AS 3774 Supp11997

AS 3774 Supplement 11997

Loads on bulk solids containers Commentary (Supplement 1 to AS 37741996)

Accessed by SINCLAIR KNIGHT MERZ on 06 Jan 2012

This Australian Standard was prepared by Committee BD/65, Loads on Bulk Solids Containers. It was approved on behalf of the Council of Standards Australia on 31 October 1997 and published on 5 December 1997.

The following interests are represented on Committee BD/65: CSIRO, Division of Building, Construction and Engineering Institution of Engineers Australia Swinburne University of Technology University of Melbourne University of Sydney University of Wollongong

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Review of Australian Standards. To keep abreast of progress in industry, Australian Standards are subject to periodic review and are kept up to date by the issue of amendments or new editions as necessary. It is important therefore that Standards users ensure that they are in possession of the latest edition, and any amendments thereto. Full details of all Australian Standards and related publications wil l be found in the Standards Australia Catalogue of Publi cations; this information is supplemented each month by the magazine The Australian Standard, which subscribing members receive, and which gives details of new publications, new editi ons and amendments, and of wit hdrawn Standards. Suggestions for improvements to Australian Standards, addressed to the head office of Standards Australia, are welcomed. Notification of any inaccuracy or ambiguity found in an Australi an Standard should be made without delay in order that the matter may be investigated and appropriate acti on taken.

This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR 96535.

AS 3774 Supp11997

AS 3774 Supplement 11997

Loads on bulk solids containers Commentary (Supplement 1 to AS 37741996)

Originated as AS 3774 Supplement 1 1990. Second edition 1997. Accessed by SINCLAIR KNIGHT MERZ on 06 Jan 2012

PUBLISHED BY STANDARDS AUSTRALIA (STANDARDS ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA) 1 THE CRESCENT, HOMEBUSH, NSW 2140
ISBN 0 7337 1637 7

AS 3774 Supp1 1997

PREFACE
This Supplement was prepared by the Standards Australia Committee BD/65, Loads on Bulk Solids Containers, as a commentary on AS 3774 1996, Loads on bulk solids containers . This new edition of the Supplement incorporates several corrections and amendments to the previous edition. These include changes to Paragraphs C6.2.3.3 and C7.4. The Supplement provides background information on the Standard, guidance on its use and suggestions on good practice. The paragraphs in this Commentary refer directly to the respective clauses in the Standard, e.g. Paragraph C5.3.1 refers to Clause 5.3.1. Where there is no commentary to a clause of the Standard or to a complete section, the appropriate number and title of the clause or section do not appear. References are listed as the last item of the section or appendix in which they occur.

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AS 3774 Supp1 1997

CONTENTS
Page SECTION C4 C4.1 C4.2 C4.3 LOAD CLASSIFICATION, LOAD COMBINATIONS, AND LOAD FACTORS GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOAD COMBINATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOAD FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 4 4

SECTION C6 DETERMINATION OF NORMAL SERVICE LOADS (GROUP B) C6.1 RELEVANT PROPERTIES OF STORED BULK SOLID . . . . . . . . . . C6.2 INITIAL LOADS ON SYMMETRICALLY FILLED CONTAINER WALLS (LOAD TYPE B.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C6.3 LOADS INDUCED BY FLOW DURING SYMMETRICAL DISCHARGES (LOAD TYPE B.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C6.4 INITIAL LOADS ON ECCENTRICALLY FILLED CONTAINER WALLS (LOAD TYPE B.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C6.5 FLOW LOADS ON ECCENTRICALLY DISCHARGED CONTAINER WALLS (LOAD TYPE B.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C6.6 LOADS ASSOCIATED WITH GATES AND FEEDERS . . . . . . . . . . . C6.7 LIVE LOADS ON PLATFORMS AND ROOFS (LOAD TYPE B.5) . . C6.9 FORCES FROM LATERAL RESTRAINTS (LOAD TYPE B.7) . . . . . C6.10 LOADS ON INTERNAL STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS WITHIN THE STORED SOLID (LOAD TYPE B.8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . .

