge about ship handling.
This course consists of theoretical lessons supplemented by ship handling simulator exercises.
AIM
To reduce the possibility of accidents that might lead to loss of life, damage to property or
environment; by enhancing navigational skills of navigating officers.
Develop & enhance officer’s (Master’s & Chief Officer’s) understanding of how to handle a
vessel in restricted waters and to use the available technical and human resources effectively.
OBJECTIVE
To make the participant familiar with the IMO resolutions regarding information and data
available on board, regarding maneuvering of the vessel.
Make the participant familiar with the contents of chapter V of SOLAS 1974, as amended,
regarding “Safety of Navigation”.
Improve the ship handling abilities of the participants.
Give the participants a thorough understanding of the various forces that affect a vessel.
Find the operational limits of various types of vessels under simulated conditions.
Test and improve maneuvering strategies.
EVALUATION/ASSESSMENT
Continuous assessment and evaluation during the course is carried out to ensure that the
candidate have achieved the desired level of skills.

Introduction
Good ship handling is based on experience. If the basic principles of maneuvering are not
understood and a lesson is not taken from the experience of others, one learns the hard way.
An exact prediction of how the ship will behave in certain circumstances cannot be given. But
if one is aware as to what to expect in a given situation, one can anticipate and be prepared
accordingly.
A ship is under the influence of various forces. The forces acting upon her determine a ship’s
movements. Some of these, are controllable, others are not.
To obtain a required movement of his ship the master must apply the forces under his
control, to control the uncontrollable forces; in such a way that the intended ship movement
is achieved.
If uncontrollable forces are directed against the desired movement and if they act with greater
power than the controllable forces, this movement cannot of course be achieved. It is
important to be able to anticipate such situations, so that a maneuver that is impossible is
identified.
The forces that are under ship handler’s control come from the:
• Engine
• Propeller
• Rudder
• Bow thruster
• Anchor(s)
• Moorings
• Tug
Uncontrollable forces originate from:
• Wind
• Current
• Waves
• Semi-controllable forces are:
Hydrodynamic effects, experienced in channels (especially in shallow water), and
in close-quarter situations in relation to other ships.
The ship handler estimates the effects of the various forces acting upon the ship by observing
the ship’s movements. Should the ship not respond as expected, appropriate alterations are
carried out.
The purpose of this booklet is to support the theoretical side of the course in ship handling
when using a ship simulator. By combining theory with practice, course participants will be

able to obtain experience in handling ships in difficult situations that they would rarely
encounter in real life.
The table below is from the STCW 95 Convention, pages 47, 48, 49 Table A-II/2. They
describe the knowledge, understanding and proficiency, that is required to be held by a person
who is responsible for a ship’s maneuvering. This booklet contains the relevant theory
required by STCW 95.
Competence Knowledge, understanding and Methods for Criteria for
proficiency demonstrating evaluating
competence competence
Maneuver and Maneuver and handle a ship in all Examination and All decisions
handle a ship conditions, including: assessment of concerning berthing
in all 1. Maneuvers when evidence obtained and anchoring are
conditions. approaching pilot stations from one or more based on a proper
and embarking or of the following: assessment of the
disembarking pilots, with due .1 approved in- ship’s maneuvering
regard to weather, tide, head service and engine
reach and stopping distances experience characteristics and the
2. Handling ship in rivers, .2 approved forces to be expected
estuaries and restricted simulator while berthed
waters, having regard to the training, where alongside or lying at
effects of current, wind and appropriate anchor.
restricted water on helm .3 approved While under way, a
response manned scale full assessment is
3. Application of constant rate ship model, made of possible
of turn techniques where effects of shallow and
4. Maneuvering in shallow appropriate restricted waters, ice,
water, including the banks, tidal
reduction in under keel conditions, passing
clearance caused by squat, ships and own ship’s
rolling and pitching bow and stern wave
5. Interaction between passing so that the ship can be
ships and between own ship safely maneuvered
and nearby bank (canal under various
effect) conditions of loading
6. Berthing and unberthing and weather
under various conditions of
wind, tide and current with
and without tugs
7. Ship and tug interaction
8. Use of propulsion and
maneuvering systems.
9. Choice of anchorage;
anchoring with one or two
anchors in limited
anchorages and factors
involved in determining the
length of anchor cable to be
used.

10. Dragging anchor; clearing

fouled anchors.
11. Dry-docking, both with and
without damage.
12. Management and handling of
ships in heavy weather,
including assisting a ship or
aircraft in distress; towing
operations; means of keeping
an unmanageable ship out of
through of the sea, lessening
drift and use of oil.
13. Precautions in manoeuvring
to launch rescue boats or
survival craft in bad weather.
14. Methods of taking on board
survivors from rescue boats
and survival craft.
15. Ability to determine the
manoeuvring and propulsion
characteristics of common
types of ships with special
reference to stopping
distances and turning circles
at various draughts and
speeds.
16. Importance of navigating at
reduced speed to avoid
damage caused by own ship’s
bow wave and stern wave.
17. Practical measures to be
taken when navigating in or
near ice or in conditions of
ice accumulation on board.
18. Use of , and manoeuvring in
and near, traffic separation
schemes and in vessel traffic
service (VTS) areas.

META MANUAL VOLUME-II, 1999, TABLE II/2

Competence No.9: Maneuver and Handle a ship in Examination and All decisions
all conditions assessment of concerning
evidence obtained berthing and
9.1 Maneuvering when approaching a pilot vessel from one or more anchoring are
or station, with due regard to weather, tide, of the following: based on a
head reach and stopping distance: 1. Approved in proper
Preparation of passage plan, contact with the pilot, service assessment of
preparation for picking up the pilot, readiness of experience the ship’s
anchors for letting go, making a lee for the pilot 2. Approved maneuvering
boat, understanding of head reach and stopping simulator and engine
distance of the vessel while picking up pilot. training, where characteristics
9.2 Handling a ship in rivers, estuaries, having appropriate and the forces
regard to the effects of current, wind and 3. Approved to be expected
restricted water on the response to the helm manned scale while berthed
and stopping distance: ship model, alongside or
Shallow water effect, turning radius, increased where lying at anchor
directional stability, slow response by the steering at appropriate
reduced speeds, squatting, effect of wind & current While
on helm response. underway, a full
9.3 Berthing & unberthing under various assessment is
conditions of wind, current & tide, with or made of
without tug assistance: possible effects
Effect of wind, current on handling of the ship of shallow and
while berthing & unberthing with or without tugs, restricted
ship-tug interaction. waters, ice,
9.4 Anchoring distance: banks, tidal
Choice of anchorage, swinging circle, direction & conditions,
strength of current, procedure of anchoring with passing ships
one or two anchors in limited anchorages, factors and own ships
involved in determining the length of anchor cable, bow and stern
dragging anchor, clearing foul hawse / anchor. wave so that
9.5 Lighterage at sea: the ship can be
Ship to ship transfer guide, Lighterage preparations safely
for both vessels, method of separating on maneuvered
completion of transfer operations. under various
9.6 Dry Docking: conditions of
Information required by dry dock authorities, ship loading and
plans, stern trim, critical condition, use of bilge weather
blocks, breast shores, precautions before flooding
the docks.
9.7 Management & Handling ships in Heavy
Weather and the use of oil:
Assisting a ship or aircraft in distress, pooping,
broaching too, precautions to be taken before
onset of heavy weather, towing operations, means
of keeping an unmanageable ship out of trough of
the sea, lessening drift & use of oil.

9.8 Determining maneuvering and propulsion

characteristics of major types of ships, with
special reference to stopping distances &
turning circles at various draughts & speeds:
Sea trial turning circle, turning circle in shallow
water at various speeds, effect of wind on the
behavior of the ship, trial of steering ability.
9.9 Practical measures to be taken when navigating
in ice or conditions of ice accumulation on
board:
Sources of information on ice condition, ice
streams, measures to be taken when navigating in
or near ice, ice accumulation on board.
9.10 The use of, and maneuvering in, traffic
separation schemes
9.11 Importance of navigating at reduced speed to
avoid damage to other ships / structures in
restricted waters caused by own ships bow
wave and stern wave
9.12 Precautions in maneuvering the ship to be able
to launch rescue boats in bad weather

Provision & Display of Maneuvering Information on board ships

IMO Assembly Resolution A.601 (15)
• To display “Wheel House Poster”
• To have “Pilot Card”
• To have Maneuvering Booklet
Recommended information to be included in the “Maneuvering Booklet”.
1. General Description
1.1 Ship’s particulars
2. Maneuvering characteristics in deep water

2.1 Course change performance
2.2 Turning circles in deep water
2.3 Accelerating turn
2.4 Yaw checking tests
2.5 Man overboard and parallel course maneuvers
2.6 Lateral thruster capabilities
3. Stopping and speed control characteristics in deep water

3.1 Stopping ability
3.2 Deceleration performance
3.3 Acceleration performance
4. Maneuvering characteristics in shallow water

4.1 Turning circle in shallow water
4.2 Squat
5. Maneuvering characteristics in wind

5.1 Wind forces and moments
5.2 Course keeping limitations
5.3 Drifting under wind influence
6. Maneuvering characteristics at low speed
7. Additional information
Standards for Ship Manoeurability
IMO Resolution A.751 (18 )& MSC Resolution 137 (76) Annex 6
Applicable to ships of 100 m in length and over, and chemical tankers and gas carriers
regardless of the length.(Not applicable to High Speed Craft)

1. Turning ability
2. initial turning ability
3. yaw checking and course-keeping ability
4. stopping ability
SOLAS 1974 (As amended)
Chapter V “Safety of Navigation”

Regulation – 1 Application
Reg – 10
Ship’s routeing
Reg – 11
Ship reporting systems
Reg – 12
VTS
Reg 14 – Ship’s manning
Reg – 15
Principles relating to : -
Bridge design
Design and
Bridge Procedures
Reg – 19 carrage requirements for shipborne navigature system and requirement
Reg 19 -1
LRIT
Reg – 20
VDR/S-VDR
REg 22 – Navigation bridge visibility
Reg – 26
Stearing gear testing and drill
Reg – 31

Danger messages
Reg -33
Distress message
Reg-34
Safe Navigation and avoidance of dangerous situations
The pivot Point

The pivot point is the point, through which the immediate axis of turn passes and which has
no rate of leeway.
Each example assumes a ship figure (1, 2 and 3) on even keel, in calm conditions and still
water.
Ship stopped
Figure 1 illustrates the situation when the ship is stopped. In this case there are no forces
involved and the ship has a pivot point coincident with its centre of gravity, approximately
amidships.
Making Headway
Figure 2 shows the situation when making headway where two forces now come into play.
The first force is the forward momentum of the ship and second, is the longitudinal resistance
to that forward momentum created by the water ahead of the ship. These two forces must
ultimately strike a balance and the pivot point moves forward as a consequence. As a rough
guide it can be assumed that at a steady speed the pivot point will be approximately 1/4 of the
ship’s length from forward.

Figure: 1 The Position of Pivot Point

Making stern way

The situation is now totally reversed from that which existed when making headway. Figure 3
shows that the momentum of stern way must balance the longitudinal resistance, created by
the barrier of water astern of the ship. The pivot point now moves aft and establishes itself
approximately 1/4 of the ship’s length from the stern. It should also be stressed that other
factors such as acceleration, shape of hull and speed may all affect the position of the pivot
point.
Propulsion machinery
The most common types of propulsion systems are diesel engines and steam turbines. The
following points may be emphasized as being of special importance for ship handling:
Diesel engines, fixed propeller

(a) This combination gives a quick vessel response time when altering RPM. Thus a kick
ahead on the engine may be given, with the purpose of controlling steering at low
speed, without any appreciable change of speed.
(b) Gives high astern power.
(c) In older engines the minimum RPM is rather high. (about 30% of maximum RPM).
Thus it is not possible to give a very weak thrust which might be desirable when
maneuvering close to quay, e.g. with one spring line ashore. In modern types of diesel
engines however RPM, may be regulated to a much lower speed than mentioned
above and the disadvantage stated has accordingly been minimized.
(d) It may be difficult to reverse the engine when the vessel’s speed through the water is
too high.
(e) The number of starts/stops that can be made within a given period may be limited
due to a loss of starting air pressure.
Steam turbines
(a) RPM may be continuously controlled almost zero to maximum RPM.
(b) There is a longer response time when altering RPM. If it is required to give the engine
a kick ahead at low speed to control the steering, then the RPM is altered more slowly
than is the case for diesel engines. Thus there may emerge an undesirable alteration in
the ship’s speed when control of the steering was the only desired outcome. The
interval for alternation of RPM from maximum ahead to crash stop is, however,
approximately the same as for diesel engines.
(c) Low astern power: Maximum effect at full speed stern is 40-50% of maximum effect
at full speed ahead.

Transverse Thrust on the propeller

The force with which the water acts upon the propeller blades does not all act in the
longitudinal direction but also has an athwart-ships component. This is known as transverse
thrust.
Going Ahead
If we look at a ship with one right-handed propeller (i.e. the propeller rotating in a clockwise
direction when going ahead and as viewed from astern) and the rudder on the centre line, the
following situation can be expected:
Figure: 4 Going Ahead

In the initial stages of the ship getting underway, the vessel’s speed is low but the engine (and
therefore the propeller) is at high RPM ahead.
During this period the transverse thrust is directed to starboard and the ship turns to port.
This is due the fact that the pressure from the water is higher on the propeller blades in their
deeper position than in their shallower position, as the water above develops turbulence and
air is sucked in.
As the ship gradually increases the headway the turbulence is reduced and the pressure on the
top blade increases. The thrust directed to starboard decreases and may in some ships be
replaced by a thrust directed to port.
Going astern
If we look at a ship with one right-handed propeller (i.e. the propeller rotating in an anti
clockwise direction when going astern and as viewed from astern) and the rudder on the
centre line the following situation can be expected:
The ship proceeds at low speed and high RPM when going astern.
The transverse thrust in this case is directed to port and the ship will turn to starboard.

