CHAPTER 4

Reflective Pavements and Albedo

Contents
4.1 Introduction 47
4.2 Objectives 49
4.3 Design and Construction of Experimental Sections 49
4.4 Measurement Methodology for Albedo 51
4.4.1 Measurement Method and Equipment 51
4.4.1.1 ASTM C1549 Test Method 51
4.4.1.2 Pyranometer Test Method (ASTM E1918) 53
4.4.1.3 Dual-Pyranometer Test Method 54
4.4.2 Pavement Materials for Measurement 56
4.4.3 Plan for Measurement 58
4.5 Results and Discussion on Albedo 61
4.5.1 Albedo of the Nine Test Sections 61
4.5.2 Albedo of Other Pavement Materials and Some Other Land Covers 63
4.5.3 Diurnal Variation of Albedo 66
4.5.4 Seasonal Variation of Albedo 66
4.5.5 Change of Albedo over Time 68
4.5.6 Influence of Cloudiness on Albedo 69
4.5.7 Influence of Wind Speed and Air Temperature on Albedo 71
4.5.8 Effect of Albedo on Pavement Temperature 73
4.6 Summary and Conclusions 75

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Reflective pavements can be used as a cool pavement to mitigate heat
island effects through reflective cooling. Albedo (or solar reflectivity) is an
indicator of the reflecting power of a surface (e.g., pavement) and a key
thermal characteristic that significantly influences the thermal performance
of the surface. It is defined as the ratio of the reflected solar radiation to the
incident solar radiation at the surface. Albedo is a dimensionless fraction and
is measured on a scale from 0 to 1. An albedo of 0 means no reflecting
power of a perfectly black surface (none reflected, all absorbed), an albedo
of 1 means perfect reflection off a perfectly white surface (100% reflected).
Solar reflectivity depends on the frequency or wavelength of the solar

Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation

ISBN 978-0-12-803476-7 © 2016 Elsevier Inc.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803476-7.00004-0 All rights reserved. 47
48 Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation

radiation. When albedo is reported without qualifications, it usually refers

to some appropriate average across the spectrum of frequencies or wave-
lengths [108,109].
It is assumed that reflected radiation is both diffuse and specular in
nature, meaning that it is diffuse if the reflected radiation is the same in all
angular directions and specular if the surface of reflection is smooth with
respect to the wavelength of the incident radiation such that the laws of
reflection are satisfied. Pavement materials and most land-cover types are
generally diffuse, and thus the reflected radiation is uniform or isotropic in
all angular directions [109,110].
The temperatures of pavement surfaces exposed to solar radiation are
generally higher than the adjacent air temperatures owing to heating by
absorbed solar radiation, thus creating a surface heat island. The extent to
which solar radiation influences surface temperatures depends on the solar
reflectance of the exposed pavement surface. A low solar-reflectance
material, such as a black stone surface, would result in a very large effect,
while a high solar-reflectance material, such as fresh snow, would result in a
small effect on surface temperature. Therefore, solar reflectivity is a factor of
great significance for evaluating and modeling the thermal performance of
pavements and other land-cover types [26,27,111].
There are some values of albedo reported in the literature for some
pavement materials. Pomerantz et al. conducted some studies on more
reflective pavements and their benefits and measured the albedos of some
pavement materials such as Portland cement concrete and chip seals using
light-colored aggregates [20,29,67,68,70]. Levinson and Akbari [69] per-
formed a study on the effects of concrete mix composition (proportioning
of cement, aggregate, and sand in the concrete) and exposure on the solar
reflectance of Portland cement concrete. Synnefa et al. [75] measured the
optical properties and thermal performance of asphalt samples with colored
thin coatings and evaluated their impact on the urban environment. Wong
et al. [74] performed a study on the effectiveness of heat-mitigating
pavement coatings in Singapore and measured the albedo of different
types of coatings.
However, data on albedo of different types of pavement materials
is relatively limited or absent for some pavement surface types. Most
existing studies refer to albedo values from a very limited number of
literature sources or simply assume a value for evaluating and modeling
the thermal performance of pavements and other land-cover surfaces
 Reflective Pavements and Albedo 49

(e.g., [33,112–116]) and their impacts on human thermal comfort, building

energy use (e.g., [34,36,39,106,117–119]), and air quality. This limitation
increases the barriers and uncertainty for understanding, evaluating, and
modeling thermal performance and consequential environmental impacts of
pavements and other land-cover types with different albedos.

4.2 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this chapter are to: (1) design and construct experimental
sections with various pavement types, (2) perform field measurements of
albedo for various pavement materials on experimental test sections and
other existing pavements, (3) compare the albedo for various materials, (4)
examine the factors affecting the field measurement of albedo, (5) examine
diurnal and seasonal changes in albedo, and (6) examine the effect of albedo
on pavement temperature.

4.3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXPERIMENTAL

SECTIONS
Nine 4-m by 4-m (13-ft by 13-ft) experimental sections were designed
and constructed. These specifically built test sections and some other
existing pavements were used to measure the fundamental materials
properties, including albedo, permeability, thermal properties, and evap-
oration rate (for some of the materials used in the experimental sections),
and empirically examine the thermal behaviors of different pavement
types at different seasons and under different moisture conditions and their
impacts on near-surface air and building surfaces, which are presented in
Chapters 4–10. The plan design and cross-sections for each experimental
section are shown in Figure 4.1. The experimental sections include three
different pavement surfacing materials, namely interlocking concrete
paver (surfacing type A), open-graded asphalt concrete (surfacing type B),
and pervious concrete (surfacing type C). For each pavement surfacing
type, one impermeable pavement design (design 1) and two permeable
pavement designs (designs 2 and 3) were designed. Both of the permeable
interlocking concrete paver pavements have the same cross-sections, the
difference is in the solar reflectivity of the pavers. Both of the permeable
asphalt sections have the same surface material, the difference is in the
thickness of the layers. The two permeable concrete sections have
different thickness and concrete surface material mix designs, meaning that
50 Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation

