Equivalence of formulas: Let A and B be two statement formulas and let

𝐏𝟏 , 𝐏𝟐 , 𝐏𝟑 , … , 𝐏𝐧 denote all the variables occurring in both A and B. If the truth

value of A is equal to the truth value of B for every 2𝑛 possible combination of
truth values, then A and B are said to be equivalent and it is dented by 𝐀 ⇔ 𝐁

Example: ~~ 𝐏 ⇔ P, P ∨ P, etc.

Remarks:
1. ⇔ is not a connective.
2. Two statement formulas A and B are equivalent iff A ↔ B is a tautology.
Example : Prove that
(a) P → Q ⇔ ~ P ∨ Q,
(b) P ↔ Q ⇔ (P → Q ) ∧ (Q → P)
(c) ~ (P ∧ Q) ⇔ ~P ∨ ~ Q
(d) ~ (P ∨ Q) ⇔ ~P ∧~ Q
Equivalent formulae:

1. P V P ⇔ P and P ∧ P ⇔ P (Idempotent law)

2. (P V Q) V R ⇔ P V (Q V R) and (P ∧ Q) ∧ R ⇔ P ∧ (Q ∧ R) (Associative law)

3. P V Q ⇔ Q V P and P ∧ Q ⇔ Q ∧ P (Commutative law)

4. P V (Q ∧ R)⇔ (P V Q ) ∧ (P V R) and P ∧ (Q V R)⇔ (P ∧ Q ) V (P ∧ R) (Distributive law)

5. PVF⇔P and P∧T⇔P (Identity law)

6. PVT⇔T and P∧F⇔F

7. P V ~P ⇔ T and P ∧ ~P ⇔ F (Negation law)

8. P V (P ∧ Q) ⇔ P and P ∧ (P V Q)⇔ P (Absorption law)

9. ~(P V Q) ⇔ ~ P ∧ ~Q and ~(P ∧ Q) ⇔ ~ P V ~Q (Demorgan’s law)

Logic equivalence involving implications
Logic equivalence involving Bi conditional
Without using Truth tables, prove the following
Tautological Implications:
A statement A is said to be tautologically imply a statement B iff A → B is a tautology
and it is denoted by A ⟹ B, which is read as A implies B.

Remark:
1. ‘⟹’ is not a connective.
2. A ⟹ B is not a statement formula.
3. ‘⟹’ is transitive.
4. If 𝑯𝟏 , 𝑯𝟐 , … 𝑯𝒏 ⟹ Q, then (𝑯𝟏 ∧ 𝑯𝟐 ∧ ⋯ ∧ 𝑯𝒏 ⟹ Q)
Example:

1. Prove that P ∧ (P → Q) ⟹ Q using truth table and without using truth table.
2. (P ∧ Q) ⟹ (P → Q)
3. ~(P ↔ Q) ⇔ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ~(P ∧ Q)
Normal Forms:
Let A (𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , … 𝑃𝑛 ) be a statement formula, where 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , … 𝑃𝑛 are the atomic
variables. If we consider all possible assignments of the truth values to 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , … 𝑃𝑛 and
obtain the resulting truth values of the formula A, then we get the truth table for A.

Decision Problem: The problem of determining in a finite number of steps, whether a

given statement formula is a tautology or contradiction or atleast satisfiable is known as
a decision problem.
Satisfiable: If A has truth values T for atleast one combination of truth values assigned
to 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , … 𝑃𝑛 then A is said to be satisfiable.

Construction of truth tables may not be practical , we consider other procedure known as
reduction to normal forms.
Elementary Product:
A product of the variables and their negations in a formula is called an elementary
product.
Example: If P and Q are two atomic variables then 𝐏, ~𝐏 ∧ 𝐐, ~𝐐 ∧ 𝐏 ∧ ~𝐏, 𝐐 ∧ ~𝐏 etc.
are sum examples of elementary products.

Elementary Sum:
A sum of the variables and their negations in a formula is called an elementary sum.
Example: If P and Q are two atomic variables then 𝐏, ~𝐏 ∨ 𝐐, ~𝐐 ∨ 𝐏 ∨ ~𝐏, 𝐐 ∨ ~𝐏 etc.
are sum examples of elementary products
Remark:
1. A necessary and sufficient condition for an elementary product to be identically false
is that it contains atleast one pair of factors in which one is the negation of the other.
2. A necessary and sufficient condition for an elementary sum to be identically true is
that it contains atleast one pair of factors in which one is the negation of the other.

Disjunctive Normal form:

A formula which is equivalent to a given formula and which consist of a sum of
elementary product is called as disjunctive normal form.