The cause of the transverse thrust is the same as the going ahead case, there being higher
pressure on the propeller blades in their deeper position, and the resulting thrust is directed to
port. In addition, the water pressure on the starboard quarter will be higher than on the port
quarter, since the water from the propeller blades is thrown upwards obliquely on the
starboard side and downwards obliquely on the port side.
Figure: 5 & 6 Going Astern

If a ship reduces her way from 5-6 knots to zero when going astern, she will, (with a right-
handed propeller) begin to turn to starboard unless the effects from wind and current are
more powerful and cause a counter force to port.
The rudder has no effect in these conditions.
When going astern at higher speeds no turn to starboard is noticed.
The magnitude of the alteration of course which might be expected during the reduction of
speed astern mentioned, depends on the size of the ship, the relative effect of the engine and
the loaded condition of the ship.
The magnitude of the transverse thrust when going astern is in the order of 10-15% of the
total thrust on the propeller. Hence for a ship with an astern power of 7400 kW the
transverse thrust is of the same magnitude as the thrust from a bow thruster.
Controllable Pitch Propellers (CPP)

CP propellers are most frequently left-handed (i.e. the propeller rotates in an anti-clockwise
direction when looking forward from the stern). There propellers rotate in this direction at all
times and it is the changing angle of the propeller blades which changes thrust from ahead to
astern.
From the figures below it can be seen that the transverse thrust will act in the opposite way
from a right-handed propeller, i.e. a ship with CPP which is not making way through the
water will turn to starboard when manoeuvring.
To use ahead power, a ship with a CP propeller is not restricted to the stepped progression,
through dead slow ahead to full ahead, that has for so long been associated with fixed pitch
propellers. Any speed can be selected, simply by adjusting the combinatory control to the

required setting. It is also possible to set the propeller pitch for extremely low speeds, so that
on those occasions when it is essential to proceed at very slow speeds, the propeller and
rudder are still active and steerage way can be maintained for a lot longer than is usual. This is
particularly advantageous if compared to the many ships with fixed pitch propellers, where
the speed for dead slow ahead is sometimes as high, as five or six knots, due to excessive
engine revolutions.
Figure: 7 Controllable Pitch Propellers (CPP)

When ‘low speed’ or ‘stop’ is demanded, the blades of the CP propeller (Figure 7) are set with
a very fine angle and pitch, to the extent that when they are viewed from astern, they will
appear to open like a fan and the propeller will look rather like a closed disc or wheel. If the
ship’s speed is too high and does not match the propeller speed, the flow of water through it
will be restricted and a great deal of turbulence will develop behind the propeller, this will
have an adverse effect upon the rudder (Figure 7).
If, therefore, the ship’s speed is not reduced slowly and progressively, the rudder will be
shielded and the steering may become erratic or poor.
Whilst it is a disadvantage if the steering is poor, it should not be forgotten that CP propellers
are instantly available for corrective ‘kicks ahead,’ in a virtually unlimited supply, and are not
liable to the restrictions that can be experienced with fixed pitch propellers, such as limited air
supplies for starting the engine or delay whilst the engine is put astern.
Transverse Thrust Effect on CPP ships:

When a controllable pitch (CP) propeller is put astern, it is necessary first to know which way
the propeller is turning when it is viewed from astern. The majority of CP propellers, as has
been said, turn in an anti-clockwise direction as viewed from the stern and they are called left-
handed. It is important, however, when informed that a CP propeller, it should be not

confused with a fixed pitch left-handed ship, because the CP propeller, it should be
remembered, rotates the same way all the time. When the pitch is set for stern power, it is
only the angle of the blades that change and the propeller is ‘still’ rotating in anti-clockwise
direction or left-handed. The effect is now similar to a fixed pitch right-handed propeller
working astern. The flow of water through the propeller is directed up onto the starboard
quarter and may be strong enough to thrust the stern to port, so that the bow is seen to cant
or ‘kick’ to starboard.
It is important to note that the transverse thrust on some ships with a CP propeller may be
weak and unreliable, due to vortices or turbulence around the propeller blades. This is usually
the result of specific design limitations and might, for example, occur when a CP propeller is
designed to operate at slow speeds, with fine pitch settings, but with high shaft revolutions. In
another example, if the pitch is altered from ahead to astern, some of the inner or lower
sections of the blades may be set at rather crude angles and this too can create vortices
around the propeller.
These characteristics can also have a detrimental effect on the maximum stern power
available when compared to a similar ship with a fixed pitch propeller.
It is therefore advisable to exercise some caution when anticipating the effects of stern power
and transverse thrust on some CP propeller ships.
Stopped and Alongside

On some CPP ships, when the control stick is positioned for stop with zero pitch, the
propeller might not be accurately aligned to the same setting and some residual thrust may
still exist, it is still important to remember that even though stop has been requested, a ship
with a CP propeller can unexpectedly creep ahead or astern.
This is very important during the period prior to slipping from a berth, when the engine is
started and the shaft is clutched in. if the ropes are not kept tight, particularly while singling
up, the vessel may start to move along the dockside. It is also noticeable on some ships that
the CP propeller which is constantly running with high revolutions can pump quite a lot of
water up on the quarter and along the ship’s side even with zero pitch set. In the case of a left
handed CP propeller this water will flow along the starboard side. If then, the ship is lying
alongside a solid dockside starboard side to and the ropes are slackened off, this can act like a
tide flowing from astern and push the stern away from the dockside (Figure 8).
It can also make it very difficult to get the stern alongside when berthing, particularly when
coming into a berth stern first, where there has been a need to use stern power as well.

Figure: 8 Stopped and Alongside
Ships with Two Propellers

In ships with two propellers the starboard propeller usually is right-handed, and the port
propeller left-handed. (Figure 9)
Figure: 9 Twin screw, both ahead

When both propellers go ahead or both go astern at the same RPM there is no transverse
thrust. If only one propeller goes ahead while the other is stopped the ship will turn.
If, for example, the port propeller goes ahead and the starboard propeller is stopped the ship
will turn to starboard. This may seem self-evident, but it must be realized that part of the
turning-effect is due to reduced water-pressure on the port quarter, because the water-flow is
produced on this side. This is especially felt if the water has limited room for flowing, e.g. if
the port side is close to the quay. (See Figure 10 and 11).

Figure: 10 Port Propeller ahead Figure: 11 Notice lower level of water at

starboard propeller stopped quay port because of reduced water pressure
on the port quartet.
If the ship is not making way through the water, the port propeller goes ahead and the
starboard propeller goes astern and if the water pressure on both propellers is of the same
magnitude the longitudinal speed will not change and the ship will turn to starboard. This may
also seem self-evident, but there are several effects involved and they are not all obvious. For
this reason we must be aware of them. (Figure 12 and 13).
Figure: 12 Figure: 13

Other effects acting on the vessel:

1. For reasons discussed in this section the greatest thrust will be on the propeller blades
in their deepest position on both propellers. This thrust is directed to port and the
vessel turn to starboard.
2. The water will be pushed upwards on the starboard quarter when the propeller goes
astern and pulled away from the port quarter when the propeller goes ahead. This will
give the greatest water pressure on the starboard quarter and the thrust thus caused is
directed to port and the vessel turns to starboard.
3. The longitudinal forces on both propellers will produce a turning-moment, which will
produce a vessel turning force to starboard.
As can be seen, all three effects cause a turn to starboard. The effects given in 1 and 2 have
the greatest influence, unless the distance between the propellers is large. The turning force
caused by the distance between the propellers increases in direct proportion to the distance
between the two propellers.
Rudder
For design purposes, the desired size of the rudder for a new vessel is expressed in square
meters and lies between 1.4 – 2 per cent of L x d (where “L” is the length of the vessel
between perpendiculars and “d” is the maximum draft). This size is of great importance to
the ship’s maneuverability. The larger the ship, the larger the percentage must be, in order to
attain reasonable manoeuvrability.
For example, if a ship with a displacement of 25.000 tonnes, length 150 m and draught 10 m
has a rudder size of 1.5% of L x d (1,5% of 150x10=22.5 m2) there will be a displacement of
1111 tonnes per m2 rudder area.
If we consider a ship of twice this length (300m) the displacement is increased by eight times
to 200,000 tonnes, while the rudder area is only doubled to 45m2, i.e. 4444 tonnes
displacement per m2 rudder area.
It this case, the steering moment of the rudder is increased by eight times, since the moment
arm is doubled. However, the moment of inertia is increased by thirty two times, thus the rate
of turn which it is possible to attain with the large ship with the same relative rudder area is
considerably smaller. When VLCC’s were first built it quickly became obvious that the size of
the rudder has to be increased and for this type of vessel typically the rudder area is close to
two per cent of L. x d.

When the rudder is put to a certain angle the immediate effect will be as follows:
1. The ship will obtain a rate of turn.
2. The ship will obtain a rate of drift.
3. The longitudinal speed will decrease.
The way the ship turns is determined by the interaction between effects one and two above if
we consider either of them separately we have the movements (as shown in Figure 14a and
14b) where Vg, Vs and Vh are the transverse velocities of the centre of gravity, the bow and
the stern, respectively.
As these movements occur simultaneously, the result is the movement as shown in Figure 14c
Figure: 14
It will be seen that the stern, when turning the rudder to starboard, will yaw to port at a
somewhat grater velocity than the velocity of the bow to starboard. The drift of the centre of
gravity to port corresponds to the rate of bodily port drift component (See Figure 14b). PP,
(the pivot point), is the point, which has no rate of drift and is the point through which the
immediate axis of turn passes. It is always in the forward end of the ship, normally a third of
the ship’s length form the bow. The higher the rate of drift in proportion to the rate of turn,
the further the PP moves forward.
In deep water the rate of drift is higher than in shallow water, as the resistance of water to
drift is greater in shallow water. PP therefore moves further forward in deep water than in
shallow water.
If the vessel is trimmed by the head, the rate of turn will be greater and the PP moves
forward. The opposite is true, if the ship is trimmed by the stern.
If the RPM is reduced during a turn, the rate of drift will decrease more quickly than the rate
of turn and the PP will move aft. The reverse is true, if the RPM is increased.

At the commencement of a turn the rate of turn will increase because of the effect of the
steering moment of the rudder. However, once the ship is turning, the water-flow will act on
the ship’s hull with a force which has a transverse component opposing the steering moment
from the rudder. The total moment of turn is, obtained as a result of the negative effects from
these water-flow forces on those generated from the rudder. When the rate of turn is constant
the total moment is zero, i.e. the moment from the force of water-flow on the hull exactly
neutralizes the steering moment from the rudder.
The longitudinal component of the force on the rudder during the turn will reduce the
longitudinal speed. The magnitude of the reduction of speed for any given alteration of
course depends on the type of the ship and on the speed at the beginning of the turn. For
example, a VLCC turning 360 degrees under full rudder and maximum RPM will experience a
reduction of speed of about two thirds of the maximum speed, i.e. from about 15 knots to
about 5 knots. The longitudinal component of the force on the rudder increases in direct
proportion to the increasing rudder angle, whereas the transverse component, which
determines the magnitude of the steering moment, will not continue increasing. This
component is at a maximum at a rudder angle of about forty degrees, and increasing the
rudder angle beyond this point does not achieve a greater steering moment. This is the reason
why it is normally not possible to turn the rudder to more than about thirty five to forty
degrees. In addition, it should be pointed out that the steering moment is increased by a
relatively small amount, when the rudder angle is changed from about twenty degrees to thirty
five degrees, while the braking effects of the longitudinal forces are increased considerably.
This may be an advantage when it is desired to commence a quick turn at low speed. With full
rudder the speed is not increased very much even if RPM is increased, unlike the situation
with twenty degrees of rudder. See the relation between steering moments and braking power
for various rudder angles in Figure. 15.
Figure: 15
During a ship’s trials various turning tests are carried out, including turning through at least
360 degrees under full rudder with the engine at full ahead.

These trials show that, when the ship’s speed corresponds to the revolution of the propeller
at the commencement of the test, the number of revolutions is maintained during the turn,
the area needed by the ship for the turn will be almost independent of the speed. If the RPM
is reduced during the turn more room is used, and if the RPM is increased during the turn the
ship will use a smaller area.
During the turn, the rate of turn, rate of drift and the longitudinal speed will become
constant, after which the ship will turn in a circle called the turning-circle, (See figure 16). The
diameter of the turning circle in deep water is normally three to four times the ship’s length,
but if the rudder is small it may be larger. The information about this manoeuvring test can be
found on board.
Figure: 16

The maximum forward advance for most ships is of a magnitude of three to four times the
ship’s length and the maximum lateral transfer is three to five times the ship’s length. The
heavier the ship is loaded, the larger the turning-circle will be. If the ship is trimmed by the
head, the turning-circle will be smaller, than when trimmed by the stern. Weather conditions
also influence the manner in which the ship turns.