(a) Design 1: Design 2: Design 3:

Impermeable Pavement Permeable Pavement Permeable Pavement

Regular Paver 8cm (3 in) Permeable Paver 8cm (3in) Permeable Paver 8cm (3in)
Bedding Layer 2.5cm Bedding Layer 2.5cm (1in) Bedding Layer 2.5cm (1in)
1
AB -D 15cm (6in) AB2-O 15cm (6in) 2
AB -O 30cm (12in)
SG-C
SG-U
SG-U

(b) Design 1: Design 2: Design 3

Impermeable Pavement Permeable Pavement Permeable Pavement

Surface-D 10cm (4in) Surface-O 10cm (4in) Surface-O 20cm (8in)

1
AB -D 15cm (6in) 2
AB -O 30cm (12in)
AB2-O 30cm (12in)
SG-C
SG-U
SG-U

(c)
Design 3 Design 2 Design 1

A: Interlocking A3 A2 A1
Concrete Paver

B: Asphalt B3 B2 B1

Original Soil

C: Concrete C3 C2 C1

Figure 4.1 Designs of experimental sections for the cool pavement study.
(a) Cross-sections for interlocking concrete paver pavements (A). (b) Cross-sections for
asphalt (B) and concrete (C) pavements. (c) Schematic plan view (six permeable
pavements shown in shaded area, i.e., left two columns).

the aggregate gradations, cement contents, and other ingredient pro-

portions are different. The permeable concrete section C2 is darker than
C3, which will give different albedos.
The nine experimental sections were constructed as designed during the
summer of 2011 at the University of California Pavement Research Center
 Reflective Pavements and Albedo 51

(UCPRC) test facilities in Davis, California. The construction materials

used for the test sections are listed in Table 4.1.
Some example photos of the construction process for each layer of the
pavement structures are shown in Figure 4.2. The soil of each section was
first excavated to the design elevation to create the space for the base and
surface layers (Figure 4.2(a)). The surface of the subgrade was prepared to
create a level surface. For the six permeable sections, the subgrade was not
compacted to ensure a high permeability of subgrade. The subgrade was
compacted for the three impermeable sections. The permeability of the
subgrade was measured on at least three locations for each section before
the aggregate base was constructed. As shown in Figure 4.2(b), the
aggregate was then poured into the prepared space and compacted three
times using a jumping jack compactor. The thickness and level of the
aggregate base were checked to ensure the design thickness and the surface
level. After the aggregate bases were in place, the surface layers of paver,
asphalt, and concrete were paved as shown in Figure 4.2(c) and (d). A photo
view of the complete construction process for the experimental sections is
presented in Figure 4.3.

4.4 MEASUREMENT METHODOLOGY FOR ALBEDO

4.4.1 Measurement Method and Equipment
There are two American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
standard testing methods for determining solar reflectance of a surface:
(1) ASTM C1549, Standard Test Method for Determination of Solar
Reflectance Near Ambient Temperature Using a Portable Solar Reflec-
tometer [46], and (2) ASTM E1918, Standard Test Method for Measuring
Solar Reflectance of Horizontal and Low-Sloped Surfaces in the
Field [47].

4.4.1.1 ASTM C1549 Test Method

Solar spectrum reflectance measurement with this method relies on a
testing instrument with an integrated radiation source and four detectors
with filters for four specific wavelength ranges. This test method is best
suited to use on flat and homogeneous smooth surfaces, such as single-ply
membranes and smooth modified-bitumen membranes. The test method
also requires that a surface to be tested is dry. However, it is not
suitable for rough surfaces such as gravel and some other pavement
surfaces [46].
 52
Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation
Table 4.1 Construction material quantity needed for test sections
No. of
Material Type Thickness Quantity per sectionc sections Total quantityc
Base layer Oa (ASTM No. 57) 30 cm (12 in) 9.5 tons 6 57 tons
Base layer Db (Class 2) 15 cm (6 in) 5.5 tons 3 16.5 tons
Bedding layer Oa (ASTM No. 8) 2.5 cm (1 in) 1 ton 2 2 tons
Bedding layer Sand (ASTM C33) 2.5 cm (1 in) 1 ton 1 1 ton
HMA surface Oa 10 cm (4 in) 3.8 tons 1 11.4 tons
20 cm (8 in) 7.6 tons 1
Db 10 cm (4 in) 4.4 tons 1 4.4 tons
PCC surface Oa 10 cm (4 in) 1.9 m3 (2.5 yd3) 1 5.7 m3 (7.5 yd3)
20 cm (8 in) 3.8 m3 (5.0 yd3) 1
Db 10 cm (4 in) 1.9 m3 (2.5 yd3) 1 1.9 m3 (2.5 yd3)
Paver surface Permeable 8 cm (31/8 in) 16 m2 (w180 ft2) 2 32 m2 (w360 ft2)
Paver surface Impermeable 8 cm (31/8 in) 16 m2 (w180 ft2) 1 16 m2 (w180 ft2)
Edge curb Wood 5
10 cm (2
4 in) 16 m (w55 ft) 9 150 m (w495 ft)
a
Open-graded.
b
Dense-graded.
c
Metric ton (1000 kg).
 Reflective Pavements and Albedo 53

Figure 4.2 Construction of experimental sections for the cool pavement study.
(a) Preparation of the subgrade layers. (b) Construction of base layers. (c) Construction
of surface layers (paver pavements). (d) Construction of surface layers (concrete
pavements). (e) Construction of surface layer (asphalt pavement).