5 6 9

. 11 . . . . 11 12 12 12

. 12

SECTION C7 DETERMINATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS (GROUP C) C7.1 WIND LOADS (LOAD TYPE C.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C7.2 LOADS DUE TO DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATIONS (LOAD TYPE C.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C7.3 LOADS DUE TO DIFFERENTIAL TEMPERATURE (LOAD TYPE C.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C7.4 SEISMIC LOADS (LOAD TYPE C.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C7.5 LOADS DUE TO SWELLING OF STORED BULK SOLIDS (LOAD TYPE C.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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15 15 15 16 16

APPENDICES CC TESTING TO DETERMINE PROPERTIES OF BULK SOLIDS . . . . . . 17 CD PRESSURE CAUSED BY INTERNAL EXPLOSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

AS 3774 Supp1 1997

STANDARDS AUSTRALIA Australian Standard Loads on bulk solids containers Commentary S E C T I O N C 4 L O A D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N , L O A D C O MB I N A TI ON S , A N D L O A D F A C T O R S

C4.1 GENERAL The main purpose of the load classification is to enable easy reference to various load types. The load types enumerated in Table 4.1 are typical in this class of structure, but each structure should be individually treated and any additional load types considered. C4.2 LOAD COMBINATIONS Each element of the structure should be designed for loads and load combinations appropriate to its function. Upper and lower characteristic values of loads should be applied to each structural element in considering its limit state of strength and serviceability. The probability of all loads in a load combination acting at their upper characteristic values should be considered in view of the fact that all loads are randomly variable. In the absence of routine methods for statistical probabilistic analysis, Section 4 gives general guidance for combining loads. Special care is needed to identify structural elements which are prone to strength reduction when one or more load types in the load combinations drop to their lower characteristic values. Typical examples are (a) (b) walls of cylindrical containers under axial loads when the lateral pressure from the bulk solid is taken into consideration in the buckling analysis; and anchor bolts under uplift loads due to environmental loads.

C4.3 LOAD FACTORS Two sets of load factors are specified: one set for strength design and another for serviceability design. The values of load factors given in Clause 4.3 reflect the probabilistic concepts of the ultimate limit states codes in that they vary in accordance with the classes of loads included in each particular load combination. Since it is impossible to cover every conceivable load combination in a wide variety of containers, the designer should carefully investigate all special conditions that may arise and apply appropriate values of load factors.

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S E C T I O N C 6 D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F N O R M A L S E R V I C E L O AD S ( GR OU P B )
C6.1 RELEVANT PROPERTIES OF STORED BULK SOLID C6.1.1 General The mechanical properties of the stored solid should be determined experimentally wherever possible. These experiments may be conducted to find the mean value of properties, in which case the variability is assessed using the procedures of Clause 3.4. Alternatively, a more extensive set of experiments may be undertaken to establish the variability of the material. The necessary procedures are set out in Clause 3.4. C6.1.2 Unit weight of bulk solid All loadings are increased when the unit weight of the stored bulk solid is increased. The design should therefore be based on the highest expected value. Many solids consolidate under stress and with time. The design unit weight should recognize possible differences between laboratory measured values and service conditions. C6.1.3 Angle of wall friction It should be recognized that wall friction is an interaction between the stored solid and the wall. It may be affected markedly over the long term by the sliding of the stored solid, or by chemical interactions of the wall with the stored solid. Polishing, rusting, corroding, vibrations, and other effects should be considered when assessing the possible range of wall friction coefficients to be used in design. The rule concerning liners is included because liners are sometimes destroyed or removed during the course of the containers operation, and have occasionally not been fitted, though considered in the design. The structural integrity of the container should not depend on the presence of a liner of the assumed properties. C6.1.4 Effective angle of internal friction The angle of internal friction used throughout this Standard is the effective angle of internal friction, as defined in Appendix C. Where the material possesses a high cohesion, so that the effective angle of internal friction is very much higher than the simple tangent angle of internal friction, specialist advice should be sought. In calculations in which the lower characteristic value of internal friction is required, the tangent value may be more appropriate. C6.1.5 Consistent material properties The loads on a container wall lead to stresses in the wall. Because the container wall is two-dimensional (flat or curved), stresses in more than one direction are often induced. These stresses usually interact, leading to a condition either more or less serious than when no interaction occurs. In such an interaction, it is the intention of the Standard that a single definable material be used for the purposes of assessing all load effects which contribute to the interaction. Thus, for example, when a cylindrical steel container is being designed, wall friction leads to axial compressions in the wall, and internal pressures lead to circumferential tensions. The circumferential tensions can increase the strength of the container wall against buckling in axial compression. It is therefore necessary to find the minimum reliable internal pressure which is coexistent with the axial compression. The minimum internal pressure is found using Clause 6.2.1.9. It is the intention of the Standard that the same values of material properties should be used in calculating both the maximum axial compression and the minimum coexistent internal pressure. Similarly, when the wall is being designed against bursting, the coexistent axial compression reduces the strength. It is the intention of the Standard that the same values of material properties should be used in calculating both the maximum internal pressure and the maximum coexistent axial compression.