Introduction

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THE COURSE
The ship handling / maneuvering simulator course is designed to enhance the skill and
knowledge about ship handling.
This course consists of theoretical lessons supplemented by ship handling simulator exercises.
AIM
To reduce the possibility of accidents that might lead to loss of life, damage to property or
environment; by enhancing navigational skills of navigating officers.
Develop & enhance officer’s (Master’s & Chief Officer’s) understanding of how to handle a
vessel in restricted waters and to use the available technical and human resources effectively.
OBJECTIVE
To make the participant familiar with the IMO resolutions regarding information and data
available on board, regarding maneuvering of the vessel.
Make the participant familiar with the contents of chapter V of SOLAS 1974, as amended,
regarding “Safety of Navigation”.
Improve the ship handling abilities of the participants.
Give the participants a thorough understanding of the various forces that affect a vessel.
Find the operational limits of various types of vessels under simulated conditions.
Test and improve maneuvering strategies.
EVALUATION/ASSESSMENT
Continuous assessment and evaluation during the course is carried out to ensure that the
candidate have achieved the desired level of skills.

able to obtain experience in handling ships in difficult situations that they would rarely
encounter in real life.
The table below is from the STCW 95 Convention, pages 47, 48, 49 Table A-II/2. They
describe the knowledge, understanding and proficiency, that is required to be held by a person
who is responsible for a ship’s maneuvering. This booklet contains the relevant theory
required by STCW 95.
Competence Knowledge, understanding and Methods for Criteria for
proficiency demonstrating evaluating
competence competence
Maneuver and Maneuver and handle a ship in all Examination and All decisions
handle a ship conditions, including: assessment of concerning berthing
in all 1. Maneuvers when evidence obtained and anchoring are
conditions. approaching pilot stations from one or more based on a proper
and embarking or of the following: assessment of the
disembarking pilots, with due .1 approved in- ship’s maneuvering
regard to weather, tide, head service and engine
reach and stopping distances experience characteristics and the
2. Handling ship in rivers, .2 approved forces to be expected
estuaries and restricted simulator while berthed
waters, having regard to the training, where alongside or lying at
effects of current, wind and appropriate anchor.
restricted water on helm .3 approved While under way, a
response manned scale full assessment is
3. Application of constant rate ship model, made of possible
of turn techniques where effects of shallow and
4. Maneuvering in shallow appropriate restricted waters, ice,
water, including the banks, tidal
reduction in under keel conditions, passing
clearance caused by squat, ships and own ship’s
rolling and pitching bow and stern wave
5. Interaction between passing so that the ship can be
ships and between own ship safely maneuvered
and nearby bank (canal under various
effect) conditions of loading
6. Berthing and unberthing and weather
under various conditions of
wind, tide and current with
and without tugs
7. Ship and tug interaction
8. Use of propulsion and
maneuvering systems.
9. Choice of anchorage;
anchoring with one or two
anchors in limited
anchorages and factors
involved in determining the
length of anchor cable to be
used.
10. Dragging anchor; clearing

fouled anchors.
11. Dry-docking, both with and
without damage.
12. Management and handling of
ships in heavy weather,
including assisting a ship or
aircraft in distress; towing
operations; means of keeping
an unmanageable ship out of
through of the sea, lessening
drift and use of oil.
13. Precautions in manoeuvring
to launch rescue boats or
survival craft in bad weather.
14. Methods of taking on board
survivors from rescue boats
and survival craft.
15. Ability to determine the
manoeuvring and propulsion
characteristics of common
types of ships with special
reference to stopping
distances and turning circles
at various draughts and
speeds.
16. Importance of navigating at
reduced speed to avoid
damage caused by own ship’s
bow wave and stern wave.
17. Practical measures to be
taken when navigating in or
near ice or in conditions of
ice accumulation on board.
18. Use of , and manoeuvring in
and near, traffic separation
schemes and in vessel traffic
service (VTS) areas.
META MANUAL VOLUME-II, 1999, TABLE II/2

Competence No.9: Maneuver and Handle a ship in Examination and All decisions
all conditions assessment of concerning
evidence obtained berthing and
9.1 Maneuvering when approaching a pilot vessel from one or more anchoring are
or station, with due regard to weather, tide, of the following: based on a
head reach and stopping distance: 1. Approved in proper
Preparation of passage plan, contact with the pilot, service assessment of
preparation for picking up the pilot, readiness of experience the ship’s
anchors for letting go, making a lee for the pilot 2. Approved maneuvering
boat, understanding of head reach and stopping simulator and engine
distance of the vessel while picking up pilot. training, where characteristics
9.2 Handling a ship in rivers, estuaries, having appropriate and the forces
regard to the effects of current, wind and 3. Approved to be expected
restricted water on the response to the helm manned scale while berthed
and stopping distance: ship model, alongside or
Shallow water effect, turning radius, increased where lying at anchor
directional stability, slow response by the steering at appropriate
reduced speeds, squatting, effect of wind & current While
on helm response. underway, a full
9.3 Berthing & unberthing under various assessment is
conditions of wind, current & tide, with or made of
without tug assistance: possible effects
Effect of wind, current on handling of the ship of shallow and
while berthing & unberthing with or without tugs, restricted
ship-tug interaction. waters, ice,
9.4 Anchoring distance: banks, tidal
Choice of anchorage, swinging circle, direction & conditions,
strength of current, procedure of anchoring with passing ships
one or two anchors in limited anchorages, factors and own ships
involved in determining the length of anchor cable, bow and stern
dragging anchor, clearing foul hawse / anchor. wave so that
9.5 Lighterage at sea: the ship can be
Ship to ship transfer guide, Lighterage preparations safely
for both vessels, method of separating on maneuvered
completion of transfer operations. under various
9.6 Dry Docking: conditions of
Information required by dry dock authorities, ship loading and
plans, stern trim, critical condition, use of bilge weather
blocks, breast shores, precautions before flooding
the docks.
9.7 Management & Handling ships in Heavy
Weather and the use of oil:
Assisting a ship or aircraft in distress, pooping,
broaching too, precautions to be taken before
onset of heavy weather, towing operations, means
of keeping an unmanageable ship out of trough of
the sea, lessening drift & use of oil.

9.8 Determining maneuvering and propulsion

characteristics of major types of ships, with
special reference to stopping distances &
turning circles at various draughts & speeds:
Sea trial turning circle, turning circle in shallow
water at various speeds, effect of wind on the
behavior of the ship, trial of steering ability.
9.9 Practical measures to be taken when navigating
in ice or conditions of ice accumulation on
board:
Sources of information on ice condition, ice
streams, measures to be taken when navigating in
or near ice, ice accumulation on board.
9.10 The use of, and maneuvering in, traffic
separation schemes
9.11 Importance of navigating at reduced speed to
avoid damage to other ships / structures in
restricted waters caused by own ships bow
wave and stern wave
9.12 Precautions in maneuvering the ship to be able
to launch rescue boats in bad weather

Provision & Display of Maneuvering Information on board ships

IMO Assembly Resolution A.601 (15)
• To display “Wheel House Poster”
• To have “Pilot Card”
• To have Maneuvering Booklet
Recommended information to be included in the “Maneuvering Booklet”.
1. General Description
1.1 Ship’s particulars
2. Maneuvering characteristics in deep water

2.1 Course change performance
2.2 Turning circles in deep water
2.3 Accelerating turn
2.4 Yaw checking tests
2.5 Man overboard and parallel course maneuvers
2.6 Lateral thruster capabilities
3. Stopping and speed control characteristics in deep water

3.1 Stopping ability
3.2 Deceleration performance
3.3 Acceleration performance
4. Maneuvering characteristics in shallow water

4.1 Turning circle in shallow water
4.2 Squat
5. Maneuvering characteristics in wind

5.1 Wind forces and moments
5.2 Course keeping limitations
5.3 Drifting under wind influence
6. Maneuvering characteristics at low speed
7. Additional information
Standards for Ship Manoeurability
IMO Resolution A.751 (18 )& MSC Resolution 137 (76) Annex 6
Applicable to ships of 100 m in length and over, and chemical tankers and gas carriers
regardless of the length.(Not applicable to High Speed Craft)

1. Turning ability
2. initial turning ability
3. yaw checking and course-keeping ability
4. stopping ability
SOLAS 1974 (As amended)
Chapter V “Safety of Navigation”

Regulation – 1 Application
Reg – 10
Ship’s routeing
Reg – 11
Ship reporting systems
Reg – 12
VTS
Reg 14 – Ship’s manning
Reg – 15
Principles relating to : -
Bridge design
Design and
Bridge Procedures
Reg – 19 carrage requirements for shipborne navigature system and requirement
Reg 19 -1
LRIT
Reg – 20
VDR/S-VDR
REg 22 – Navigation bridge visibility
Reg – 26
Stearing gear testing and drill
Reg – 31

Danger messages
Reg -33
Distress message
Reg-34
Safe Navigation and avoidance of dangerous situations
The pivot Point

The pivot point is the point, through which the immediate axis of turn passes and which has
no rate of leeway.
Each example assumes a ship figure (1, 2 and 3) on even keel, in calm conditions and still
water.
Ship stopped
Figure 1 illustrates the situation when the ship is stopped. In this case there are no forces
involved and the ship has a pivot point coincident with its centre of gravity, approximately
amidships.
Making Headway
Figure 2 shows the situation when making headway where two forces now come into play.
The first force is the forward momentum of the ship and second, is the longitudinal resistance
to that forward momentum created by the water ahead of the ship. These two forces must
ultimately strike a balance and the pivot point moves forward as a consequence. As a rough
guide it can be assumed that at a steady speed the pivot point will be approximately 1/4 of the
ship’s length from forward.


Making stern way

The situation is now totally reversed from that which existed when making headway. Figure 3
shows that the momentum of stern way must balance the longitudinal resistance, created by
the barrier of water astern of the ship. The pivot point now moves aft and establishes itself
approximately 1/4 of the ship’s length from the stern. It should also be stressed that other
factors such as acceleration, shape of hull and speed may all affect the position of the pivot
point.
Propulsion machinery
The most common types of propulsion systems are diesel engines and steam turbines. The
following points may be emphasized as being of special importance for ship handling:
Diesel engines, fixed propeller

(a) This combination gives a quick vessel response time when altering RPM. Thus a kick
ahead on the engine may be given, with the purpose of controlling steering at low
speed, without any appreciable change of speed.
(b) Gives high astern power.
(c) In older engines the minimum RPM is rather high. (about 30% of maximum RPM).
Thus it is not possible to give a very weak thrust which might be desirable when
maneuvering close to quay, e.g. with one spring line ashore. In modern types of diesel
engines however RPM, may be regulated to a much lower speed than mentioned
above and the disadvantage stated has accordingly been minimized.
(d) It may be difficult to reverse the engine when the vessel’s speed through the water is
too high.
(e) The number of starts/stops that can be made within a given period may be limited
due to a loss of starting air pressure.
Steam turbines
(a) RPM may be continuously controlled almost zero to maximum RPM.
(b) There is a longer response time when altering RPM. If it is required to give the engine
a kick ahead at low speed to control the steering, then the RPM is altered more slowly
than is the case for diesel engines. Thus there may emerge an undesirable alteration in
the ship’s speed when control of the steering was the only desired outcome. The
interval for alternation of RPM from maximum ahead to crash stop is, however,
approximately the same as for diesel engines.
(c) Low astern power: Maximum effect at full speed stern is 40-50% of maximum effect
at full speed ahead.

Transverse Thrust on the propeller

The force with which the water acts upon the propeller blades does not all act in the
longitudinal direction but also has an athwart-ships component. This is known as transverse
thrust.
Going Ahead
If we look at a ship with one right-handed propeller (i.e. the propeller rotating in a clockwise
direction when going ahead and as viewed from astern) and the rudder on the centre line, the
following situation can be expected:
Figure: 4 Going Ahead

In the initial stages of the ship getting underway, the vessel’s speed is low but the engine (and
therefore the propeller) is at high RPM ahead.
During this period the transverse thrust is directed to starboard and the ship turns to port.
This is due the fact that the pressure from the water is higher on the propeller blades in their
deeper position than in their shallower position, as the water above develops turbulence and
air is sucked in.
As the ship gradually increases the headway the turbulence is reduced and the pressure on the
top blade increases. The thrust directed to starboard decreases and may in some ships be
replaced by a thrust directed to port.
Going astern
If we look at a ship with one right-handed propeller (i.e. the propeller rotating in an anti
clockwise direction when going astern and as viewed from astern) and the rudder on the
centre line the following situation can be expected:
The ship proceeds at low speed and high RPM when going astern.
The transverse thrust in this case is directed to port and the ship will turn to starboard.

The cause of the transverse thrust is the same as the going ahead case, there being higher
pressure on the propeller blades in their deeper position, and the resulting thrust is directed to
port. In addition, the water pressure on the starboard quarter will be higher than on the port
quarter, since the water from the propeller blades is thrown upwards obliquely on the
starboard side and downwards obliquely on the port side.
Figure: 5 & 6 Going Astern

If a ship reduces her way from 5-6 knots to zero when going astern, she will, (with a right-
handed propeller) begin to turn to starboard unless the effects from wind and current are
more powerful and cause a counter force to port.
The rudder has no effect in these conditions.
When going astern at higher speeds no turn to starboard is noticed.
The magnitude of the alteration of course which might be expected during the reduction of
speed astern mentioned, depends on the size of the ship, the relative effect of the engine and
the loaded condition of the ship.
The magnitude of the transverse thrust when going astern is in the order of 10-15% of the
total thrust on the propeller. Hence for a ship with an astern power of 7400 kW the
transverse thrust is of the same magnitude as the thrust from a bow thruster.
Controllable Pitch Propellers (CPP)

CP propellers are most frequently left-handed (i.e. the propeller rotates in an anti-clockwise
direction when looking forward from the stern). There propellers rotate in this direction at all
times and it is the changing angle of the propeller blades which changes thrust from ahead to
astern.
From the figures below it can be seen that the transverse thrust will act in the opposite way
from a right-handed propeller, i.e. a ship with CPP which is not making way through the
water will turn to starboard when manoeuvring.
To use ahead power, a ship with a CP propeller is not restricted to the stepped progression,
through dead slow ahead to full ahead, that has for so long been associated with fixed pitch
propellers. Any speed can be selected, simply by adjusting the combinatory control to the

required setting. It is also possible to set the propeller pitch for extremely low speeds, so that
on those occasions when it is essential to proceed at very slow speeds, the propeller and
rudder are still active and steerage way can be maintained for a lot longer than is usual. This is
particularly advantageous if compared to the many ships with fixed pitch propellers, where
the speed for dead slow ahead is sometimes as high, as five or six knots, due to excessive
engine revolutions.
Figure: 7 Controllable Pitch Propellers (CPP)

When ‘low speed’ or ‘stop’ is demanded, the blades of the CP propeller (Figure 7) are set with
a very fine angle and pitch, to the extent that when they are viewed from astern, they will
appear to open like a fan and the propeller will look rather like a closed disc or wheel. If the
ship’s speed is too high and does not match the propeller speed, the flow of water through it
will be restricted and a great deal of turbulence will develop behind the propeller, this will
have an adverse effect upon the rudder (Figure 7).
If, therefore, the ship’s speed is not reduced slowly and progressively, the rudder will be
shielded and the steering may become erratic or poor.
Whilst it is a disadvantage if the steering is poor, it should not be forgotten that CP propellers
are instantly available for corrective ‘kicks ahead,’ in a virtually unlimited supply, and are not
liable to the restrictions that can be experienced with fixed pitch propellers, such as limited air
supplies for starting the engine or delay whilst the engine is put astern.
Transverse Thrust Effect on CPP ships:

When a controllable pitch (CP) propeller is put astern, it is necessary first to know which way
the propeller is turning when it is viewed from astern. The majority of CP propellers, as has
been said, turn in an anti-clockwise direction as viewed from the stern and they are called left-
handed. It is important, however, when informed that a CP propeller, it should be not

confused with a fixed pitch left-handed ship, because the CP propeller, it should be
remembered, rotates the same way all the time. When the pitch is set for stern power, it is
only the angle of the blades that change and the propeller is ‘still’ rotating in anti-clockwise
direction or left-handed. The effect is now similar to a fixed pitch right-handed propeller
working astern. The flow of water through the propeller is directed up onto the starboard
quarter and may be strong enough to thrust the stern to port, so that the bow is seen to cant
or ‘kick’ to starboard.
It is important to note that the transverse thrust on some ships with a CP propeller may be
weak and unreliable, due to vortices or turbulence around the propeller blades. This is usually
the result of specific design limitations and might, for example, occur when a CP propeller is
designed to operate at slow speeds, with fine pitch settings, but with high shaft revolutions. In
another example, if the pitch is altered from ahead to astern, some of the inner or lower
sections of the blades may be set at rather crude angles and this too can create vortices
around the propeller.
These characteristics can also have a detrimental effect on the maximum stern power
available when compared to a similar ship with a fixed pitch propeller.
It is therefore advisable to exercise some caution when anticipating the effects of stern power
and transverse thrust on some CP propeller ships.
Stopped and Alongside

On some CPP ships, when the control stick is positioned for stop with zero pitch, the
propeller might not be accurately aligned to the same setting and some residual thrust may
still exist, it is still important to remember that even though stop has been requested, a ship
with a CP propeller can unexpectedly creep ahead or astern.
This is very important during the period prior to slipping from a berth, when the engine is
started and the shaft is clutched in. if the ropes are not kept tight, particularly while singling
up, the vessel may start to move along the dockside. It is also noticeable on some ships that
the CP propeller which is constantly running with high revolutions can pump quite a lot of
water up on the quarter and along the ship’s side even with zero pitch set. In the case of a left
handed CP propeller this water will flow along the starboard side. If then, the ship is lying
alongside a solid dockside starboard side to and the ropes are slackened off, this can act like a
tide flowing from astern and push the stern away from the dockside (Figure 8).
It can also make it very difficult to get the stern alongside when berthing, particularly when
coming into a berth stern first, where there has been a need to use stern power as well.