4.4.1.2 Pyranometer Test Method (ASTM E1918)

The device employed in this test method allows for calculation of solar
reflectance based on alternate readings of incoming solar radiation and
reflected solar radiation on a surface using only one pyranometer. The test
procedure is weather-sensitive. It requires cloudless weather and a sun angle
to the normal from the test surface of less than 45 to obtain valid and
repeatable solar reflectance values [47].
This test method is suited to measurements over all types of flat sur-
faces, including textured or irregular surfaces such as gravel surfacing.
54 Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation

Figure 4.2 Cont'd

However, it has only one pyranometer to measure both the incoming

solar radiation and the reflected solar radiation on a surface. After the
incoming solar radiation is measured, the pyranometer has to be flipped
over to measure the reflected solar radiation [47]. This is not convenient
and might increase measurement error since the incoming solar radiation
and reflected solar radiation are not measured at the same time, especially
on cloudy days.

4.4.1.3 Dual-Pyranometer Test Method

To improve the convenience and reduce the measurement error of
ASTM E1918, a dual pyranometer was selected and used to perform the
 Reflective Pavements and Albedo 55

Figure 4.2 Cont'd

measurement of solar reflectivity in this study. A dual pyranometer (also

called albedometer) is composed of two star pyranometers. One pyran-
ometer faces upward and the other faces downward. Incident global solar
radiation (diffuse and direct solar radiation) with wavelengths of 0.3–3 mm
is measured by the upward-facing pyranometer, while reflected solar
radiation from surfaces is measured by the downward-facing pyranometer
[120]. Separate outputs are provided for each pyranometer, which can
be read from an indicator or recorded together automatically using a data
logger.
Testing in this study was conducted in accordance with ASTM E1918,
following the standard method except using a dual pyranometer. The
56 Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation

Figure 4.2 Cont'd

Model 240-8140 dual pyranometer was purchased from NovaLynx Cor-

poration® in July 2011, with a calibration certificate and showing a mea-
surement error of less than 1 W/m2. The data were recorded automatically
using a data acquisition system (DAS) composed of a CR 10X data logger
(from Campbell Scientific, Inc.®) powered by a battery and connected to a
computer. This allows monitoring of the solar reflectivity of a surface over
long time periods. The whole measurement system is shown in Figure 4.4.

4.4.2 Pavement Materials for Measurement

The albedo measurements for this study were performed mainly on the
nine 4-m by 4-m (13-ft by 13-ft) test sections, which were specifically
 Figure 4.2 Cont'd

B3 A3 A2
C3 B2 A1
C2 B1

C1

A=Interlocking Concrete Paver

B=Asphalt Pavement;
C=Concrete Pavement;
1=Impermeable Design;
2&3=Different Permeable Designs

Figure 4.3 Photo view of all experimental sections at UCPRC facility.

58 Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation

(a) (b)

Figure 4.4 Albedo measurement system with a dual pyranometer. (a) Dual pyran-
ometer (albedometer). (b) DAS: data logger (CR10X), battery, and computer.

constructed during the summer of 2011 at the UCPRC test facilities in

Davis, California (as shown in Figure 4.3). The summary for each test
section along with surface mix design and other characteristics is provided
in Table 4.2. As noted previously, both of the permeable interlocking
concrete paver pavements have the same cross-section, the difference is in
the solar reflectivity of the pavers. Both of the permeable asphalt sections
have the same surface material, the difference is in the thickness of the
layers. The two permeable concrete sections have different thicknesses and
different concrete surface material mix designs, meaning that the aggregate
gradations, cement contents, and other ingredient proportions are different.
The permeable concrete section C2 is darker than C3, resulting in different
albedos.
In addition to these nine sections, some extra pavement sections with
conventional impermeable asphalt and concrete surfacing were also
included in the study for field measurement of albedo. In addition, albedo
was measured on some other land-cover materials, including gravel, soil,
and grass, for comparison. Some of these materials were different ages when
the measurement of solar reflectivity was conducted on them. The overall
summary of materials used for albedo measurement in this study and the
dates of measurement are summarized in Table 4.3.

4.4.3 Plan for Measurement

The dual pyranometer with DAS was used to measure the albedo of all
pavement test sections in the experimental sections (pavers, asphalt, and
Table 4.2 Experimental plan for field albedo measurement on nine test sections
Pavement layer Base layer
Thickness Thickness
Section Typea (cm) Typea (cm) Test locationsb Test method
c
A1 ICP-I 10 AB-I 15 SE, NE, NW, SW, CT Dual pyranometer
A2 ICP-P 10c AB-P 15 SE, NE, NW, SW, CT Dual pyranometer
A3 ICP-P 10d AB-P 30 SE, NE, NW, SW, CT Dual pyranometer
B1 AC-I 10 AB-I 15 SE, NE, NW, SW, CT Dual pyranometer
B2 AC-P 10 AB-P 30 SE, NE, NW, SW, CT Dual pyranometer
B3 AC-P 20 AB-P 30 SE, NE, NW, SW, CT Dual pyranometer
C1 PCC-I 10 AB-I 15 SE, NE, NW, SW, CT Dual pyranometer

Reflective Pavements and Albedo

C2 PCC-P1e 10 AB-P 30 SE, NE, NW, SW, CT Dual pyranometer
C3 PCC-P2e 20 AB-P 30 SE, NE, NW, SW, CT Dual pyranometer
a
ICP, interlocking concrete paver; AC, asphalt concrete; PCC, Portland cement concrete; AB, aggregate base; I, impermeable; P, permeable.
b
SE, southeast; NE, northeast; NW, northwest; SW, southwest; CT, center.
c
Includes the thickness of paver (6 cm) and underlying bedding layer (4 cm).
d
Includes the thickness of paver (8 cm) and underlying bedding layer (2 cm).
e
The two pervious concrete materials have very different mix designs, cement and aggregate types.