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Nevertheless, it should be recognized that different material properties should be used when assessing the strength of the structure against different dominant failure modes. Thus, the material properties used to assess the strength against a bursting failure (in the presence of some axial compression) may be different from those used to determine the strength against failure under axial compression (in the presence of some internal pressure). The aim is to produce consistent calculations which would be valid if the container were filled with a single homogeneous material. It is supposed that these material properties may change from time to time, as the container is filled and discharged, leading to different loading conditions. The stipulation that the angle of wall friction cannot exceed the angle of internal friction merely states that the material would slide on itself near the wall if the wall becomes rougher than the internal friction in the material. Experimental observations indicate that the dynamic angle of internal friction is usually slightly less than the static angle of internal friction. Thus, once sliding has begun internally in the solid, the rupture plane is often maintained, and the effective value of di is slightly reduced. C6.2 INITIAL LOADS ON SYMMETRICALLY FILLED CONTAINER WALLS (LOAD TYPE B.2). The loads exerted by bulk solids on containers depend on whether the container is being filled, is being used for storing after filling, is being discharged, or is being simultaneously filled and discharged. In general, the highest loadings on the structure occur when the container is full, irrespective of other conditions, and the clauses given here have been drafted with this condition in mind. The many filling and discharging conditions defined above have been simplified for the purposes of the Standard into two cases, as these are deemed to be adequate for design purposes: initial and flow. The initial condition is intended to represent filling and storing conditions, whilst the flow condition is intended to represent discharge and simultaneous filling and discharge. Loads exerted on the container walls are generally larger during flow than they are initially, but this is not always the case, so both conditions must be used in design. The loads exerted during flow are affected by the pattern of flow from the container. C6.2.1 Initial normal pressures on vertical walls The term initial is used in this Standard to mean the conditions which pertain after filling and during storing. The conditions during discharge are termed flow. Mixtures of filling and discharge, and subsequent filling after partial discharge are deemed to be included in these two simpler cases. C6.2.1.1 Normal wall pressures The method of determining initial wall normal pressures follows Janssens theory (Ref. 1). Equation 6.2.1.1(1) was first derived by Walker (Ref. 2), but has been widely quoted in different forms by many writers since. When the wall friction coefficient () is zero, the lateral pressure ratio (k) reduces to the familiar Rankine active pressure ratio k = 1 sin i 1 + sin i

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When the wall is so rough that the particles of bulk solid slide over each other instead of sliding on the wall, the lateral pressure ratio (k) reduces to k = 1 sin2 i 1 + sin2 i

which was first obtained by Hartman (Ref. 3).

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For intermediate values of wall friction coefficient, Equation 6.2.1.1(1) provides a smooth transition between the two above equations, as shown in Figure 6.3. The value is generally closer to the Rankine ratio, except when the wall is very rough. When the material is guaranteed to be very rough (the minimum i is very high), the material pressure ratio becomes small. Care should be taken to ensure that the minimum i is not overestimated, as it may be if the effective angle for flow purposes is used. For this reason, the minimum value of k = 0.35 is specified. C6.2.1.2 Normal pressure in squat containers Janssens equation defines finite pressures above the highest solid contact with the wall. This disadvantage of the Janssen equation is unimportant in tall containers of small diameter, but it makes a major difference to squat containers containing material with a high angle of repose. The recommendation given here allows the pressures to begin at the highest wall contact. The Reimbert (Ref. 4) theory of pressures provides an alternative method of dealing with the conical surcharge, which does not need this empirical modification. C6.2.1.3 Overfilled squat containers Overfilling of containers is not uncommon, and can have two effects. First, where the angle of repose of the filling material is less than the angle of the roof, material may bank up against the outer perimeter of the wall and roof, exerting an upthrust on the roof. This is the case which is considered here. This case may also arise when the dynamic angle of repose is less than the static angle of repose, so that moving particles sliding down the conical top pile form a very flat surface out near the base of the cone. The second effect occurs when the angle of the roof is less than the angle of repose. Material may then bank up at the filling chute. No provisions are made here for this condition. Where the angle of repose of the stored material is more than the angle of the roof, a careful assessment of the stored volume should be made because a significant part of the volume of the container may be inactive. C6.2.1.4 Increases in normal wall pressures This Clause is inserted merely to give warnings and to redirect attention to other parts of the Standard. C6.2.1.5 Normal wall pressures due to rapid filling of powders Rapid filling with powdery bulk solids can produce a distribution similar to hydrostatic pressures. The factors influencing the pressure increase in the container are the volume of the container, the rate of filling and the gas permeability coefficient of the bulk solid. The recommendations given here are taken from the German Standard, DIN 1055 1987 (Ref. 5).
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C6.2.1.6 Pneumatic blending The recommendations given here are taken from the German Standard, DIN 1055 1987 (Ref. 5). C6.2.1.7 Impact loads on vertical walls Impact loads on vertical walls are only important when very large lumps of material (e.g. boulders) are dropped into the container and roll down to impact with the wall. The load should be treated as a single discrete load acting at only one point around the circumference. Some permanent damage may be acceptable in some designs. C6.2.1.8 Reduced normal wall pressures due to wall flexibility The flexibility of the container walls may lead to reduced pressures. The effect is most significant for unsymmetrical pressures during flow, but small reductions in pressures all round occur on filling for containers with very flexible walls containing very stiff solids, and this Clause deals with these.