Figure: 8 Stopped and Alongside
Ships with Two Propellers

In ships with two propellers the starboard propeller usually is right-handed, and the port
propeller left-handed. (Figure 9)
Figure: 9 Twin screw, both ahead

When both propellers go ahead or both go astern at the same RPM there is no transverse
thrust. If only one propeller goes ahead while the other is stopped the ship will turn.
If, for example, the port propeller goes ahead and the starboard propeller is stopped the ship
will turn to starboard. This may seem self-evident, but it must be realized that part of the
turning-effect is due to reduced water-pressure on the port quarter, because the water-flow is
produced on this side. This is especially felt if the water has limited room for flowing, e.g. if
the port side is close to the quay. (See Figure 10 and 11).

Figure: 10 Port Propeller ahead Figure: 11 Notice lower level of water at

starboard propeller stopped quay port because of reduced water pressure
on the port quartet.
If the ship is not making way through the water, the port propeller goes ahead and the
starboard propeller goes astern and if the water pressure on both propellers is of the same
magnitude the longitudinal speed will not change and the ship will turn to starboard. This may
also seem self-evident, but there are several effects involved and they are not all obvious. For
this reason we must be aware of them. (Figure 12 and 13).
Figure: 12 Figure: 13

Other effects acting on the vessel:

1. For reasons discussed in this section the greatest thrust will be on the propeller blades
in their deepest position on both propellers. This thrust is directed to port and the
vessel turn to starboard.
2. The water will be pushed upwards on the starboard quarter when the propeller goes
astern and pulled away from the port quarter when the propeller goes ahead. This will
give the greatest water pressure on the starboard quarter and the thrust thus caused is
directed to port and the vessel turns to starboard.
3. The longitudinal forces on both propellers will produce a turning-moment, which will
produce a vessel turning force to starboard.
As can be seen, all three effects cause a turn to starboard. The effects given in 1 and 2 have
the greatest influence, unless the distance between the propellers is large. The turning force
caused by the distance between the propellers increases in direct proportion to the distance
between the two propellers.
Rudder
For design purposes, the desired size of the rudder for a new vessel is expressed in square
meters and lies between 1.4 – 2 per cent of L x d (where “L” is the length of the vessel
between perpendiculars and “d” is the maximum draft). This size is of great importance to
the ship’s maneuverability. The larger the ship, the larger the percentage must be, in order to
attain reasonable manoeuvrability.
For example, if a ship with a displacement of 25.000 tonnes, length 150 m and draught 10 m
has a rudder size of 1.5% of L x d (1,5% of 150x10=22.5 m2) there will be a displacement of
1111 tonnes per m2 rudder area.
If we consider a ship of twice this length (300m) the displacement is increased by eight times
to 200,000 tonnes, while the rudder area is only doubled to 45m2, i.e. 4444 tonnes
displacement per m2 rudder area.
It this case, the steering moment of the rudder is increased by eight times, since the moment
arm is doubled. However, the moment of inertia is increased by thirty two times, thus the rate
of turn which it is possible to attain with the large ship with the same relative rudder area is
considerably smaller. When VLCC’s were first built it quickly became obvious that the size of
the rudder has to be increased and for this type of vessel typically the rudder area is close to
two per cent of L. x d.

When the rudder is put to a certain angle the immediate effect will be as follows:
1. The ship will obtain a rate of turn.
2. The ship will obtain a rate of drift.
3. The longitudinal speed will decrease.
The way the ship turns is determined by the interaction between effects one and two above if
we consider either of them separately we have the movements (as shown in Figure 14a and
14b) where Vg, Vs and Vh are the transverse velocities of the centre of gravity, the bow and
the stern, respectively.
As these movements occur simultaneously, the result is the movement as shown in Figure 14c
Figure: 14
It will be seen that the stern, when turning the rudder to starboard, will yaw to port at a
somewhat grater velocity than the velocity of the bow to starboard. The drift of the centre of
gravity to port corresponds to the rate of bodily port drift component (See Figure 14b). PP,
(the pivot point), is the point, which has no rate of drift and is the point through which the
immediate axis of turn passes. It is always in the forward end of the ship, normally a third of
the ship’s length form the bow. The higher the rate of drift in proportion to the rate of turn,
the further the PP moves forward.
In deep water the rate of drift is higher than in shallow water, as the resistance of water to
drift is greater in shallow water. PP therefore moves further forward in deep water than in
shallow water.
If the vessel is trimmed by the head, the rate of turn will be greater and the PP moves
forward. The opposite is true, if the ship is trimmed by the stern.
If the RPM is reduced during a turn, the rate of drift will decrease more quickly than the rate
of turn and the PP will move aft. The reverse is true, if the RPM is increased.

At the commencement of a turn the rate of turn will increase because of the effect of the
steering moment of the rudder. However, once the ship is turning, the water-flow will act on
the ship’s hull with a force which has a transverse component opposing the steering moment
from the rudder. The total moment of turn is, obtained as a result of the negative effects from
these water-flow forces on those generated from the rudder. When the rate of turn is constant
the total moment is zero, i.e. the moment from the force of water-flow on the hull exactly
neutralizes the steering moment from the rudder.
The longitudinal component of the force on the rudder during the turn will reduce the
longitudinal speed. The magnitude of the reduction of speed for any given alteration of
course depends on the type of the ship and on the speed at the beginning of the turn. For
example, a VLCC turning 360 degrees under full rudder and maximum RPM will experience a
reduction of speed of about two thirds of the maximum speed, i.e. from about 15 knots to
about 5 knots. The longitudinal component of the force on the rudder increases in direct
proportion to the increasing rudder angle, whereas the transverse component, which
determines the magnitude of the steering moment, will not continue increasing. This
component is at a maximum at a rudder angle of about forty degrees, and increasing the
rudder angle beyond this point does not achieve a greater steering moment. This is the reason
why it is normally not possible to turn the rudder to more than about thirty five to forty
degrees. In addition, it should be pointed out that the steering moment is increased by a
relatively small amount, when the rudder angle is changed from about twenty degrees to thirty
five degrees, while the braking effects of the longitudinal forces are increased considerably.
This may be an advantage when it is desired to commence a quick turn at low speed. With full
rudder the speed is not increased very much even if RPM is increased, unlike the situation
with twenty degrees of rudder. See the relation between steering moments and braking power
for various rudder angles in Figure. 15.
Figure: 15
360 degrees under full rudder with the engine at full ahead.

These trials show that, when the ship’s speed corresponds to the revolution of the propeller
at the commencement of the test, the number of revolutions is maintained during the turn,
the area needed by the ship for the turn will be almost independent of the speed. If the RPM
is reduced during the turn more room is used, and if the RPM is increased during the turn the
ship will use a smaller area.
During the turn, the rate of turn, rate of drift and the longitudinal speed will become
constant, after which the ship will turn in a circle called the turning-circle, (See figure 16). The
diameter of the turning circle in deep water is normally three to four times the ship’s length,
but if the rudder is small it may be larger. The information about this manoeuvring test can be
found on board.
Figure: 16

Review of Basic Principles

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Review of Basic Principles Page: 2
BASIC PRINCIPLES
• The basic principles to be observed in keeping a navigational watch as set out in

STCW 95 regarding:
Watch arrangements
Navigation
Navigational Equipment
Navigational Duties & Responsibilities
Navigation with pilot embarked
• The properties of the different chart projections used for navigation
• Datum used on charts
SOLE LOOK-OUT
Under the STCW Code, the OOW may be the sole lookout in daylight conditions.
If sole lookout watch keeping is to be practiced on any ship, clear guidance should be given in
the shipboard operational procedure manual, supported by Master's standing orders as
appropriate, and covering as a minimum:
• Under what circumstances sole look-out watch-keeping can commence;
• How sole lookout watch keeping should be supported?
• Under what circumstances sole lookout watch keeping must be suspended.
It is also recommended that before commencing sole look-out watch-keeping the Master
should be satisfied, on each occasion, that:
The OOW has had sufficient rest prior to commencing watch;
In the judgment of the OOW, the anticipated workload is well within his capacity
to maintain a proper lookout and remain in full control of the prevailing
Circumstances;
Back-up assistance to the OOW has been clearly designated;
The OOW knows who will provide that back-up assistance, in what circumstances
back up must be called, and how to call it quickly;
Designated back-up personnel are aware of response times, any limitations on
their movements, and are able to hear alarm or communication calls from the
bridge:
All essential equipment and alarms on the bridge are fully functional

Review of Basic Principles Page: 3
GEODETIC DATUM
A Datum is defined as any numerical or geometrical quantity or set of such quantities, which
may serve as a reference or base for other quantities.
In geodesy two types of datum must be considered: a horizontal datum which forms the basis
for computations of horizontal control surveys in which the curvature of the earth is
considered, and a vertical datum to which elevations are referred.
In other words, the co-ordinates for points in specific geodetic surveys and triangulation
networks are computed from certain initial quantities (datum).

Standard Maneuvers

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TURNING CIRCLE
three hundred and sixty degrees under constant rudder angle, usually with full rudder. The
engine RPM has to be as constant as possible, but will however decrease a little due to
increasing load on the main engine.
These tests have demonstrated that providing the ship’s speed corresponds with the RPM on
the propeller at the commencement of the turn and the engine RPM is maintained at a
constant rate during the turn, the area needed by the ship for such a turn will be almost
independent of the speed.
During a turn, when the rate of turn, rate of drift and longitudinal speed is constant, the ship
will turn in a circle, called the turning-circle.
The tuning-circle is normally drawn as the track, the centre of gravity will follow during the
turn.
The position of the ship’s center of gravity during the turn, as related to its position at the
beginning of the turn, is called Advance and transfer. During the turn the bow will be slightly
inside the circle and the stern will be slightly outside. The angle between the ship’s centerline
and the tangent to the turning circle is called Drift Angle and is typically between twelve and
eighteen degrees.
The turning circle’s Tactical Diameter corresponds to the ship’s transfer after a one hundred
and eighty degrees turn. The tactical diameter of the turning circle in deep water is normally
three to four times the ship’s length.
When a ship trades internationally, there is a demand for the ship’s turning data to be
available on the bridge for Master’ and Pilots’ use. This data must contain a turning circle
diagram at both full-and half speed with full rudder to both starboard and port. There must
also be information about the time taken for each turn, together with information on,
advance and transfer distances for a ninety-degree course change with full rudder and full
RPM.
This information can be used when the navigator has to plan a turn in a narrow channel.
ACCELERATION TEST
In this test, the vessel is in stopped condition. Engines are put at full away and observations
are made when the vessel increases speed and the distance covered by vessel is noted
CRASH STOP
In this lest, the vessel is proceeding at full away. The engines are put at full astern. The time
taken and distance covered when the vessel comes to rest are noted.