59
 60
Table 4.3 Summary of materials and plan for albedo measurement

Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation

Surface category Permeability Binder/cement/color type Codea Measurement date (month/day/year)
Asphalt Impermeable Conventional B1 9/19/2011, 10/13/2011, 2/15/2012, 5/2/2012
Permeable Polymer modified B2b 9/19/2011, 10/13/2011, 2/15/2012, 5/2/2012
Permeable Polymer modified B3 9/19/2011, 10/13/2011, 2/15/2012, 5/2/2012
Impermeable Polymer modified PMA 10/13/2011
Impermeable Rubberized RHMA 10/13/2011
Impermeable Warm mixed asphalt WMA 10/13/2011
Permeable Polymer modified OGFC 10/13/2011
Impermeable Conventional Aged AC 10/13/2011
Concrete Impermeable Conventional C1 9/19/2011, 10/13/2011, 2/15/2012, 5/2/2012
Permeable Conventional C2c 9/19/2011, 10/13/2011, 2/15/2012, 5/2/2012
Permeable White C3 9/19/2011, 10/13/2011, 2/15/2012, 5/2/2012
Impermeable Conventional PCC 10/13/2011
Interlocking Impermeable Conventionaleorange A1 9/19/2011, 10/13/2011, 2/15/2012, 5/2/2012
Concrete paver Permeable Conventionalechampagne A2 9/19/2011, 10/13/2011, 2/15/2012, 5/2/2012
Permeable Conventionaleorange A3 9/19/2011, 10/13/2011, 2/15/2012, 5/2/2012
Gravel Permeable e Gravel 10/13/2011
Soil Permeable e Soil 10/13/2011
Grass Permeable e Grass 10/13/2011
a
Code: A1–A3, B1–B3, C1–C3 are experimental test sections described in Figure 4.1. PMA, polymer modified asphalt; RHMA, rubberized hot mixed asphalt;
WMA, warm mixed asphalt; OGFC, open graded friction course; AC, asphalt concrete; PCC, Portland cement concrete.
b
Monitored continuously over time.
c
Monitored continuously in one day.
 Reflective Pavements and Albedo 61

concrete). For each test section, the albedo measurement was conducted at
five different locations: the southeast corner, northeast corner, northwest
corner, southwest corner, and center. At least six measurements were
performed at each location. A summary of the experimental test plan for the
nine test sections is shown in Table 4.2.
The measurements on the nine experimental test sections (A1–A3,
B1–B3, and C1–C3) were repeated on four different dates in one
year (September 2011 to May 2012). The measurements on the other
materials were conducted at two or three different locations with at
least six measurements for each location. All these measurements were
performed at midday (mostly 12:00 PM–2:00 PM). For some materials
(mainly for B2), the solar reflectivity was monitored continuously over
time.
The weather data (including air temperature, relative humidity, solar
radiation, wind speed, and rainfall) during the measurement period were
also monitored using a nearby mobile weather station from Campbell
Scientific, Inc.®. The measurement plan in this study is summarized in
Table 4.3.
The pavement temperatures of the nine experimental test sections
(A1–A3, B1–B3, and C1–C3) were continuously monitored from the fall
of 2011 through the summer of 2012 using type T thermocouple sensors
(from Omega Engineering, Inc.® and with measurement error of less than
0.5  C) and a CR10X data logger. Some temperature data were used
to examine the seasonal effects of albedo on the pavement thermal
performance.

4.5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ON ALBEDO

4.5.1 Albedo of the Nine Test Sections
The albedos of the nine test sections (A1–A3, B1–B3, and C1–C3) were
initially measured at five different locations (four corners and one center)
at around 1:00 PM on 19 September 2011. The measured albedos are
illustrated in Figure 4.5 for each location on all nine sections using a box
plot. As shown in the plot, the albedo measured at one location on a
particular plot is relatively constant, which verifies the high accuracy of the
albedo measurement equipment used in this study. However, the albedos
measured at different locations on one section show some level of variation;
this implies that the pavement surface is not uniform in albedo or color on
each section, especially for concrete section C3. The summary box plot of
albedos at five locations on each section, Figure 4.6, gives an even clearer
62 Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation

(a) 0.35
0.30

0.25

0.20
Albedo

0.15

0.10

0.05
1-Impermeable Design; 2 & 3-Permeable Designs.
0.00 NE-Northeast; NW-Northwest; SE-Southeast; SW-Southwest; CT-Center.
A1-CT

A2-CT
A1-SW

A3-CT
A2-SW

A3-SW
A1-NW
A1-SE

A2-NW
A2-SE

A3-NW
A3-SE
A1-NE

A2-NE

A3-NE
Section-Location
(b)
0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20
Albedo

0.15

0.10

0.05
1-Impermeable Design; 2 & 3-Permeable Designs.
0.00 NE-Northeast; NW-Northwest; SE-Southeast; SW-Southwest; CT-Center.
B1-CT

B2-CT

B3-CT
B1-SW

B2-SW

B3-SW
B1-NW

B2-NW

B3-NW
B1-NE

B1-SE

B2-NE

B2-SE

B3-NE

B3-SE

Section-Location
(c)
0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20
Albedo

0.15

0.10

0.05
1-Impermeable Design; 2 & 3-Permeable Designs.
0.00 NE-Northeast; NW-Northwest; SE-Southeast; SW-Southwest; CT-Center.
C1-CT

C2-CT
C1-NW

C1-SW

C3-CT
C2-NW

C2-SW

C3-NW

C3-SW
C1-NE

C1-SE

C2-NE

C2-SE

C3-NE

C3-SE

Section-Location

Figure 4.5 Albedo of different materials at different locations measured on 19

September 2011. (a) Interlocking concrete paver sections A1–A3. (b) Asphalt pavement
sections B1–B3. (c) Concrete pavement sections C1–C3. CT, center; NE, northeast; NW,
northwest; SE, southeast; SW, southwest.
 Reflective Pavements and Albedo 63

illustration of this variation of albedo across these nine sections. Sections B2

and C2 are the most uniform, with only small variations across the 4-m-
wide pavements. Sections C1 and C3 show the largest variation. This
suggests that for any pavement the albedo should be measured at different
locations to obtain a representative sample of albedo value, since one point
may not be representative of the whole paved area.
The summary statistics of albedo for the nine sections measured on 19
September 2011 are listed in Table 4.4. As expected, the asphalt sections,
which are black, have lower albedos (0.09 for B1 and 0.08 for B2 and B3).
As mentioned previously, sections B2 and B3 have the same surface material
(only thicknesses are different) and have the same albedo (0.08), as ex-
pected. The three concrete sections (C1–C3) have a range of mean albedo
of 0.18–0.29. The darker concrete section C2 has a lower albedo of 0.18
compared to the other two concrete sections (0.26 for C3 and 0.29 for C1).
The paver sections (A1–A3) have albedos close to the more reflective
concrete sections (C1 and C3), which are in the range of 0.25–0.28. The
relatively low albedo of asphalt pavements will absorb more incident solar
radiation and produce a high temperature. In contrast, the concrete and
paver pavements generally have a higher albedo, which will reflect more
incident solar radiation and produce a lower pavement temperature.