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C6.2.1.9 Minimum normal wall pressures These pressures are required in buckling calculations for steel containers where the internal pressure may increase the buckling strength. This Clause defines the minimum pressure which is thought to be reliable in a mass flow or funnel flow container, provided that the flow remains concentric. Containers used for storage of cohesive materials are more vulnerable to a drop in wall pressure. In containers subject to eccentric discharge, professional advice should be sought on the minimum reliable wall pressure. C6.2.1.10 Initial normal wall pressure increase due to vibration The values of bulk density specified in Table 3.1 already account for a certain degree of consolidation due to vibration, creep, thermal cycling, and other effects. This Clause will therefore only affect designs which involve materials which are susceptible to packing, and which are subjected to severe vibration. C6.2.2 Initial frictional forces on vertical walls C6.2.2.1 Frictional tractions The bulk solid parameters which lead to maximum pressure against the container walls are not the same as those which lead to maximum vertical forces in the walls. This Clause is similar to Clause 6.2.1.1, but the equations are repeated to emphasize the fact that different values of the lateral pressure ratio (k) and the wall friction coefficient () will lead to different values of cz and z o. The maximum value of k is required in this calculation. See the discussion on Clause 6.2.1.1. The minimum value of k u = 0.35 is again specified. C6.2.2.2 Frictional tractions in squat containers This Clause allows the frictional tractions near the top of a squat container to be reduced, in a manner which matches the normal pressure reductions of Clause 6.2.1.2. The permitted reduction is not expected to be important in many designs. C6.2.2.3 Vertical forces in container walls The vertical forces in container walls arise from two distinct and separate causes. Symmetrical pressures with wall friction lead to cumulative forces arising from friction. Unsymmetrical pressures with or without friction lead to large local vertical stresses through a beam-bending type of response (see Refs 6, 7, and 8). This Clause deals only with vertical forces due to symmetrical friction. Hence the warning relating to entirely symmetrical pressures. C6.2.3 Initial forces on container closures C6.2.3.1 Vertical pressures in the stored solid Just as the maximum normal pressures and maximum frictional drags on the vertical walls arose when different extreme values were chosen for the bulk solid properties, so the vertical pressures are at their maximum value when another different set of bulk solid properties is chosen.
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C6.2.3.2 Flat-bottomed containers The vertical pressure distribution and the horizontal shears on container bottoms can be important in the design of base and entablature slabs. C6.2.3.3 Normal pressures on hopper walls The recommendations given here come from Walkers filling theory (Ref. 2). They provide the limiting case, where the maximum proportion of the load is carried by the lower parts of the hopper. Such high pressures in the hopper bottom may occur when hard incompressible solids are stored. It should be noted that filling pressures may often be the critical load case for much of the hopper, because the flow loads lead to only small pressures near the hopper bottom. However, for hopper containers and some containers with plane flow geometry, the flow pressures may be the critical load case in the upper hopper section. C6.2.3.4 Frictional tractions on hopper walls Frictional traction loads must not be omitted from hopper design calculations, as they relate to a part of the total weight of the solid. Omission of the frictional traction may lead to a hopper design which is incapable of carrying the weight of stored solids on it.