STOPPING DISTANCE
If a ship at full speed ahead is to be stopped in the shortest possible distance in an
emergency situation, we might imagine the execution of the order “Full speed astern”.
As long as the speed remains high, the ship continues almost in a straight line ahead; but at a
slower speed the propeller effect will turn the ship to strarboard. The total alteration of
course to starboard when the ship is stopped, depends on the size of the ship in relation to
the engine-power. The table given below indicates the approximate value for the categories of
ships listed:
Type Displacement Speed Ship Distance Time

lengths Meters
ULCC 293000 15,6 8,6 2800
VLCC 178467 14,4 16,7 4500
Product 67500 14,3 12,9 2960 11,2
L min
Product 39000 15,8 10,3 2350 9,1 min
B
Container 115976 24,6 9,7 3100
Container 60800 25,3 11,7 3450
Car 34855 20,0 12,7 2500
Carrier
Cruiser 17402 15,0 3,0 500
Ferry
Ferry 10015 19,0 3,7 560 2,1 min
Feeder 37100 18,0 9,1 1600
Product 26565 16,4, 10,6 1800
Small 13642 18,8, 4,3 510
Feeder
Coaster 5457 13,1 6,3 600 3,0 min
Supply 4522 16,8 0,6 45
In order to estimate the stopping distance at full speed astern at various initial speeds we
may take a tanker of 250.000 tonne displacement as our example.
The following holds good:
15-0kn 4000mtr 13 ship’s length 20 min


4-0kn 500mtr 1,5 ship’s length 7 min
2-0kn 200mtr 0,67ship’s length 4 min
If the ship is to be stopped in the shortest possible distance when sailing in a channel
where there is no room on either side, an immediate “full speed astern” manoeuvre will
usually cause the ship to make a quick turn across the channel resulting in a grounding.
This may be explained by the fact that the wave system astern of the ship soon overtakes
the ship and causes the ship to turn. It is therefore necessary to reduce RPM slowly before
beginning to reverse the engine.
If a ship is to be stopped in a sea area where there is a swell – e.g. when anchoring or
mooring to a buoy – the swell must be taken from dead ahead as the ship invariably will
broach to in them.
The following must be taken into account when evaluating a vessel’s stopping distance:
A vessel’s displacement increases with the third power of its linear dimension, whereas
breaking the effect on the vessel, due to hull resistance and the effect of the propellers
going astern, only increases with the square of its linear dimension. This means that big
vessels continue to move ahead for a greater number of ship’s lengths than smaller vessels,
before they are stopped in the water. It has been calculated that the power demanded for
stopping a VLCC within half of its “natural” stopping distance, is sufficient to launch a
rocket into orbit.
Figure shows a well tested method by which the vessels speed can be stopped within a
distance that is often shorter than the stopping distance. As can be seen in the figure, the
engine RPM ahead is gradually reduced and astern revolutions then applied in harmony
with the vessel speed reduction. The increase in the braking effect is produced with the
help of the rudder as the vessel is brought broadside through the water for part of the
braking period. In addition, the propulsion resistance is strongly increased due to the fact
the ship is “broad-siding”. The rudder’s breaking effect also increases the resistance.
As can be seen in the Figure, the engines are put at Full Astern for only a short time before
reducing to Dead Slow Astern. This method reduces the stopping distance to 0,9 nautical
miles, which is shorter than the normal stopping distance for a 200,000 tons VLCC.

Figure: 1 Rudder Cycling

Another positive point is that the vessel retains almost the same heading as at the start of the
maneuver, but has been displaced approximately half ship length to port of original course
line.
It must be borne in mind that the ship’s movement during rudder cycling, as illustrated in
figure varies from ship type, since different vessels’ maneuvering characteristic are
different. It is a good idea to examine the conditions of your own vessel in order to gain an
insight into the vessel’s behavior during rudder cycling.
As an example, a container vessels steaming at 24 knots is not able to deviate 40 o from the
original course due to heeling. Test with ship models have shown that the optimum way to
use the rudder to assist in stopping this types is to apply a deviation of a maximum of 10 o
from the original course before changing the rudder to the other side.
It must also be borne in mind that the risk of damaging the cargo, even putting the ruder hard
over at full speed is great. This risk is of course greater for very crank vessels.
The depth of water has considerable influence on the rate of turn which may be obtained at a
given rudder angle. In shallow water the rate of turn is lower giving a bigger turning circle.

Wind & Current Effects

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WIND
When wind blows against a ship, the ship will be affected by a force, which acts almost in the
opposite direction to the relative wind direction-and the magnitude of which is proportional
to the square of the relative velocity of the wind.
Having the knowledge of the magnitude of the wind force and how it affects your ship is of
great importance during harbour manoeuvring. Some examples are:
Calculating whether the available tugs have sufficient power to hold the ship against a cross
wind or to move the ship against a cross wind.
Calculating whether the thrusters have the necessary power to manoeuvre the ship safely
under the prevailing wind conditions.
Calculating the effect of a longitudinal wind in respect of its effect on the ship’s stopping
distance.
Kwind =k x A xV2
Where V is the relative velocity of the wind, expressed in m/sec, A is the wind-age area,
expressed in m2, and k is a constant dependent on the ship and direction of the wind. For a
beam or longitudinal wind k is as follows:
K= 0,52 x10-4 for a beam wind and

K= 0,39 x10-4 for a longitudinal wind
The windage area depends on the conditions of loading. For tankers the area is considerably
larger in ballast condition than in loaded condition. The table below is worked out for tankers
in ballast condition.
Direction of wind Area Velocity of wind
m2 10 knots 30 knots 15 50 knots
5 m/s m/s 25 m/s
255000 DWT longitudinal
wind >> 1390 1,4 t 12 t 34 t
draught 11m
beam wind >> 5825 7,6 t 68 t 189 t
125000 DWT longitudinal
wind >> 1020 1,0 t 9t 25 t
draught 11m
beam wind >> 3440 4,5 t 40 t 118 t

A container ship with several tiers of containers on deck has a large wind area. The table
given below holds good for a two hundred meter long container ship with 4 tiers of
containers on deck.
Direction of wind Area Velocity of wind

m2
10 knots 30 knots 50 knots 25
m/s
5 m/s 15 m/s
Draught 10 m beam wind 3825 5t 45 t 125 t

Draught 11m beam wind
3625 7,7 t 42 t 118 t
Let us consider a stationary (accommodation aft) ship on an even keel with a beam wind.
Whilst the large area of superstructure offers a considerable cross section to the wind, it is
necessary to consider the centre of wind area (W). With the ship stopped in the water, the
pivot point (P) is close to amidships. The centre of the wind area and the pivot point are thus
quite close and the wind therefore does not create a turning moment upon the ship. (See
Figure 1, page 7).
In this case the ship will lie across the wind if there are no other forces created from the
current. Therefore, whether the ship lies across the wind or not depends on the position of
the resulting wind force in relation to the resulting water-flow force.
When the ship is making headway, the position of the pivot point will change and the
previous balance attained whilst the ship was stopped will therefore change. With the wind on
the beam, the centre of the wind (W) remains where it is but the pivot point move forward.
This creates a greater turning lever between P and W and depending on the wind strength; the
ship will swing the bow into the wind. (See Figure 2, page 8).
The effect of the wind on a ship making sternway is generally more complex and less
predictable. In part this is due to the additional complication of transverse thrust when
associated with single screw ships. With sternway the pivot point moves aft to a position
approx. 1/3 L from the stern. Assuming that the centre of effort (W) remains in the same
position, with the wind on the starboard beam, the shift of pivot point (P) has now created a
totally different turning lever (WP). This will encourage the bow to fall off the wind when the
ship is going astern, or, the stern seeks the wind. (See Figure 2, page 8).
When a ship is not making way through the water and the wind blowing against her she will
after some time drift in the direction of the wind at a speed whereby the water resistance is

equal to the wind force. Whether the ship will lie across the wind or not depends on the
position of the resultant wind force in relation to the resultant water-flow force.
For a transverse movement of a ship the force of the water-flow can be estimated as follows:
Kcurrent = k x A x V2
Where k is a constant, A is length x draught, and V is the velocity of the current (or velocity
of drift). With A in m2 and V in m/s, we may put k at 0,033 for deep water. K is then
expressed in tonnes.
In shallow water the resistance of water to leeway will increase and the velocity of leeway will
consequently be lower.
The force of the water-flow to leeway will move ahead when the ship is making headway. A
ship, which has the wind abeam when she is not making way through the water, will therefore
run into the wind when she is making headway. If the rudder is held amidships she will run
into a position of equilibrium where the wind will be on one bow. If this ship is to proceed
with the wind abeam the rudder must be used. At low speed the rate of leeway will be
approximately 5% of velocity of wind. Ships with a large wind area may well have a large wind
moment than the steering moment of the rudder at such low speeds, and manoeuvring at low
speed may therefore present considerable difficulties when the ship is affected by the wind.
When a ship is making stern way she will normally turn is such a way that she will have the
wind astern.
The following example shows the effect, a beam wind has on different ship types. The force
is expressed in tonnes.
Type Draft Wind area Velocity of wind

metre m2 10 knots 20 knots 30 knots 50 knots
5 m/s 10 m/s 15 m/s 25 m/s
ULCC 21,6 4020 5,2 20,9 47,0 130,6
VLCC 17,1 2506 3,2 13,0 29,3 81,4
Product L 11,5 2809 3,6 14,6 32,8 91,3
Product in Ballast 7,0 3848 5,0 20,0 45,0 125,0
Container 14,0 7956 10,3 41,3 93,1 258,5
Container 10,5 6900 8,9 35,8 80,7 224,2
Car Carrier 9,5 4943 6,4 25,7 57,8 160,6
Cruiser Ferry 6,5 4055 5,2 21,0 47,4 131,7
Ferry 5,1 2400 3,1 12,5 28,0 78,0

Feeder 10,3 3900 5,1 20,2 45,6 126,7

Product 11,40 2318 3,0 12,0 27,1 75,3
Small feeder 7,6 2266 2,9 11,8 26,5 73,6
Coaster 5,5 999 1,3 5,2 11,7 32,4
Supply 6,2 555 0,7 2,8 6,5 18,0
Current
When navigating in narrow waters and approaching harbour entrances, it is of great
importance to know the ship’s course made good. If there is a current in the sea area there
may be a considerable difference between the course steered and the course made good.,
especially in conditions where the ship is proceeding at slow ahead speed.
If the ship is to enter between the breakwaters and there is a current running across, the
following can be expected.
When the ship’s bow passes the breakwaters the effect of the current on the bow will be
different from that on the stern, and therefore the ship will be exposed to yawing during the
passage between the breakwaters. To take the ship safely through, speed must therefore be
above a certain minimum speed. At the same time, the required stopping distance inside the
harbour, will mean, that the speed must not be above a certain maximum. If the minimum
speed for the passage is higher than the maximum speed for the required stopping distance,
entering is not possible.
The accuracy of the course made good depends on the accuracy of information on the set of
the current and the vessel’s speed. The course steered will be known with sufficient accuracy.
The immediate course made good is then determined from the first current triangle. In order
to able to quickly estimate the course made good the PPI may be used.
If the ship’s speed and /or the set of the current are not known accurately, the course
determined by the current triangle may prove to be inaccurate. However, it is still preferable
to use the current triangle with the best obtainable values, and then to correct the course or
speed if observations show that the ship moves off the leading line to the harbour entrance,
rather than not to use this construction and only to correct by eye.
Entering a port in such a way that the ship stems the current and stays close to the leading
line will be necessary if the depth of water is insufficient, if one strays from the leading line.
Normally tugs cannot hold a ship against a cross-current, as the power which is necessary for
such an operation is enormous. The force (K) required to oppose current may be determined
approximately by the formula.
K= k x L x d x V2

Where k is a constant, L is the ship’s length, d is the draught and v is the velocity of the
current. With L and d in metres and V in metre per second k may be put at 0,033 for deep
water. K is then given in tonnes.
In shallow water the constant k is greater and thus the force k opposing the current will be
greater. This is because in shallow water the body of the water moved on the current finds it
increasingly difficult to ‘escape’ through the space between the bottom of the hull and the
seabed. This difficulty increases exponentially as the space under the hull decreases.
Dynamic forces
When a wind blows against a ship, she will be affected by a force (wind ), and when the ship
is sailing in waters with current, it will also be affected by another force (current), .the forces
described are static forces.
When the vessel is affected by the static forces, it will start to move and the forces become
dynamic forces.
Having the knowledge of the magnitude of the dynamic force and how it affects your ship is
of great importance during harbour manoeuvring. Some examples are:
Calculating whether the available tugs have sufficient power to stop a transverse speed.
Calculating whether the thrusters have the necessary power to manoeuvre the ship safely
under the prevailing wind and/or current conditions.
To calculate the force following formula can be used:
V2 -V2o
K= m x 103 / (9.80665 x 103)
2 (S-So)
K= The Power in tonnes
M= The Mass in kilos
V= The Start speed in m/sec
V0= The End speed in m/sec
S= The Start distance to a given point in metres
S 0= The End distance to a given point in metres
(Note: In the formula, the breaking effect of the water, when the ship comes close to the
quay, has not been taken into account)

Figure: 1 Effect of Wind: Ship Stopped

Figure: 2 Effect of Wind- With Headway & Sternway

Figure: 3 Effect of Wind – With Trim

Figure: 4 Comparison of Forces 1 – Tanker

Figure: 5 Graph of Wind Forces

Figure: 6 Comparison of Forces: Car Carrier

Shallow Water Effect

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MANOEUVRING IN SHALLOW WATER

When a vessel enters shallow water from deep water there are several signals to show this is
happening, namely:
1. Bow and stern waves are increased;
2. The ship may begin to vibrate;
3. The speed is reduced;
4. Engine revolutions are reduced;
5. The ship will be more sluggish to manoeuver;
6. The ship’s draft will be increased.
As she moves from deepwater into shallow water the water pressure system around the ship
will be increased. This means that the increased water pressure at the bow will be still higher
in shallow water, and the reduced pressure along the ship’s middle section becomes still
lower. The water, which flows under the ship, will have higher velocity of flow than in deep
water and the lower water pressure so caused will cause the ship to develop a deeper draft.
The increase of draft of a ship moving through the shallow water compared to the draft when
she is not making way through the water is called squat.
A number of experiments have been undertaken to clarify the magnitude of squat. While this
problem might not have been very great in the past the development towards ever larger
ships has brought about the fact that many sail in waters where the depth may be crucial issue.
At the same time the service speed increased in many ships has increased the squat, as it is
highly dependent on the speed.
The increase of the draught due to squat is accompanied by a change of trim. Ships with a
large block coefficient (tankers) tend to trim by the head while the change of trim for slender
ships is by the stern. The correct alteration of draft cannot be calculated in advance, but
experiments have proved that the following formula gives correct dimensions:
For calculation in Open Water
1
Squat = x Cb x V2
100

Cb is a block coefficient, and V speed in knots. Squat is then given in metres.