4.5.2 Albedo of Other Pavement Materials and Some Other

Land Covers
The albedo also was measured on pavements with asphalt and concrete
surfacing materials other than the above nine experimental sections to

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20
Albedo

0.15

0.10

0.05 A-Interlocking Concrete Pavement;

B-Asphalt Pavement;
C-Concrete Pavement.
0.00 1-Impermeable Design; 2 & 3-Permeable Designs.

A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3
Section

Figure 4.6 Overall albedos of nine test sections measured on 19 September 2011.
 64
Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation
Table 4.4 Summary statistics of albedo for various materials measured on 19 September 2011
Section Number
no. Surface category Permeability of tests Mean SD Median Min Max Max  min
A1 Paver Impermeable 40 0.28 0.01 0.28 0.24 0.29 0.05
A2 Paver Permeable 40 0.25 0.02 0.25 0.22 0.29 0.07
A3 Paver Permeable 33 0.28 0.01 0.28 0.25 0.29 0.04
B1 Asphalt Impermeable 58 0.09 0.01 0.09 0.07 0.10 0.03
B2 Asphalt Permeable 58 0.08 0.01 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.02
B3 Asphalt Permeable 33 0.08 0.01 0.08 0.07 0.10 0.03
C1 Concrete Impermeable 38 0.29 0.02 0.30 0.27 0.31 0.04
C2 Concrete Permeable 44 0.18 0.00 0.18 0.17 0.19 0.02
C3 Concrete Permeable 70 0.26 0.02 0.26 0.23 0.28 0.05
 Reflective Pavements and Albedo 65

include additional pavement surface materials for comparison. These

pavements have different mix designs for materials, with different binder
or cement and aggregate types compared to those used in the nine test
sections. Moreover, these pavements have ages between 1 and 5 years,
while the nine experimental test sections had ages of less than 3 months.
Despite their older age, the additional pavement surfaces had not been
subjected to much traffic, so aging processes related to traffic were not
visible. For example, the asphalt covering the aggregate on the pavement
surface had not been worn off. Albedos measured on gravel, bare soil, and
grass are also included for comparison. The results are shown in
Figure 4.7.
The additional types of asphalt pavement materials tested include
a polymer-modified asphalt (PMA; should not affect the albedo), gap-
graded rubberized hot mix asphalt (RHMA; which contains a higher
asphalt binder content and recycled tire rubber, which is expected to
affect the albedo), rubberized warm mix asphalt (RWMA; a different
RHMA mix with a “warm mix” additive that should not affect the al-
bedo), an open-graded asphalt friction course (OGFC), and an aged
asphalt concrete (AC). The PMA section showed a slightly higher
mean albedo of 0.12 compared to 0.08 for the RHMA and 0.06 for the

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20
Albedo

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

PMA RHMA RWMA Aged AC OGFC PCC Gravel Grass Soil

Material

Figure 4.7 Albedo of other pavement and land-cover materials. PMA, polymer
modified asphalt; RHMA, rubberized hot mixed asphalt; RWMA, rubberized warm
mixed asphalt; Aged AC, aged asphalt concrete; OGFC, open graded friction course;
PCC, Portland cement concrete.
66 Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation

RWMA. The aged asphalt pavement (aged AC) of 4 years resulted in a

higher albedo of 0.14. The newly paved OGFC layer had a low albedo of
0.07. The lower albedos of the RHMA, RWMA, and OGFC were
expected because of their higher asphalt content and the inclusion of
tire rubber in the binder of the RHMA and RWMA. The higher albedo
of the aged asphalt was also expected because of the oxidation of the
asphalt.
The extra concrete pavements (PCC) had albedos in the range of
0.25–0.35 with an average of 0.26, which is close to that of concrete
pavements in the nine test sections.
The gravel measured in this study was crushed open-graded basalt paved
on the yard of the UCPRC facility. It had a maximum aggregate size of
19 mm and was blue/gray in color. This gravel had albedos in the range of
0.12–0.22 with an average of 0.18. The bare soil (native clay between the
nine test sections) had an albedo of 0.22. The grass (green lawn) had an
albedo of 0.19.

4.5.3 Diurnal Variation of Albedo

To examine the diurnal variation of albedo, the solar reflectivity was
continuously monitored over time on one clear day on a concrete
pavement (C2) and on another clear day on an asphalt pavement (B2)
and is plotted in Figure 4.8. Regarding the measured albedo over time
during the day, it is high in the early morning and then low and relatively
constant around the middle of the day (9:00–15:00 h) and then low
again in the late afternoon when there is a low incident angle of solar
radiation as in the early morning. The diurnal variation of solar reflectivity
of an asphalt pavement (B2) over three days is plotted in Figure 4.9. The
same trend was observed for the concrete pavement results. This implies
that the albedo should be measured in the middle of the day (9:00–
15:00 h) to obtain a constant and conservative value. Otherwise, if the
albedo is measured in the early morning and late afternoon, the value
obtained will tend to be larger than that measured in the middle of the
day.