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The full wall friction is deemed to be developed on initial filling, because only very small bulk solid displacements are needed to generate the full friction, and adequate displacements are easily produced from a very small amount of compressibility in the solid. This condition may not pertain in very flat hoppers ( 70), but the error does not lead to a markedly different pressure distribution in these hoppers. C6.2.3.5 Impact loads on hoppers due to dumping Special protection of hopper walls is required where hard, lumpy materials are dumped into the hopper. Such protection may range from wear plates and impact rails to special operational procedures. C6.2.3.6 Pressures on the end walls of a slot hopper There is little sound evidence that the magnitude of pressures on the end walls of slot hoppers are smaller than on the side walls. C6.3 LOADS INDUCED BY FLOW DURING SYMMETRICAL DISCHARGES (LOAD TYPE B.3) Loads on container walls generally increase during the flow of bulk solids. Extended discussions of many issues relating to the specification of loads during flow may be found in Refs 6 and 9. The local and overall effects of any eccentricity in the discharge should be carefully investigated, and treated in accordance with Clause 6.5. C6.3.1 Method of determining symmetrical flow loadings The design flow loadings are based on the concept of flow pressure multipliers. The flow pressure multipliers could vary with the mode of flow (funnel or mass), the configuration of the flow channel (axisymmetric or wedge shaped), the container aspect ratio (hb /dc) and the type of load being considered (pressure or wall traction). Some other documents make distinctions between the pressures exerted by solids when flowing in a mass flow mode and when flowing in a funnel flow mode. It has been shown that the variability of material properties in typical bulk solids often leads to situations in which a container may mass flow most of the time, but occasionally funnel flow, and vice versa. After careful comparison of the pressure predictions for these two modes of flow, it was decided that the differences were not large enough to separate the two predictions within the band of uncertainty of pressure predictions. A single flow pressure multiplier has therefore been adopted. This does not mean that the distinction between mass flow and funnel flow is unimportant. Containers in which flow never occurs (e.g. top unloading or pneumatically evacuated containers) need not be designed for flow loads provided that the container design is such that flow cannot be inadvertently caused by ignorance or malfunction. C6.3.2 Normal pressures on the vertical walls The distribution of flow pressures varies around the circumference as a function of time and no accurate predictions of the mean pressure or its variance is possible at this time. Reasonable predictions can be obtained by the use of statistical techniques and pressure measurements obtained from a number of containers storing similar bulk solids. The method assumes that the container walls have sufficient flexural resistance to distribute the load peaks over a large enough area of the wall to enable the use of axisymmetric membrane theory in the design of the cylindrical walls. The recommended values for the pressure multiplier c f do not apply to containers exhibiting eccentricity of flow (e.g. eccentric outlet). Clause 6.4 should be consulted for general guidance on this condition. Some reduction in the value of c f may be applied where the container walls are relatively flexible (Type E2) provided that walls are structurally continuous in the vertical direction (i.e. not segmental). However, the pressure reduction should not exceed 10%.

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These pressures should be regarded as localized maxima. Their location and magnitude change with time, except where the wall surfaces are discontinuous (ledges, dents, excessive weld reinforcements) at which locations high flow pressures may persist during the discharge. C6.3.3 Friction on vertical walls C6.3.3.1 Frictional tractions These frictional tractions are not simply the pressures multiplied by the wall friction coefficient. The defined flow pressures constitute the locus of the peaks of many alternative local maximum pressures. The frictional traction will be locally equal to the local maximum pressure times the friction coefficient, but the total frictional load applied to the wall is much less than the locus of peak pressures times the friction coefficient. Thus, in defining these tractions, it is expected that they will be summed down the wall to give a cumulative value. These tractions should also be used in the design of liner fasteners. C6.3.3.2 Vertical forces in container walls The vertical forces in container walls arise from two distinct and separate causes. Symmetrical pressures with wall friction lead to cumulative forces arising from friction. Unsymmetrical pressures with or without friction lead to large local vertical stresses through a beam-bending type of response. For more information on the latter, see Refs 6, 7 and 8. This Clause deals only with vertical forces due to symmetrical friction. Thus the flow pressures must be entirely symmetrical (e.g. a symmetrical switch pressure) for this Clause to be valid. C6.3.4 Vertical loads on container bottoms The loads on container bottoms defined here are considerably greater than the maximum vertical pressure occurring in the stored solid. The purpose of this increase is to allow for the formation and collapse of arches within the solid. C6.3.5 Normal pressures on hoppers In the checking of meridionial stresses in conical hoppers, it may be convenient to determine the total vertical force within the bulk solid at the transition. This force is equal to the product of the cross-sectional area and the average pressure (p vhf) at the level of the hopper junction. The worst loading condition for steel hoppers is often when the normal pressure at the hopper junction is at a minimum (Ref. 10). Caution should therefore be exercised if high values of pnhf are used in the design of a transition compression ring. The equations quoted here are the Walker (Ref. 2), Walters (Ref. 11) theory of hopper pressures, which satisfy equilibrium for the hopper in the same manner as the Janssen (Ref. 1) equation does for cylinders. The parameter k hf is the ratio of normal pressure on the hopper wall to mean vertical stress in the solid. The values given in Figure 6.6 are derived from the Walker theory.
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These equations are normally put forward as relevant to mass flow hoppers. However, they also appear to define a suitable set of pressures for funnel flow hoppers, so no distinction is made here. The conventional pressures quoted for funnel flow hoppers do not satisfy equilibrium of the stored mass of bulk solid, so they are unsuitable. In very flat hoppers, the pressures obtained using the quoted equations tend towards a uniform pressure as the hopper approaches a flat bottom, provided that the parameter n approaches 1.0. It should be recognized that this code requires the hopper to be designed against two conditions: initial and flow. The former places the maximum part of the total load towards the bottom of the hopper, while the latter places the maximum towards the top. While other pressure distributions may arise, it is likely that these two design distributions provide limiting cases which lead to adequate designs against all other possible pressure distributions.