Where open water is defined as:
Depth of water
(Open water at =1.1 to1.2)
Draught
For calculation in Shallow Water
1
Squat = x Cb x V2
50
where shallow water is defined as:
Area of cross-section
(Shallow Water = = 0.06 to 0.30)
Area of channel
Cb is here the block coefficient, and V speed in knots. Squat is then given in metres.
Area of cross-section
The Proportion is called the “Blockage factor”
Area of channel

The following examples show the squat for different types of vessels:
Open waters:
Type Cb 3 kn. 6 kn. 9 kn. 12 kn. 15 kn. 18 kn. 21 kn. 24 kn.
ULCC 0,841 0,08m 0,30m 0,68m 1,20m 1,89m
VLCC 0,839 0,07m 0,30m 0,68m 1,20m 1,88m
Product L 0,827 0,07m 0,30m 0,68m 1,19m 1,88m
Product B 0,790 0,07m 0,28m 0,64m 1,14m 1,78m
Car carrier .0,60 0,05m 0,22m 0,49m 0,86m 1,35m 1,94m 2,65m
0
Cruise 0,616 0,05m 0,22m 0,50m 0,89m 1,39m 2,00m 2,72m 3,55m
ship
Cruise 0,561 0,05m 0,20m 0,45m 0,80m 1,26m 1,82m 2,47m
Ferry m
Ferry m 0,590 0,05m 0,21m 0,48m 0,85m 1,33m 1,92m 2,60m
Container 0,639 0,06m 0,23m 0,52m 0,92m 1,44m 2,07m 2,82m 3,68m
Container 0,631 0,06m 0,23m 0,51m 0,91m 1,42m 2,04m 2,78m 3,63m
Feeder 0,719 0,06m 0,26m 0,58m 1,04m 1,62m 2,33m
Product 0,768 0,07m 0,28m 0,62m 1,10m 1,73m
Small 0,627 0,06m 0,23m 0,51m 0,90m 1,41m 2,03m

feeder
Coaster 0,636 0,06m 0,23m 0,52m 0,92m
Supply 0,697 0,06m 0,25m 0,56m 1,00m

Confined waters
Type Cb 3kn 6kn 9kn 12kn

ULCC 0,841 0,15 0,60 1,36 2,42
VLCC 0,8395 0,15 0,60 1,36 2,42
Product L 0,527 0,15 0,60 1,34 2,38
Product B 0,790 0,14 0,57 1,28 2,28
Car carrier 0,600 0,11 0,43 0,97 1,73
Cruise ship 0,616 0,11 0,44 1,00 1,77
Cruise Ferry 0,561 0,10 0,40 0,91 1,62
Ferry m 0,590 0,11 0,42 0,96 1,70
Container 0,639 0,12 0,46 1,04 1,84
Container 0,631 0,11 0,45 1,02 1,82
Feeder 0,719 0,13 0,52 1,16 2,07
Product 0,768 0,14 0,55 1,24 2,21
Small feeder 0,627 0,11 0,45 1,02 1,81
Coaster 0,636 0,11 0,46 1,03 1,83
Supply 0,697 0,13 0,50 1,13 2,00
V2K
Maximum Squat = S = x Cb metres
100
Ship Squat in “Open Water “Conditions, H/T =1.10 to 1.20

Vk=Ship’s speed in knots in still water
Ship Squat in “Confined channels”, (for blockage factor’s 0.06 to 0.30)

Vk= Ship’s speed in knots in still water
VK2
Maximum Squat = S = x Cb metres
50

This condition is called: “Confined Waters Condition”.

The increase of draft due to squat includes, in most cases, a mean draft change as well as a
trim change. The trim change is dependent on the ship’s length and the vessel’s speed.
However there is also interdependence between the vessel’s block coefficient and the trim
change, as vessels with big block coefficient (tankers) seem to trim by the head, whereas slim
vessels will trim by the stern.

Figure: 1 Effect Of Shallow Water: Turning

Figure: 2 Effect of Trim and Squat

SQUAT OF A SINGLE SHIP
• Shallow depth acts like an obstruction between ship’s bottom and seabed.
• Constriction is caused
• Water which would normally pass under the ship's keel is severely
restricted and forced to left or right thus becoming two dimensional
• Water flow in the constriction is also accelerated
• Finally, flow round the hull is also accelerated
• Water is forced under the bow at higher speed then normal which results in low
pressure under the bow (for full form vessels)
• Loss of buoyancy
Result - Squat by the bow
• Build up of water ahead of the ship, which results in increase of Longitudinal
resistance.
Result - Slowing down of ship in shallow waters.
• Pivot point is pushed aft (P - to PP)
• Steering lever is reduced.
Result - Loosing control (sheering violently out of channel)
• As ship slows down due to longitudinal resistance, ship's wave system due to its
displacement catches up.
Result - Trim is affected (As per following factors)
• Block coefficient of the vessel (strong effect)
• Original hydrostatic trim (weaker of the two factors)
Result - Violent swing in direction of helm is encouraged, counter helm is sluggish due to
steering lever reduced. Once ship responds to counter helm the sheer may develop other way
in direction of counter helm, which results in steering badly from one side to another.
Prevention - Avoid excessive speed (decide transit speed in advance)
• Small trim by stern (It improves steering lever also)
• Allowance for squat
Caution - Too much stern trim may result in grounding by stern.
The effect of original trim on the squat trim increases as the hydrostatic trim increases
• Whether ship will squat by stern or bow also depends on underwater hull form.

Fine form V/L - RO-RO / Passenger squat by stern.

Full form V/L – Tanker/Bulk Carriers – squat by bow
RULES FOR MAX SQUAT

1. If Ship On Even Keel When Stationary
• Trim by head i.e. Max Squat will occur at Bow if Cb >0.700

• Trim by Stern i.e., Max Squat will occur at Stem if Cb <0.700
• No trim i.e. Equal Squat at stem, Bow and amidships if Cb = 0.700
2. If ship has Trim When Stationary
• Static trim by Head: Increase in trim by head

Add Max Squat to fwd draft
Plus bodily sinkage takes place.
• Static trim by Stern: Increase in trim by stem
Add Max Squat to aft draft
Plus bodily sinkage takes place.
SQUAT OF STATIONARY V/L

1. CAUSE: Tide speed along Stationary V/L (ebb tide)
2. RESULT: Bodily Sinkage
Change of trim
3. EFFECT: Touching bottom at berth
Increased Squat when V/L is passing
Under loading of Cargo- draft Survey
PRACTICAL GUIDELINES
1. Squat = 2 x block coefficient x Speed2
100
2. Squat in open waters = ½ x squat in confined waters
3. Reducing speed to ½ will reduce squat to ¼ of original
4. Full form vessels - Trim by bow
5. Fine lined vessels - Trim by stern

Bank, Channel & Interaction
Effects

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NAVIGATION IN CHANNELS
When navigating in narrow channels the systems of water flow and water pressure described
in the section on Squat will be considerably increased. The ship will thus push water ahead of
her and the surface of water will, rise noticeably several ship’s lengths ahead of the ship.
Along the ship’s side, water will flow back with higher velocity than in open water of the same
depth and abaft of the ship water will be pulled along in the direction the ship is sailing.
If the ship sails in the centre line of the channel and if the channel is symmetrical about her
she will not be exposed to a turning effect from the channel, as the water pressure on the
ship’s side is symmetrical. However, if she gets closer to one side of the channel, e.g. to the
starboard side of the channel, then the cushion effect will cause the ship to turn away from
the channel bank and at the same time is sucked in towards it.
In order for the ship to be able to sail parallel to a channel bank she must lie at a certain angle
away from the channel bank and permanent rudder must be given towards it. In this way a
position of equilibrium may be obtained where rudder power and repulsion at the bows will
neutralize the suction and where the total turning moment of the three forces about the
centre of gravity of the ship is zero.
If the ship steams into a bend of a channel, the bank effect should be taken advantage of to
assist the vessel’s rounding the bend. She should accordingly be placed in the outer side of the
bend.
Correct position when passing a bend in a channel

If the ship is placed on the bank side of the bend, and if the ship goes into a turn on account
of the bank effect, it will be difficult to avoid grounding on the other side of the channel.
Resistance to headway is increased considerably when navigating in a narrow channel
compared to navigating in the same depth of water in open water. This is due to the fact that
there is a build-up of a somewhat higher water pressure on the ship’s bow and that the
backward flow of water along the ship’s sides and bottom is somewhat greater. If the engine
power is increased the ship will attain a “saturation speed” where a continued increase of the
engine power will not give increased speed. This “saturation speed” depends on the cross-
sectional area of the channel compared to the frame area of the ship. Also the shape of the
ship and the configuration of the channel are of significance.
Channel of Box-type
The blockage factor
In a channel of the “Box-type” these forces greatly increase in magnitude. As an example, one
can mention, that the saturation speed in a “Box-type” channel at some places can be given as
below:

(blockage factor = the cross-sectional area of the channel compared to the frame area of the
ship. Also the shape of the ship and the configuration of the channel are of significance).
Blockage factor =1:4, saturation speed 8.4 knots.
Correspondingly the ship will encounter considerable resistance to headway when putting into
a dock or ferry-berth. This maybe an advantage as it is possible to keep the propeller turning
for a considerable time and thus maintain the effect of the rudder when entering such a dock
or berth.
Even at very low speed, say a maximum of 4 knots, the cushion-effect can still lead to
grounding.
Passage of two ships in a Narrow Channel

When a ship is navigating in a narrow channel she should for reasons given in the preceding
sections keep to the centerline of the channel (except for cases where there is a bend in the
channel). If two ships on opposite courses are to pass each other in these conditions the ships
should remain on the centre-line as they approach. The procedure should be as follows:
• The ship’s speed should be reduced to the minimum speed i.e. steerage way (e.g. slow
ahead);
• When the ships are about a ship’s length from each, both vessels put the rudder to
starboard (hard a starboard in order to make the ships turn), and then ease the rudder;
• When the ships’ bows are level with one another the excess pressure between the bows
keeps them apart: at this time helms are put to port to bring the ships parallel to the
centre-line;
• Engine RPM is increased (half ahead) and the rudders are put to starboard in good
time to counteract suction from the channel bank;
• When the ships are alongside each other they will both be affected by the cushion-
effect from the channel bank and make a turn to port;
• When the ships are abeam of one another this port turn must be controlled and
stopped with the rudder;
• When the ships’ stern are abeam of each other, engine RPM is increased to full ahead
and the ships will move towards the centre line of the channel while the rudder is used
to the extent that is necessary in order to bring them back to the centre line. The
sequence of manoeuvres during this passage is a shown. (Figure 1, 2 and 3) Page 4, 5
and 6)

Figure: 1 Passing – Phase 1



It might appear obvious to execute the passage in such a way that both ships move to the
right of the centerline of the channel in good time and thus approach each other on parallel
course before passing each other. However, such a manoeuvre may have disastrous
consequences in a narrow channel if one or both ships approaching each other should go into
an uncontrolled turn to port due to channel bank effect. Manoeuvring in a narrow channel in
this way is therefore strongly warned against, although of course it may be executed in this
way if the breadth of the channel is sufficiently large.
Overtaking in Narrow Channel

Overtaking in a narrow channel, must naturally be performed at close quarters and for this
reason should as far as possible not be attempted. If it is executed, it is important that those
in charge of both ships know what is happening so that they can carry out the correct and
necessary manoeuvres on the rudder in good time.
These manoeuvres may be extremely dangerous, as the overtaken ship may go out of control
on account of her reduced speed and consequential lesser rudder effectiveness.

Figure: 4 Overtaking – Phase 1



The effects on the overtaken ship may be very large at close quarters, and the overtaken
ship may get out of control. How close the ships may approach each other depends on the
speed, but distances between the ships of under a ship’s breadth must in all conditions
be considered dangerous. The overtaking ship is, of course, also subjected to turning
moments, but this ship will be considerably easier to keep under control.
If the two ships are making almost the same speed, the ships’ reactions are slower and
there is time enough to counteract them (that is if they can be counteracted). If the
difference in speeds is large, the effects will change quickly so that the ships will not have
time to go into a noticeable turn. The most dangerous situation therefore seems to be
somewhere in between these two extremes. This situation cannot of course be determined
exactly, but it appears that differences in speeds of 20-30% are especially dangerous.
Generally a quick overtaking, i.e. at a large difference in speed, should be aimed at.
Hydrodynamic Interaction
All ships may experience the hydrodynamic phenomenon known as interaction (to a greater
or lesser degree). Understanding it can help us in preventing collision and grounding of
vessels in shallow waters. The effect of hydrodynamic interaction has been highlighted in
various M notices and publications.
In static conditions only the hydrostatic force act on the ship's hull. When the ship starts to
move or due to water movements, hydrodynamic forces come in to play, causing abnormal
vessel behavior, this manifests in characteristic surface waves, which accompany ships motion
and differential pressure around the vessel.
The fundamental theorem of hydrodynamic is bernoulli’s theorem.

PRESSURE FIELDS
As the ship moves ahead, water is sucked by the propeller & thrown aft there by creating a
void in the water. This creates a partial vacuum at the stern. Water rushes from sides and
forward to aft to fill the void. This is known as back flow. There is a greater resistance to
water to flow at bow than aft.
• Transverse pressure zones are created due to the back flow when ship is making
headway
• Positive pressure builds up forward of pivot point (bow). Negative or low-pressure
fluids up aft of pivot point.
• Magnitude of pressure field is:

α Size of ship
α Fullness of form (Cb)
α Velocity2
α 1
Distance from shipside
FORE WARNED IS FOREARMED

Figure: 7 Lateral Motion

Figure: 8

SHIPS IN BASINS
1. Swinging and maneuvering
Use of propellers or bow thruster causes the water in the basin to move thus generating
waves.
This wave acts as a paddle which causes changes in pressure fields around the vessel.
Ships moored in vicinity may feel these pressure changes and surge
2. Tug Pumping
Tugs with strong propulsion devices when acting in confined water, act as pumps, settings the
water in basin into motion
Local pressure changes thus result, which can affect the ship
In some cases tug wash may also effect directly
Result
Tug action causes the ship to move in an unexpected direction
Prevention
Use long lines on tugs in enclosed basins
3. Stopping in shallow / confined waters

Body of water, which moves with the ship, takes time to slow down
Slowing down abruptly; suddenly makes the body of water overtake the ship
Result:
Vessel can move ahead or turn in uncontrolled manner
Precaution:
Reduce the speed or swing gradually
BANK EFFECT
Prevention
Constant corrective rudder and power is required to control heading. As far as possible the
vessel should remain in the center of channel.

Ship should proceed at slow speed (but not too slow) so as to reduce bank effect + have
reserve power to correct such a situation.
Steer towards the bank so that low cushion helps to keep parallel to the Bank. This means
setting the rudder correctly to balance interactive forces.
Action
Corrective helm required may be 350 to opposite side of sheer.
Increase power to take corrective action – arrest the rate of turn. Reduce to Dead slow so that
the speed does not increase and reduce the helm as the vessel stops to turn. Throughout this
operation short kicks ahead may be used till the vessel is in the center of channel taking care
that speed of vessel does not increase.
Increasing the power (RPM) is to benefit from increased rudder force produced.
Most Common Mistakes

Ship proceeding at full speed in narrow channel with no reserve power.
Tendency to reduce revolutions, or stop engines, when faced with wrong sheer.
Insufficient or incorrect helm (not anticipating the bank effect from the opposite bank)
- Center of channel is as per depth and not visually
The vessel requires turning effect of rudder but slow speed to counter the sheer developed
due to bank effect.