4.5.4 Seasonal Variation of Albedo

The solar reflectivity was continuously monitored over one year (fall
2011 to summer 2012) on a permeable asphalt pavement (B2). The albedo
on three days of each season is plotted in Figure 4.10. As seen from
Figure 4.10, there was no significant change in the measured midday albedo
 Reflective Pavements and Albedo 67

(a) 0.35 1000

Albedo
Incident Solar Radiation
0.30 Reflected Solar Radiation
800
Incident Solar Radiation
0.25

Radiation (W/m2)
600
0.20
Albedo

Albedo
0.15
400

0.10
200
0.05
Reflected Solar Radiation
0.00 0
0:00 4:00 8:00 12:00 16:00 20:00 0:00
Time
(b)
0.35 Albedo 1000
Incident Solar Radiation
0.30 Reflected Solar Radiation
800
0.25
2
)
Radiation (W m
600
0.20
Albedo

0.15
400

0.10
200
0.05

0.00 0

00:00 04:00 08:00 12:00 16:00 20:00 00:00

Time
Figure 4.8 Diurnal variation of solar reflectivity during one day. (a) Concrete pavement
(C2). (b) Asphalt pavement (B2).
68 Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation

0.35 Albedo 1000

Incident Solar Radiation
0.30 Reflected Solar Radiation
800
0.25

2
)
Radiation (W m
600
0.20
Albedo

0.15
400

0.10
200
0.05

0.00 0

00 06 12 18 00 06 12 18 00 06 12 18 00
06/06/12 06/07/12 06/08/12 06/09/12
Time
Figure 4.9 Diurnal variation of solar reflectivity over three days (B2). Time is shown as
month/day/year.

over a season in a year, except a slightly higher albedo in winter

(Figure 4.10(b)), when the angle of the sun was lower.
To verify the impact of season on albedo, the albedos at various times
of day on one clear day for each month in one year are plotted against time
in Figure 4.11. As found previously, the albedo measured in early morning
and late afternoon was higher than that of midday. The midday albedo
(11:00–15:00 h in summer, 12:00–15:00 h in winter) was lower and con-
stant over time (falling in one curve in Figure 4.11). As observed from
Figure 4.10, it is noted from Figure 4.11 that the midday albedo did not
significantly change over season, other than being slightly higher in
wintertime.

4.5.5 Change of Albedo over Time

The color of the pavement surface tends to change over time owing to
weathering and traffic. Figure 4.12 shows the albedos of nine test sections at
various times after construction. These nine test sections were constructed
for testing and were not open to any type of traffic. As noted, the albedos of
concrete pavements (C1–C3, although albedos of C1 and C3 increased
 Reflective Pavements and Albedo 69

(a) (b)
0.35 1000 0.35 Albedo 1000
Albedo
Incident Solar Radiation Incident Solar Radiation
0.30 Reflected Solar Radiation 0.30 Reflected Solar Radiation
800 800

0.25 0.25

)
)

Radiation (W m
Radiation (W m
600 600
0.20 0.20

Albedo
Albedo

0.15 0.15
400 400

0.10 0.10
200 200
0.05 0.05

0.00 0 0.00 0

00 06 12 18 00 06 12 18 00 06 12 18 00 00 06 12 18 00 06 12 18 00 06 12 18 00
09/20/11 09/21/11 09/22/11 09/23/11 12/03/11 12/04/11 12/05/11 12/06/11
Time Time
(c) (d)
0.35 Albedo 1000
0.35 Albedo 1000
Incident Solar Radiation
Incident Solar Radiation
0.30 Reflected Solar Radiation
0.30 Reflected Solar Radiation
800
800
0.25
0.25
)

)
Radiation (W m

Radiation (W m
600 600
0.20
Albedo

0.20
Albedo

0.15 0.15
400 400

0.10 0.10
200 200
0.05 0.05

0.00 0 0.00 0

00 06 12 18 00 06 12 18 00 06 12 18 00 00 06 12 18 00 06 12 18 00 06 12 18 00
03/06/12 03/07/12 03/08/12 03/09/12 06/06/12 06/07/12 06/08/12 06/09/12
Time Time

Figure 4.10 Seasonal variation of solar reflectivity (B2, fall 2011 through summer
2012). (a) Fall. (b) Winter. (c) Spring. (d) Summer. Time is shown as month/day/year.

slightly in the first month) and interlocking concrete pavers (A1–A3)

generally tended to decrease over time; in contrast, the albedos of asphalt
pavements (B1–B3) increased slightly over time. The change in albedo
mostly happened in the first month just after the construction owing to
weathering. Under both continued weathering and trafficking, the change
in albedo is expected to be larger, and for concrete and especially asphalt,
traffic will wear the binder (cement or asphalt) off of the surface aggregate,
which will result in albedo being influenced by the reflectivity of the
aggregate.

4.5.6 Influence of Cloudiness on Albedo

Cloudiness has an important influence on the incident solar radiation,
reducing the amount of solar radiation incident to the pavement or other
70 Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation

0.35
08:00 14:00
09:00 15:00
0.30 10:00 16:00
11:00 17:00
12:00 18:00
0.25 13:00 19:00

0.20
Albedo

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

09/20/11 11/01/11 12/12/11 01/23/12 03/05/12 04/17/12 05/29/12

Time
Figure 4.11 Seasonal variation of solar reflectivity at various times of the day (B2).
Note: the data with very low solar radiation (<5 W/m2) but a very high albedo in early
morning and late afternoon were neglected. Time is shown as month/day/year.