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C6.3.6 Frictional tractions on hoppers These loads must not be omitted from hopper design calculations, as they relate to a part of the total weight of the solid. Omission of the frictional traction may lead to a hopper design which is incapable of carrying the weight of stored solids on it. The full wall friction is developed during flow, even when the hopper is in funnel or pipe flow, because only very small bulk solid displacements are needed to generate the full friction. C6.4 INITIAL LOADS ON ECCENTRICALLY FILLED CONTAINER WALLS (LOAD TYPE B.2) C6.4.1 Normal pressures on vertical walls Any non-symmetrical distribution of the contained bulk solid is often a critical design consideration in slotted bunkers and large diameter squat containers. The unsymmetrical normal pressures lead to large unsymmetrical vertical forces in the walls, as well as circumferential and vertical bending. C6.4.2 Frictional tractions on vertical walls The frictional tractions defined for eccentric filling of containers match the unsymmetrical defined pressures. However, it should not be assumed that the vertical forces in the wall are simply the sum of the frictional tractions down any wall generator. This assumption would lead to a seriously unconservative design. C6.5 FLOW LOADS ON ECCENTRICALLY DISCHARGED CONTAINER WALLS (LOAD TYPE B.3) C6.5.1 General Eccentric openings should be avoided if at all possible, but if there are compelling reasons for their use, the walls of a cylindrical container should be designed to support a non-uniform pressure distribution. A significant number of catastrophic failures have resulted from eccentric discharge of solids from both steel and concrete containers. Despite numerous experiments, eccentric discharge is still not well understood. It should therefore be treated with caution. Containers with a circular plan form show a marked sensitivity to eccentric flow and special care is required in designing them for adequate resistance against bending and buckling (Refs 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17). C6.5.2 Normal pressures on vertical walls C6.5.2.1 General The pattern of pressures during eccentric discharge varies from time to time as the discharge progresses. The pressures defined here appear to give a suitable design condition which models the critical features of the pressure regime. The pressures are sensitive to the form of the discharge flow zones, which in turn depend on the container geometry and bulk solid properties. General rules are therefore difficult to formulate. The pressures given here are derived from generalizations of the reported pressures found by Pieper (Ref. 18), Ravenet (Ref. 19), Hartlen et al (Ref. 20) and Gale et al (Ref. 21), together with data from other sources (Refs 12, 13, 16, and 22). C6.5.2.2 Pressure increases When a flow zone develops in the stored solid, it generally results in a natural or effective hopper forming within the solid, dividing the static from the flowing material. Where this natural hopper intersects the wall extreme from the outlet (the far wall), an effective transition occurs, with higher pressures locally. The location, magnitude and extent of these higher pressures is estimated in this Clause. In containers with only small eccentricities, it may be desirable to consider the effects of higher pressures occurring on both sides, though these would normally be covered by the flow pressure factors for symmetrical discharge.