Figure: 9 Bank Configuration

Figure: 10 Bank Effect
Figure: 11 Pressure Zones: Simplified

Anchoring & SBM

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Anchoring & SBM Page: 72
ANCHORS
The specific requirements for anchoring equipment in ships is laid down by the Classification
Societies and is determined as per each ship’s displacement, her wind area down to the
summer load line.
These requirements are: weight of anchor, number of anchors, length of chain cable and
breaking strength. Requirements also specify that the cable must be secured in the chain
locker by an arrangement whose breaking strength is greater than 15% and less than 30% of
the tensile proof stress of the chain (Norske Veritas). Also the breaker of the windlass must
be able to withstand a pull of 45% of the tensile proof stress of the chain.
The following anchor equipment data for three ship types.
Equipment Supertanker Container vessel Product tanker
330000 DWT 40000 DWT 12000 DWT
Anchor weight 23,0 tonnes 9,90 tonnes 4,65 tonnes
Chain length 770 mtr 670 mtr 574 mtr
Chain weight 286 kg/mtr 128 kg/mtr 57 kg/mtr
Chain diameter 177mm 78mm 52mm
Chain breaking strength 948 tonnes 459 tonnes 215 tonnes
Breaking strength shackle in chain 145 tonnes 92 tonnes 60 tonnes
locker
Anchor winch
Braking power 550 tonnes 209 tonnes 107 tonnes
Normal lifting power 100 tonnes 40 tonnes 20 tonnes
Max. lifting power 115 tonnes 48,5 tonnes 22 tonnes
Medium lifting speed 12 m/min 12 m/min 12 m/min
Max. lifting speed 12 m/min 12 m/min 12m/min
Max. holding power 110 48,5 22
Anchor hawse pipe over WL 6,5mtr 11,7mtr 3,0mtr
The dimensions and breaking load of an anchor and chain have to be carefully matched such
that the anchor does not break out of the soil until it experiences a load which is quite close
to the chain’s breaking load. However, it is important that the anchor does in fact break out at
that load or there is a risk of losing the anchor. The anchor’s holding strength is proportional
to the anchor weight and is also a function of its design.

The most important variable in holding strength is of course the seabed conditions and the
amount of ground cable laid out.
Experiments have shown that normal ships’ anchors have a holding power constant in clay of
7 – 15, in sand of 4 – 8, and in mud 2 – 4. This constant holds good provided the pull on the
anchor, transmitted through the chain, is horizontal at the anchor. In other types of seabed
the holding-power is different. In clay, somewhat greater than in rocky bottom. Some high
holding power anchors as are commonly used in the offshore oil business have significantly
greater holding powers than mentioned above.
If the chain makes an angle with the anchor of 5o, the holding power of the anchor is reduced
by approximately 25%. If this angle is increased to 15o, the holding power is reduced by
approximately 50%. To ensure a horizontal pull at the anchor, length of the chain deployed
must be at least 5 times the distance from the hawse-pipe to seabed. In unstable weather
conditions the length of chain deployed should be even longer,
During anchoring the ship’s speed over the ground must of course be very slow. How slow
depends on the ship’s size but for most ships there is a reasonable margin of error. However,
in case of large tankers the speed must be so slow that in certain conditions (e.g. in an
unknown current) speed may be difficult to estimate.
Taking the case of a fully loaded large tanker making 1 to 2 knots over the ground.
After the anchor is let go and the necessary scope of chain is paid out, the windlass brake is
applied. It is possible that the holding power of the anchor is greater than that of the brake
and the brake will then slip. It follows that if ship’s speed is to be braked by use of the anchor
alone, all the kinetic energy in the ship must be transferred to the brake of the windlass which
may cause devastatingly high temperature at the windlass brake.
The safest way to anchor large ships is to motor the anchor out on the windlass. If the ship’s
speed is 1-2 knots when the anchor takes the bottom nothing much will happen, the holding
power being low as long as the cable’s length is short. It is now possible to estimate the ship’s
motion over the ground by watching the chain and adjusting it accordingly. The cable is then
laid out continuously in a controlled manner, with the chain being held under tension.
The magnitude of this tension may be estimated by watching the chain and may be regulated
by manoeuvring the ship with propeller and rudder. When the desired length of cable has
been laid out it may be ascertained that the anchor holds, by watching the chain. The chain
must be slacked after having been tensioned and then watched to see that the anchor and
chain takes up the weight of the ship again thus proving it is holding. At this time the brake is
applied to the chain and the chain stoppers are put in.
When manoeuvring close to a quay, the use of anchors is an effective means of controlling
the movements of the stem, especially if there is a noticeable effect from a beam wind. The

length of anchor chain used should be sufficient to decrease the ship’s speed to zero at dead
slow ahead, but still allowing the ship to make a little headway at slow ahead.
As a rule of thumb guide, select a length of cable of 1,5xD, where D is the distance from the
hawse – pipe to the bottom.
Note: The optimum length of cable may differ depending on the nature of the bottom, the
type of anchor and the engine power at dead slow ahead.
When the anchor is used during manoeuvres the chain must always be held taut and the speed
must not be increased above about 1 knot, otherwise the anchor will hop over the bottom
and lose its holding-power. As mentioned above the ship must be able to make some
headway at slow ahead and the speed must be reduced to zero at dead slow ahead. If the ship
approaches the quay in this way, the speed may be adjusted by alternating between dead slow
and slow. The port anchor is of course used when going starboard side alongside.
VLCC anchoring
VLCC masters should avoid anchoring whenever it is practical. If advised of a short delay
awaiting pilot or berth, the ship should be slowed and the arrival timed to avoid anchoring
(manoeuvring capabilities and weather conditions permitting).
When anchoring is to be undertaken, the master must formulate an alternative operating plan,
discuss it with the pilot if one is aboard, and advise the vessel officers as to action that should
be taken should the anchor fail.
In normal anchoring, the VLLC master must be absolutely certain that the vessel is stopped
and is not making any speed over the ground when the anchor is lowered. On vessels not
fitted with speed logs bearings must be taken and ranges watched as necessary to check the
vessel movement.
The VLCC master must not drop the anchor on the brake under normal anchoring
conditions. Instead, it must be walked out using the windlass motor-preferably at not more
than 10 metres per minute. The windlass must not be de-clutched until there is suitable scope
on the cable, the anchor is secured and de-clutching becomes necessary to operate the
mooring winch.
When walking the anchor out, the action of the chain will quickly inculcate whether or not the
vessel is moving over the bottom and if necessary the chain can be checked before the anchor
can take hold and cause damage. The master must instruct the officer in charge to keep the
chain and where it leads under close observation.

Figure: 1 Dredging With One Anchor

Figure: 2 Dredging Two Anchors

Single Buoy Mooring

The most natural way to approach a buoy is to head into the wind or current.
A stationary ship is very quickly set out of position and it is necessary to overcompensate for
this when making an approach with a cross wind or current. However, there is not always
sufficient room to allow much choice and the direction of approach is not of paramount
importance if tug assistance is available.
A ship must be brought to the buoy slowly so that it can be stopped with a minimum use of
astern engine movements. If the speed is too fast, and it is necessary to go full astern or half
astern, the transverse thrust may throw the bow away from the buoy and it will not be easy to
bring the ship back into the correct position; any advantage hoped for by heading into the
wind will be immediately lost as the bow is blown further away
The anchors must be well and truly secure. They should not be dropped in close proximity to
a buoy under any circumstances, as they may foul the buoy's moorings or, more disastrously,
rupture submarine pipelines. This eventuality can be avoided by making a slow approach to
the buoy and using tugs if necessary to hold the ship steady at the buoy. If there is plenty of
sea room all around the problem does not arise.
Using Buoy Equipment

An oil terminal buoy has floating pipelines for connection to the ship. The ship's initial
approach to the buoy should be on the side away from these floating pipelines. If the buoy is
situated in a confined space, it may be necessary to use tugs to hold the ship off while the
moorings are secured and until she has settled down to her riding position.
Some buoys are situated in the open sea and are designed to support a ship in quite rough
conditions, but buoys in shallow water can only be used when the conditions are more
favorable.
Using Ship's Equipment

There may be occasions when a ship secures to a buoy with her own mooring lines. This is a
simple operation but is not a satisfactory all-weather arrangement. It is practically impossible
to equalize the strain on several lines to a single buoy, and they may all part one by one if the
wind suddenly freshens.
The most secure way for a ship to lie at a buoy is with the anchor cable shackled on. This
necessitates a much more precise maneuver by the ship-handler. The cable of a large ship is
very heavy and cannot be manhandled. The ship must be brought into such a position that
the end of the cable is immediately above the ring on the buoy.

A head wind or current assists to slow the ship when nearing the buoy, and also assists with
the steering; but it is not always possible to choose such an approach. Provided the first two
lines are run quickly, the direction of approach is not important. Shackling a buoy to the
anchor cable is not a quick or easy job and the ship must be held in position by the two first
lines throughout the remainder of the operation, irrespective of wind, current and weather
conditions. The ship will pivot about the buoy and find her own most comfortable direction
of repose.
The time taken to shackle-on depends upon sea conditions at the time and on the type of
construction of the buoy. Some buoys are very difficult working platforms under any
conditions. One or two tugs may be required to assist with positioning and to ease the strain
on the ship's lines.
When the cable has been secured to the buoy, all other lines should be let go, so there is
nothing to foul the buoy, cable or shackle. When departing from the buoy it may be necessary
to use a line to hold the buoy steady while the cable is unshackled. A slip line is most suitable
for this purpose, i.e. a line passed from the ship through the buoy ring and back on board.
This slip line should not be run until shortly before departure.
The amount of cable out to a buoy should be enough to form a slight catenary. If a very
strong wind comes up, it may be advisable to veer out more cable to ease the strain.
USE OF ANCHORS IN AN EMERGENCY
ALL SHIPS

STAND
B-1, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016.BY ANCHORS. ENSURE
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CLEAR INSTRUCTIONS BEFORE LETTING GO ANCHORS

Planning and Carrying Out A
Voyage

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Planning and Carrying out a Voyage Page: 2
Planning of Turning Manoeuvrs

When navigation in confined waters require large alterations of course, the turning
manoeuvres must be commenced in adequate time with the knowledge of how much room
the ship needs to carry out the alteration of course. This will –especially with regard to large
vessels –necessitate pre-planning the turn.
More and more vessels are equipped with a Rate-of-Turn indicator, which will show the
actual rate of turn in degrees in per minute (or degrees per second in some indicators). By
means of this instrument the turn may be planned more effectively (with a high degree of
approximation ), using the following simple relationship, where rate-or-turn is in degrees per
minute, speed is in nautical miles per hour and turning radius is in nautical miles:
Rate-of-Turn =Speed in knots/turning radius
The navigator must have sufficient experience in the type of vessel in question to know if this
rate of turn is obtainable
Increase in draught due to heeling or pitching

The vessel’s draught increase owing to heeling (i.e. owing to waves, or to turning of the ship)
depends upon the size of the angle of the heel and the breadth of the ship.
The draft increase equation due to heeling is:
D0 =d+(1/2 B*tan θo)
D0 is the draught related to the heel-angle 0o, d is the draught at even keel and B is the
breadth of the ship. .
Draught increase due to pitching is similarly found by the equation:
Increase of draught: =1/2 L*sin a
Where a= angle of pitch
In deep water a particular vessel will experience pitching movements in accordance with the
wave height. The same wave heights in shallow water will induce smaller pitching movement
on account of the cushion effect from the water under the keel.

The total increase of draught on account of a ship’s movements (rolling pitching, heaving and
yawing) in a sea way depends on may different variables, for example, the ship’s size,
conditions of stability, height, length and the period and angle of incidence.
For this reason the maximum draught for ships sailing in shallow water of a given depth must
be estimated, always erring on the safe side and remembering that the increase of draught,
even in still water, may attain appreciable magnitudes on account of sinkage and squat.
PASSAGE PLANNING
Why Passage Plans
Main Objective: SUCCESSFUL COMPLETION OF VOYAGE
Navigation is a Knowledge based skill requires Practice, Support & reaffirmation.
Have a system in operation in order to
• Detect errors/avoid-undetected errors.
• Exchange of information between Master /officers.
• Assumptions are not made without verification.
• Lesser confusion / errors in judgment when unexpected occurs.
• Exhibit consistency in Standards
• Check effectiveness of Bridge Organization.
• Officers make best use of available Resources - Human + Material
Incidents / Disasters
Is usually the culmination of an Error Chain
Error chain: is a series of non-serious incidents/acts.
How to Recognize an Error Chain

Situation Awareness: what is going around on the ship?
Ambiguity: 2 position fixing systems, echo sounder / charted depths,
2 team members disagree, deviation from pre-agreed decisions
Distraction: Excessive workload; stress / fatigue, emergency
Conditions: Inattention to detail, VHF / Tel Calls.
Inadequacy confusion: Feeling - losing control of situation, non-anticipation

Communication Break Down: Noise, lack of common language. Differing procedural

methods, plain misunderstanding
Improper Lookout
Non Compliance with Plan
Procedural Violation: Deviation from Planned Track.
MAIN CAUSES OF COLLISION/ GROUNDINGS
1. Weakness in Bridge Organization:

Elements of Bridge Organization are:
The ship equipment, voyage itinerary, Master, officers, crew support by company.
Organizational structure.
2. Failure to keep Proper lookout

Doubling watches: suitable / sufficient personnel called in special circumstances.
Precise instructions for calling master
Posting lookouts, manning the wheel
Change over from hand to auto / Vice Versa - Drills
Precise instructions regarding Speed reduction.
3. Passage Planning: Inadequacies

Failure to pre - plan or chart a track
Failure to adequately monitor progress on the planned track
Failure to take immediate action having deviated from track
Failure to cross check fixes (false sense of security)
Failure to use visual fixing when available
Failure to use echo sounder
Failure to identify correctly navigational lights
Failure to check navigational decisions independently by another officer
Laxity in performance of duty, with pilot on board.