0.35

0.3

0.25 A1
A2
0.2 A3
Albedo

B1
B2
0.15 B3
C1
C2
0.1
C3

0.05

0
9/4/11 11/3/11 1/2/12 3/2/12 5/1/12
Time (m/d/y)
Figure 4.12 Change of solar reflectivity over time. Nine test sections, only weathered,
pavers A1–A3, asphalt pavements B1–B3, and concrete pavements C1–C3.
 Reflective Pavements and Albedo 71

0.35 1000
Albedo
Incident Solar Radiation
0.30 Reflected Solar Radiation
800

0.25

)
2
Radiation (W m
600
0.20
Albedo

0.15
400

0.10
200
0.05

0.00 0

03/09/12 03/11/12 03/13/12 03/15/12 03/17/12 03/19/12

Time
Figure 4.13 Influence of clouds on solar reflectivity (B2). Time is shown as month/day/
year.

ground surfaces. To examine the influence of clouds on the albedo of

pavements, the albedo of asphalt pavement (B2) on days with different
cloud levels was measured for comparison. As shown in Figure 4.13, the
cloud levels over the days 9–19 March 2012 were different. The cloud
levels on 13–17 March 2012 were much higher than all the other days
during this period, during which the incident solar radiation was quite low.
The midday albedos (w0.05) during the cloudy days and resultant low
incident solar radiation were much lower than those (0.08) on days with
few or no clouds. This implies that the albedo should be measured on a
clear day. Otherwise, a lower albedo will be given, even measured at
midday.

4.5.7 Influence of Wind Speed and Air Temperature

on Albedo
Albedo is expected to be constant regardless of wind speed or air tem-
perature. To verify this concept, the albedo of the asphalt pavement (B2)
on some days with different wind speeds and air temperatures was
measured for comparison. As shown in Figure 4.14(a), the wind speed and
air temperature on 23–25 February 2012 were quite different. The wind
speed on 23 February 2012 was much higher than on the other two days.
72 Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation

(a)
30 15
Air Temperature Wind Speed

25
Air Temperature (° C)

Wind Speed (m s)
20 10

15

10 5

0 0

01 06 11 16 21 02 07 12 17 22 03 08 13 18 23
02/23/12 02/24/12 02/25/12 02/26/12
(b) Time

0.35 Albedo 1000

Incident Solar Radiation
0.30 Reflected Solar Radiation
800
0.25
)
2
Radiation (W m

600
0.20
Albedo

0.15
400

0.10
200
0.05

0.00 0

00 05 10 15 20 01 06 11 16 21 02 07 12 17 22
02/23/12 02/24/12 02/25/12 02/26/12
Time
Figure 4.14 Influence of wind speed on solar reflectivity (B2). (a) Wind speed and air
temperature on 23–25 February 2012. (b) Albedo and solar radiation on 23–25
February 2012.
 Reflective Pavements and Albedo 73

The air temperatures on 23 and 24 February 2012 were higher than that
on 25 February 2012. The albedo and solar radiation on 23–25 February
2012 are plotted in Figure 4.14(b). The albedos around noon were all
around 0.08 on these three days. No significant variation in midday albedo
was observed in this period with quite different wind speeds or air
temperatures.

4.5.8 Effect of Albedo on Pavement Temperature

As mentioned previously, albedo plays an important role in pavement
temperature. To examine the influence of the albedo on the pavement
temperatures, the high (Tmax at 3:00 PM) and low (Tmin at 6:00 AM)
temperatures of the nine experimental pavements with different albedos
were measured from fall 2011 through summer 2012 at Davis, California.
The temperatures for one day of summer (1 July 2012) and winter
(15 January 2012) were selected and plotted against their albedos in
Figure 4.15. This figure illustrates that the albedo has a large influence on
the high temperature in both summer and winter. Under the same weather
conditions in summer, the high temperature of pavement with low albedo
(0.08 for the asphalt) was about 15  C (65 vs 50  C) higher than that

70
y = -61.29x + 68.96
60 R² = 0.91

50 Tmax_Summer
Tmin_Summer
Temperature (°C)

Tmax_Winter
40 Tmin_Winter

30 y = -27.06x + 26.47
R² = 0.78
20

10

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Albedo
Figure 4.15 Influence of solar reflectivity on pavement surface temperature. Summer
on 1 July 2012 with daytime peak solar radiation approximately 1000 W/m2 and winter
on 15 January 2012 with daytime peak solar radiation approximately 500 W/m2.
74 Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation

of pavement with high albedo (0.28 for concrete). In winter, this high
temperature difference was approximately 8  C (26 vs 18  C).
An increase in albedo of 0.1 can reduce the high surface temperature
in summer by approximately 6  C (i.e., 6  C/þ0.1 albedo, which
is approximately the slope of the fitting line for Tmax_Summer in
Figure 4.15), and by approximately 3  C (i.e., 3  C/þ0.1 albedo, which
is approximately the slope of the fitting line for Tmax_Winter in
Figure 4.15) in winter.
This reveals that albedo has different effects on pavement temperature in
summer and winter with different peak solar radiations. The peak solar
radiation intensity at around 1:00 PM is approximately 1000 W/m2 in
summer in Davis, California. It is approximately halved to 500 W/m2 in
winter. The temperature effect of the albedo in winter is also approximately
half of that in summer (6  C/þ0.1 albedo in summer and 3  C/þ0.1
albedo in winter). This implies that solar radiation positively influences the
cooling effect of increased albedo (CEalbedo), and the cooling effect of
increased albedo in hot climates with high solar radiation is larger than that
in climates with low solar radiation. This also can be seen from the insig-
nificant effect of albedo (w0  C/þ0.1 albedo) on the low temperature
during nighttime with no solar radiation for both summer and winter.
To further illustrate the influence of solar radiation on the cooling effect
of an increased albedo, the cooling effects of increased albedo on high
temperatures in each month of a year were calculated from measured
temperature data (just obtained from the slopes of the fitting lines between
surface temperature and surface albedo for each month as shown in
Figure 4.16). These calculated cooling effects of increased albedo on high
temperatures in each month of a year are presented in Figure 4.16(a) along
with the peak solar radiation intensity in each month. It is revealed that the
cooling effect of increased albedo does change over seasons and thus
changes with the peak solar radiation intensity. The cooling effect is higher
in summer, with high peak solar radiation intensity, and lower during
winter, with low peak solar radiation. The correlation between the cooling
effect of increased albedo and solar radiation is shown in Figure 4.16(b)
and with a best-fit linear relation in Eq. (4.1) below. An increase in peak
solar radiation intensity of 100 W/m2 will produce an increase in cooling
effect on the surface temperature of albedo of 0.6  C/0.1 change in albedo.