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C6.5.2.3 Pressure reductions The principal well-documented effect of eccentric discharge is a reduction in the pressures in the material flowing near the outlet. These pressure reductions are substantial, but extend over a more limited zone as the outlet is approached. C6.6 LOADS ASSOCIATED WITH GATES AND FEEDERS C6.6.2 Increased gate and feeder loads due to large drop heights and rapid fill rates This Clause is concerned with the deceleration of a fill stream as it impacts onto a partially filled hopper. It is most likely to be important in containers which have small vertical walls, and which are filled very rapidly. C6.6.3 Horizontal loads on containers due to unattached feeders This Clause deals with the fact that the loads on feeders are also applied to the bulk solid (Newtons first law). If the feeder is attached to the container, there is usually no problem. If the feeder is unattached, then the force on the bulk solid is transmitted to the container, and is an additional design load. C6.7 LIVE LOADS ON PLATFORMS AND ROOFS (LOAD TYPE B.5) The live loads are defined in accordance with other Australian Standards. The minimum of 1.0 kN represents maintenance loads and gear. Where a significant amount of dust may be present in the environment, the potential for dust accumulation on horizontal and sloping surfaces should be assessed. C6.9 FORCES FROM LATERAL RESTRAINTS (LOAD TYPE B.7) C6.9.1 Loads in lateral restraints The loads in lateral restraints defined in this Clause relate to the stability of the structure as a whole, and are therefore defined in terms of the substructure. Where the stability of the entire structure depends on a structural element which is not part of the substructure, this Clause should be deemed to be applicable to the container structure immediately adjacent to the restraining element. C6.9.2 Loads due to the container being used as a restraint It is not common, nor is it desirable, that a bulk solids storage container should be used as a means of providing lateral restraint to secure the stability of an adjacent structure. However, where this is done, the forces introduced into the container should be assessed and included in the design of the container. C6.10 LOADS ON INTERNAL STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS STORED SOLID (LOAD TYPE B.8) WITHIN THE

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C6.10.1 General Above the transition, the forces are highest under flow conditions. This Clause has therefore been written solely in the context of flow pressures. For internal elements below the transition, both flow and static conditions should be considered. In the determining of the loads under static conditions, the relevant pressures should be taken from the corresponding clauses relating to static pressures. C6.10.2 Vertical pressures on internal structural elements Vertical pressures are taken as the values during flow. Near the surface, the pressure is assessed simply. C6.10.3 Horizontal pressures on internal structural elements are taken as the values during flow. Horizontal pressures

C6.10.4 Frictional tractions on internal structural elements Frictional tractions can induce quite large forces in internal structural elements in containers. C6.10.5 Vertical forces in internal structural elements The vertical force in an internal structural element is assessed as the sum of two terms: the pressure acting on an effective area and the summed friction over the height of the element. The plan projected effective area is assessed to be larger by a factor of 2 than its real area, to account for the effects of arching in the stored solid above the element.
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REFERENCES 1 2 3 4 5 JANSSEN, H.A. Versuche uber Getreidedruck in Silozellen. Zeitschrift de Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, 1895. Vol. 39, No. 35, pp. 9 1045-104. WALKER, D.M. An approximate theory for pressure and arching in hoppers. Chemical Engineering Science, 1966. Vol. 21, pp. 975-997. HARTMANN, F. Berechnung des Fulldruckes Stahlbetombau , No. 7. 1966. pp. 177-183. in Einem Silo. Betom und

REIMBERT, M. and REIMBERT, A. Silos: theory and practice . Clausthal: Trans Tech Publications, 1976. Deutsches Institut fur Normung, Lastannahmen fur Bauten Lasten in Silozellen . [Design loads for buildings: Loads in silo bins.] DIN 1055 Part 6, Berlin, May 1987. ROTTER, J.M., PHAM, L. and NIELSEN, J. On the specification of loads for the structural design of bins and silos. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Bulk Materials Storage Handling and Transportation . Wollongong: Institution of Engineers, Australia. July 1986, pp. 241-247. ROTTER, J.M. Bending theory of shells for bins and silos. Transactions of Mechanical Engineering , Institution of Engineers, Australia. September 1987. Vol. ME12 No. 3, pp. 148-159. ROTTER, J.M. Membrane bending theory of shells for bins and silos. Transactions of Mechanical Engineering , Institution of Engineers, Australia. September 1987. Vol. ME12 No. 3, pp. 135-147. ARNOLD, P.C., MCLEAN, A.G. and ROBERTS, A.W. Bulk solids: storage, flow and handling . University of Newcastle, Tunra Bulk Solids Handling Research Associates, Sept. 1980. ROTTER, J.M. On the significance of switch pressures at the transition in elevated steel bins. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Bulk Materials Storage Handling and Transportation . Wollongong: Institution of Engineers, Australia. July 1986, pp. 82-88. WALTERS, J.K. A theoretical analysis of stresses in axially-symmetric hoppers and bunkers. Chem. Engng Sci., March 1973, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 779-89. ROTTER, J.M. The analysis of steel bins subject to eccentric discharge. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Bulk Materials Storage Handling and Transportation . Wollongong: Institution of Engineers, Australia. July 1986, pp. 264-271. JENIKE, A.W. Denting of circular bins with eccentric drawpoints. Jnl of the Struct. Div., ASCE, Feb. 1967. Vol. 93, No. ST1. pp. 27-35. BUCHERT, K.P. Discussion of Denting of circular bins with eccentric drawpoints. Jnl of the Struct. Div, ASCE, August 1967. Vol. 93, No. ST3. ROBERTS, A.W. and OOMS, M. Wall loads in large steel and concrete bins and silos due to eccentric draw-down and other factors. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Design of Silos for Strength and Flow. pp. 151-170. WOOD, J.G.M. The analysis of silo structures subject to eccentric discharge. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Design of Silos for Strength and Flow. Stratford-upon-Avon: 1983. pp. 132-44.