PASSAGE PLANNING
Preparation Execution
Appraisal Planning Organization Monitoring
APPRAISAL
Gathering information
Evaluating information
Risks involved balance between risk and commercial expediency
Information: Source
Chart catalogue - NP 131
Charts - BRITISH + local Hydrographic Office, US / Canada (Intl. chart symbols incorp.)
Ocean passages for the world - NP 136 currents.
Routing charts - chart Nos. 5142-8, same as pilot monthly info- ocean routing, wind,
Meteorological information.
Sailing directions - 74 vols. US - planning guides
List of lights - 11 vols. US - 7 volumes
Tide tables - 3 vols.
Tidal streams Atlas - NW Europe & HKG.
Notices to mariners – UK / US.
Routing information - by IMO – TSS / Deep water routes / areas to avoid.
Radio signals (ALRS) - text 7 volumes and 4 booklet diagrams.
Climatic information - Pilot books

Load line charts- NP 136 & BA - 6083

Distance tables BA 350 & US publications.
Electronic Navigation Systems - information on board.
Radio + local warning, Navigational text / local warnings/ALRS vol. 3.
Owner's publications / Charterer’s instructions
Draft - UKC & Air draft in shallow waters.
Personal experience of crewmembers.
Mariners hand book - NP 100.
Guide to Port entry.
PLANNING
Ocean and open waters
Coastal / river
Pilot station to berth and vice versa.
Ocean
Distance between ports
Enroute bunker ports – shortest distance not necessary, most advantageous
Great circle / Rhumb line
Meteorological conditions - WX routing services
Ocean currents
Weather systems- TRS/ Ice – sea room
Load line rules
Political considerations
Ports of refuge.
Coastal
Distance off land / dangers
Routing schemes/ VTS
Specified vessels in the area.
Minimum distance off ships – Company/ Ship Specific

Pilotage required or not

Minimum depth required (UKC)
Proximity of fishing traffic
Navigational warnings
Pilotage:
UKC
Tidal information
Maneuvering characteristics
Hydrodynamic interaction dangers.
Passage plans often made from Pilot station to pilot station. STCW 78, Reg. II/I states: -
“Despite duties & Obligation of a Pilot his presence on board does rot relieve OOW
from his Duties & Obligation for safety of Ship"
Hence plan berth to berth.
Charts (Publications)
Collection
Put in order
Adjacent area charts
Large scale charts - port plans of coastal voyage.
Correction-Notices / Navigational warnings
No Go Areas
Cross hatching
Draft + 20%
Tidal range high - vary with time of passage
Do not obliterate information.
2F. Margins of Safety

Clearing distance from no go areas
Factors to decide dimensions of ship
Accuracy of Navigational systems

Tidal streams.
Maneuvering Characteristics of ship
Possibility of Main Engine break down or Navigation errors.
Clearing bearing, Parallel index distances
(More than 20% margin required if: old survey, rolling pitching of V/L, Squat.)
Tracks
Rhumb line tracks on small scale + large scale charts.
ETA at way points
True direction shown with distances.
Courses larger in digits than distances.
Double check transferred courses (by another method) by bearing & range of lights
identified.)
Next Chart
Write number of next chart
Distance Off
UKC is the first consideration
Weather conditions
Tidal streams
Traffic volume
Age + reliability of survey
Width of safe water - especially to starboard.
Draft 3-6 m: outside 10 m contour
6-10 m: outside 20 m contour
>10 m: 20 m + excess over 10 m
Regulations
Company
National
International

UKC
OOW made aware of passage points with UKC less than 10% of deepest draft.
Tidal Window
OOW in no doubt regarding timings (period) when sufficient.
UKC attainable during a certain period.
Allowance for Streams /Current

OOW made aware of strong currents
From where to obtain information
Careful monitoring may be required
Adjustments allowed
Season, meteorological conditions phases of moon taken into account
Wheel over Positions

Points where to commence course alteration before reaching altering position.
Take into account any characteristic of vessel
Visual / radar cues - parallel indexing.
Rate of turn.
Parallel indexing
Mark conspicuous fixed objects with distance off. Useful in normal and poor visibility
ARPA Maps
To be used in addition to chart (not excluding).
OOW made aware of such stored maps. Use with caution.
Way Points
Number serially
DTG written
Refer to a prominent landmark
Stored in electronic Navigation system with same designation.

Abort
Point of no return e.g. Narrow channel mouth
Last point at which passage can be aborted and ship does not commit herself
No room left to return to safe water.
Deviation from approach line
Main Engine failure or malfunction
Instrument Malfunction/ error
Non availability of Tugs / berth
Dangerous situation in Harbour
Contingency plan
Having passed abort position bridge team needs to be aware of emergency actions.
Alternative routes
Safe anchorages
Waiting areas
Emergency berth
Constraints due to Tidal windows
Position Fixing
Methods of position fixing indicated for each
Radar Conspicuous objects highlighted
Reference points for ARPA maps highlighted
Landfall lights to look for
Positions where buoy fixing is critical,
Fix frequency is specified.
Corrections to G.P.S fixes
Additional Info
Any info that reminds OOW of his obligation that makes execution of voyage simpler
Reporting points / information

Notices to: Engine Room, Crew

Tug engagement
Heavy traffic areas (ferries/ boats)
Pre decided walkie-talkie channels
Clearing marks - bearings ranges - head mark
Echo Sounder
Reminder when to use
Planning Book
Information regarding Sunrise / Sunset timings
Tide timings
VHF frequencies
Page nos. of reference books
Conning Note Book

Abbreviated form of planning book to be kept at look out Position of OOW
Organization
Execution:
Discuss tactics to execute plan
ETA calculations / adjustments:
Tide
Daylight
Traffic conditions
Tidal streams
Plan modification
Additional personnel
Briefing
Fatigue
Bridge preparation
Pre Arrival /Departure Checklists

Execution
Reactive:
Proactive:
Monitoring
Reactive: Position fixed then allowance for Set / Drift etc.
Proactive: Corrections in advance so that V/L traverses specified track.
MANOUVERING
A bridge control system should be: -
Simple. There is no advantage in providing an arrangement any more complicated than is
necessary to control the engine within the navigational requirements of the ship and the safe
operational requirements of the engine.
Reliable. The confidence of the crew in the system is a direct function of the system
reliability, and unless there is confidence no advantage will be obtained from fitting the
equipment.
Easy to operate. The operator on the bridge must not be burdened with engineering
functions, which may distract him from other duties. This implies that after the bridge
operator has selected the required direction and speed of the engine all actions necessary to
achieve this should be carried out automatically in the correct sequence and at the correct
speed.
Compatible with the control elements on the engine, and complimentary to a manual control
system, allowing the automatic system to be by-passed very quickly in the event of a
malfunction.
Easy to understand, monitor, and to maintain. Maintenance and repair will be in the
hands of staff without specialized knowledge and experience, who will find it difficult to have
the necessary confidence in a system they do not understand. Reliability is relative and
absolute reliability is impossible.
Main functions of Automatic Remote Control
1. Start, stop and reverse of the main engine in accordance with orders from the bridge
telegraph.

2. Execution of specified speed change orders in accordance with preset rate – of –

change programs.
3. Automatic stopping or slow down (safety monitors)
4. Signaling and indicating system between bridge and engine room.
5. Serves as a conventional engine room telegraph system when in manual control.
6. In manual control, the order repeater gives pneumatic impulses for engine reversing.
7. Gives signals for the automatic logging of engine maneuvers, acknowledgments,
engine speed etc.
Dangerous situations in following and quartering seas
When sailing in severe following or quartering seas, a ship is likely to encounter various kinds
of dangerous phenomena, which may lead to capsizing. Although the dynamic behaviour of
ships following and quartering seas is not yet covered in present stability standards, much
progress has been made in recent years towards understanding the physics of capsize
mechanisms and identifying potentially critical conditions.
The sensitivity of a ship to dangerous phenomena will depend on the actual stability
parameters, hull geometry, ship size and ship speed. This implies that the vulnerability to
capsizing and its probability of occurrence in a particular sea state may differ for each ship.
Precautions
A ship could be unsafe even outside the dangerous zone defined in this guidance if the
stability of the ship is insufficient and several dangerous phenomena characteristic for
following and quartering seas happen simultaneously. Therefore, the ship master should
ensure that the vessel maintains the approved minimum positive stability and does not
carelessly navigate in severe following and quartering seas.
Dangerous ship responses in following and quartering seas
As the wave period becomes longer when running before a following or quartering sea and
/or swell, the principal dangers in such situations are as follows:
1. Surf-riding and broaching-too
When a ship is situated on a steep fore front of a high wave in a following or
quartering sea condition, the ship can be accelerated to ride on the wave; this is
known as surf -riding. When a ship is surf-ridden, the so-called broaching-to
phenomenon may occur, which brings the risk of capsize as the result of a sudden big
change of ship’s heading and unexpected large heeling.

2. Reduction of intact stability caused by riding on the wave crest at the

amidships section of the ship.
When a ship is riding on the wave crest, the intact stability will be decreased
substantially according to the ship form. The amount of stability reduction is nearly
proportional to the wave height and the ship may lose its stability when the wave
length is once or twice the ship’s length and wave height is large. This situation is
especially dangerous in following and quartering seas, because of the length of time
the vessel rides on the wave crest, i.e. the time of inferior stability, becomes longer.
3. Synchronous rolling motion
Large rolling motions may be excited when the natural rolling period of a ship
coincides with the wave period encountered. When navigating in following and/or
quartering seas this may happen when the transverse stability of the ship is marginal
and therefore the natural roll period becomes longer.
4. Parametric rolling motion
An unstable and large amplitude roll motion will take place if the wave period
encountered is approximately equal to half of the natural roll period of the ship. The
type of rolling can occur in head and bow seas where the wave period encountered,
becomes short in following and quartering seas,
5. Combination of various dangerous phenomena
The dynamic behaviour of a ship in following and quartering seas is very complex.
Ship motion is three-dimensional and various detrimental factors or dangerous
phenomena such as an additional heeling moment due to taking water on deck, or
cargo shift due to large roll motions, may occur in combinations with the above-
mentioned phenomena, simultaneously or in a sequence. This could create an
extremely dangerous combination which may cause ship capsize.
Dangerous navigation conditions in following and quartering seas
There are two critical ship conditions under which the dangerous phenomena described
above are more likely to occur:
• When the ship speed approaches the phase velocity of the wave
• When the ship speed is nearly equal to the group velocity of wave

Psychometric Evaluation Faculty of Human Resource
Development Page: 93
Human Factor in Errors
The maritime system is a people system . People interact with technology, the environment, and
organizational factors. In the maritime context, the term Human Element embraces anything that
influences the interaction between a human and any other human or system or machine aboard
ship. This has been with us since time immemorial, but it is the humans, systems and machines
that have changed, not only through the increase in technology, but also because of higher
commercial demands.
Sometimes the weak link is with the people themselves; but more often the weak link is the way
that technological, environmental, or organizational factors influence the way people perform.
About 75-96% of marine casualties are caused, at least in part, by some form of human error.
Studies have shown that human error contributes to:
• 84-88% of tanker accidents

• 79% of towing vessel groundings
• 89-96% of collisions
• 75% of allisions
• 75% of fires and explosions
Given such a scenario, a seafarer’s level of competence to handle crisis and prevent it , will
depend not only on good and effective education and training and realistic competencies, but also
on aptitude –the ability to absorb knowledge and to understand the subject and on his own skill
and proficiency as also upon complete understanding of his team . An integral component of
functioning on board is the recognition of varying individual differences among the crew onboard
as also the multivariate cultures that they come from.
A seafarer’s attitude at work will be driven by his mental ability, intelligence, personality and
sensitivity. Self awareness and Self evaluation are the key drivers which not only help prevent
accidents, but foresight and planning can remove such threats altogether. Motivation is driven by
good communication, direction, teamwork, empowerment and character building in order to
provide the seafarer with a sense of leadership, interoperability and adaptability.
A ship is unique in that it is not only a place of work with different operational areas of a bridge,
machine room , engine room ,cargo controls etc. but also a ‘home’ to those who work onboard. It
is a ‘Floating platform’ which can be affected by external and internal environmental conditions
such as weather, temperature, humidity, noise, vibration etc. , in such a high stress scenario it
becomes imperative that seafarers be well equipped mentally to negotiate the demands of the
profession and be willing to take on the challenge it affords.

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Ship Manoeuvering

B-1, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016

1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 01-21

2. Review of Basic Principles........................................................................ 22-24

3. Standard Maneuvers................................................................................... 25-30

4. Wind and Current Effect........................................................................... 31-42

5. Shallow Water Effect.................................................................................. 43-52

6. Bank Channel & Interaction Effect.......................................................... 53-71

7. Anchoring & SBM....................................................................................... 72-79

8. Planning and Carrying out a Voyage......................................................... 80-92

9. Human Resource Development..................................................................93-94

This course material is proprietary to ARI

B-1, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016

This course material is proprietary to ARI

This course material is proprietary to ARI

This course material is proprietary to ARI

10. Dragging anchor; clearing

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META MANUAL VOLUME-II, 1999, TABLE II/2

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9.8 Determining maneuvering and propulsion

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Provision & Display of Maneuvering Information on board ships

2. Maneuvering characteristics in deep water

3. Stopping and speed control characteristics in deep water

4. Maneuvering characteristics in shallow water

5. Maneuvering characteristics in wind

6. Maneuvering characteristics at low speed

Standards for Ship Manoeurability

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Chapter V “Safety of Navigation”

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The pivot Point

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Figure: 1 The Position of Pivot Point

Figure: 2 The Position of Pivot Point

Figure: 3 The Position of Pivot Point

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Making stern way

Diesel engines, fixed propeller

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Transverse Thrust on the propeller

Figure: 4 Going Ahead

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Figure: 5 & 6 Going Astern

Controllable Pitch Propellers (CPP)

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Figure: 7 Controllable Pitch Propellers (CPP)

Transverse Thrust Effect on CPP ships:

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Stopped and Alongside

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Figure: 8 Stopped and Alongside

Ships with Two Propellers

Figure: 9 Twin screw, both ahead

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Figure: 10 Port Propeller ahead Figure: 11 Notice lower level of water at

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Other effects acting on the vessel:

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