CEalbedo ¼ 6q ðR2 ¼ 0:9Þ (4.1)

In Eq. (4.1) q is the peak global solar radiation flux hitting the pavement
(kW/m2) and CEalbedo is the cooling effect of albedo increased by 0.1 on
 Reflective Pavements and Albedo 75

(a)
7 1200
Pavement Surface Cooling Effect

Peak Solar Radiation (W/m2)

6 1000

5
800
(°C/0.1 abedo)

4
600
3
400
2

1 Cooling Effect 200

Solar Radiation
0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
(b) 7
Pavement Surface Cooling Effect

6
y = 0.006x
R² = 0.934
5
(°C/0.1 albedo)

0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Peak Solar Radiation (W/m2)
Figure 4.16 Influence of solar radiation on cooling effect of increased albedo. (a) Cooling
effect of increased albedo and peak solar radiation intensity in different months.
(b) Correlation between cooling effect of increased albedo and solar radiation.

pavement temperature ( C/0.1 albedo). This empirical relationship can be

used to roughly estimate the cooling effect of increased albedo or heating
effect of reduced albedo on pavement for various climates and seasons
with different solar radiation.

4.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Nine 4-m by 4-m (13-ft by 13-ft) experimental sections were designed and
constructed at Davis, California, including asphalt pavement, concrete
pavement, and interlocking concrete paver, with a focus on permeable
76 Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation

structures with impermeable pavements as controls. These specifically built

test sections (with some other existing pavements) were used to measure the
fundamental materials properties, including albedo, permeability, thermal
properties, and evaporation rate (for some of the materials used in the
experimental sections), and empirically examine the thermal behavior of
various pavement types in different seasons and under different moisture
conditions and their impacts on near-surface air and building surfaces, the
results of which are presented in Chapters 4–10.
Field measurements of albedo for various pavement materials were
performed on experimental test sections and other existing pavements.
The albedos for various materials were compared, and the factors affecting
the field measurement of albedo and the diurnal and seasonal changes in
albedo were examined. The effect of albedo on pavement temperature
was also examined using measured data of albedo and pavement surface
temperatures. This study contributes three developments to research on
pavement albedo and thermal performance: (1) a new albedo measure-
ment system, (2) new data documenting differences in albedo across
pavement types and over pavement surfaces, and (3) a correlation between
the cooling effect of increased albedo and solar radiation. Main findings
include:
1. A new albedo measurement system using a dual pyranometer and an
automatic data collection system was developed. It can be used to
conveniently measure albedo in the field and perform long-term moni-
toring of albedo when connected to a data acquisition system.
2. Albedo was measured for commonly used paving materials including
asphalt, concrete, and interlocking concrete paver surfacing materials,
with different designs. These new data enhance basic knowledge on
albedo values for pavements as well as the other land-cover types
measured (gravel, soil, and lawn), which can help reduce the uncer-
tainty in understanding, evaluating, and modeling their thermal
behavior and their consequences for human thermal comfort and
building energy use.
3. This study found that the measured albedo of pavement materials is high
in the early morning and in the late afternoon; it is low and constant
over time during midday. This suggests that the albedo should be
measured during midday on a clear day to obtain a stable and conserva-
tive value. No significant seasonal variation in albedo was found. Pave-
ment albedo will change over time under weathering and trafficking,
especially in the first month after construction. Cloud cover will
 Reflective Pavements and Albedo 77

negatively influence the value of albedo measured. No impact of wind

speed or air temperature on albedo was observed.
4. Albedo has a great influence on the pavement surface high temperatures
in the daytime (6  C per 0.1 albedo change in a hot sunny day with
solar radiation of 1000 W/m2) and no significant impact on pavement
low temperatures in the nighttime. An empirical relationship between
the cooling effect of increased albedo on a pavement high temperature
and solar radiation was developed. The cooling effect has a positive
correlation with the peak solar radiation intensity in the daytime. This
simple correlation can help estimate the cooling effect of increased
albedo or heating effect of reduced albedo on pavement for various
climates and seasons with different solar radiation.
5. An increase in albedo indeed can reduce the pavement surface temper-
ature and thus might help mitigate the surface, near-surface, and atmo-
spheric heat island effects, potentially improve outdoor thermal
comfort, and reduce building cooling energy use during hot periods,
depending on the characteristics of the location and the overall urban
area (see the list of additional factors in the introduction). While the
urban heat island effect is a large concern for many cities in hot climates,
and of course is a great concern in the summer, winter effects of pave-
ment albedo and temperature are also important to consider. The
reduced temperature during winter might increase the outdoor thermal
discomfort and building energy use for heating in some climates and
locations. Building energy use is also highly dependent on whether
air conditioners are widely used. There is a chance that this penalty
(i.e., colder pavements) in winter might outweigh the benefits gained
in summer in some regions.
6. This study looked at pavement surface temperature with a focus on the
effects of solar radiation and albedo. It must be noted that near-surface
temperature is also influenced by wind speed, with higher wind speeds
reducing near-surface temperatures. However, compared to solar radi-
ation the effect of wind speed would be much smaller. The effect of
wind speed was assumed to be identical for each case and not explicitly
included in the simple model of cooling effect proposed in this study.
For developing a more comprehensive model, however, the wind speed
can be included, as well as thermal proprieties of pavement materials
(i.e., thermal conductivity and heat capacity).
7. One additional factor that was not measured as part of this research is the
increased reflected solar radiation caused by high albedo, which might
78 Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation

hit and be absorbed by surrounding people or building/vehicle surfaces.

This could increase the human thermal discomfort and building cooling
energy use during hot periods. Therefore, attention should be given to
the complete assessment of both the benefit and penalty over one entire
year to ensure that a positive net benefit will be obtained. The optimal
strategy for changing albedo in a hot climate might be to increase the
albedo during summer and reduce or not change it in winter for certain
places. This intention is to maximize the benefit in summer and mini-
mize the penalty in winter.