Example: Obtain the disjunctive normal form of P ∧ (P → Q)

Solution: P ∧ (P → Q) ⇔ P ∧ (~P ∨ Q)
⇔ (P ∧ ~P) ∨ ( P ∧ Q) Distributive law

Example: Obtain the disjunctive normal form (DNF) of the following

(a) ~(𝐏 ∨ 𝐐) ↔ (𝐏 ∧ 𝐐)
Solution:
~ 𝑃∨𝑄 ↔ 𝑃∧𝑄 ⇔ ~ 𝑃∨𝑄 ⟶ 𝑃∧𝑄 ∧ 𝑃∧𝑄 ⟶~ 𝑃∨𝑄 [𝑷 ↔ 𝑸 ⇔ (𝑷 → 𝑸) ∧ (𝑸 →P)]

⇔ ~~ 𝑃∨𝑄 ∨ 𝑃∧𝑄 ∧ ~ 𝑃∧𝑄 ∨~ 𝑃∨𝑄

⇔ 𝑃∨𝑄 ∨ 𝑃∧𝑄 ∧ ~𝑃 ∨ ~𝑄 ∨ ~𝑃 ∧ ~𝑄

⇔ 𝑃∨𝑄∨𝑃 ∧ 𝑃∨𝑄∨𝑄 ∧ ~𝑃 ∨ ~𝑄 ∨ ~𝑃 ∧ ~𝑃 ∨ ~𝑄 ∨ ~𝑄

⇔ 𝑃∨𝑄 ∧ 𝑃∨𝑄 ∧ ~𝑃 ∨ ~𝑄 ∨ ~𝑃 ∨ ~𝑄

⇔ 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄 ∧ ~𝑃 ∨ ~𝑄

⇔ 𝑃 ∧ ~𝑃 ∨ 𝑃 ∧ ~𝑄 ∨ 𝑄 ∧ ~𝑃 ∨ (𝑄 ∧ ~𝑄)
Example 2. Obtain the disjunctive normal form (DNF) of the following
𝐏 → 𝑷 → 𝑸 ∧ ~(~𝑸 ∨ ~𝑷)
Solution:
𝐏→ 𝑷 → 𝑸 ∧ ~(~𝑸 ∨ ~𝑷) ⇔ ~𝑷 ∨ 𝑷 → 𝑸 ∧ ~(~𝑸 ∨ ~𝑷) [𝑷 → 𝑸 ⇔ ~𝑷 ∨ 𝑸]

⇔ ~𝑷 ∨ ~𝑷 ∨ 𝑸 ∧ (𝑸 ∧ 𝑷) [𝑷 → 𝑸 ⇔ ~𝑷 ∨ 𝑸]

⇔ ~𝑷 ∨ ~𝑷 ∧ (𝑸 ∧ 𝑷) ∨ (𝑸 ∧ 𝑸 ∧ 𝑷 ) [Distributive law]

⇔ ~𝑷 ∨ ~𝑷 ∧ 𝐏 ∧ 𝑸 ∨ (𝑸 ∧ 𝑸 ∧ 𝑷) [Commutative law]
is the required disjunctive normal form.
Solution:
~ 𝑃∨𝑄 ↔ 𝑃∧𝑄 ⇔ ~ 𝑃∨𝑄 ⟶ 𝑃∧𝑄 ∧ 𝑃∧𝑄 ⟶~ 𝑃∨𝑄

⇔ ~~ 𝑃∨𝑄 ∨ 𝑃∧𝑄 ∧ ~ 𝑃∧𝑄 ∨~ 𝑃∨𝑄

⇔ 𝑃∨𝑄 ∨ 𝑃∧𝑄 ∧ ~𝑃 ∨ ~𝑄 ∨ ~𝑃 ∧ ~𝑄

⇔ 𝑃∨𝑄∨𝑃 ∧ 𝑃∨𝑄∨𝑄 ∧ ~𝑃 ∨ ~𝑄 ∨ ~𝑃 ∧ ~𝑃 ∨ ~𝑄 ∨ ~𝑄

⇔ 𝑃∨𝑄 ∧ 𝑃∨𝑄 ∧ ~𝑃 ∨ ~𝑄 ∨ ~𝑃 ∨ ~𝑄

⇔ 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄 ∧ ~𝑃 ∨ ~𝑄

⇔ 𝑃 ∧ ~𝑃 ∨ 𝑃 ∧ ~𝑄 ∨ 𝑄 ∧ ~𝑃 ∨ (𝑄 ∧ ~𝑄)