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JUMIKIS, P.T., ROTTER, J.M., FLEMING, S.P. and PORTER, S.J. Experiments on the buckling of thin walled model silo structures. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Bulk Materials Storage Handling and Transportation . Wollongong: Institution of Engineers, Australia. July 1986, pp. 180-186. PIEPER, K. Investigation of silo loads in measuring models. Journal of Engineering for Industry. Trans. ASME: May, 1969. RAVENET, J. Overpressures in silos with off-centre emptying. Acier-Stahl-Steel . March, 1979. Vol. 41 No. 3, pp. 109-113. HARTLEN, J., et al The wall pressure in large grain silos. Stockholm: Swedish Council for Building Research, 1984. Document D2:1984. GALE, B.R., HOADLEY, P.J. and SCHMIDT, L.C. Aspects of eccentric discharge of granular material from a circular silo. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Bulk Materials Storage Handling and Transportation . Wollongong: Institution of Engineers, Australia, July 1986. pp. 258-263. JOHNSTON, F.T. and HUNT, F.A. Solutions for silo asymmetric flow problems. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Design of Silos for Strength and Flow. Stratford-upon-Avon: 1983. pp. 1-13.

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S E C T I O N C 7 D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F E N V IR ON M E N T A L L O A D S ( G R O U P C )
C7.1 WIND LOADS (LOAD TYPE C.1) C7.1.2 Negative internal air pressure Wind suction on unroofed containers, containers under construction, or containers with large self-opening vents may increase the local pressure coefficient markedly. They can therefore strongly affect the buckling strength. C7.2 LOADS DUE TO DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATIONS (LOAD TYPE C.2) C7.2.1 Assessment of differential settlements The differential settlement pattern beneath a container is difficult to determine in advance of construction. Where a constructed container is in service and is experiencing foundation settlements, monitoring of the settlements over a period of time may allow a reasonable prediction of future settlements, from which an assessment of the future structural safety may be forecast. Specialist structural advice on the necessary monitors should be sought in such cases. C7.2.2 Differential settlement under column-supported containers Where differential settlements occur beneath column-supported containers, very large redistributions of column forces may occur, because the container structure is usually very stiff. These redistributions tend to even out the settlements, but where the cause is a large difference in foundation stiffness and strength, failure of the column could result. C7.2.3 Differential settlement under ground-supported containers Where warping or local settlements occur beneath the container wall, the stresses in the container must be investigated using a finite element or similar analysis, because the patterns of stress and deformation are not easy to predict using simple methods. If the container wall structure is flexible (open-topped cylindrical shell with only light stiffening rings), differential settlements lead to out-of-round deformations. These may affect the serviceability of the container. If the container wall structure is stiff (cylindrical shell with roof, or with stiffening rings), small differential settlements induce large axial forces in the wall. These may lead to buckling failures in thin-walled metal containers, and severe cracking in concrete containers. C7.3 LOADS DUE TO DIFFERENTIAL TEMPERATURE (LOAD TYPE C.3)
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C7.3.1 Assessment of differential temperature The temperature differentials defined in this Clause are believed to be conservative for most applications. Expert advice and weather records should be studied where the magnitude of the temperature differential leads to a serious hazard. C7.3.2 Temperature decrease in container walls For containers of circular plan form, the normal pressure shall be taken to rise when the container wall is cooled relative to the existing stored contents. The shrinking container squeezes the stored solids, which may begin in a stress state which is close to active. Pressure rises therefore occur, which can be large when stiff solids are stored in thin-walled containers. Repeated changes in temperature can increase these wall loads. The temperature load multiplier is used to simulate this effect.

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C7.3.3 Temperature differentials in supporting columns The forces induced by differential temperature effects in the columns of column-supported containers can be substantial because the container structure is often very stiff. A close and conservative model is therefore to assume that the foundation and container structure are completely rigid. C7.3.4 Storage of hot bulk solids The temperature gradient through the wall is used to determine wall forces. Relevant information is given in ACI-313 (Ref. 1), Bohn (Ref. 2), and Handcock (Ref. 3). A suitable rational method for this analysis is given by Priestley (Ref. 4). C7.4 SEISMIC LOADS (LOAD TYPE C.4) The general intention is to require designers of bins for bulk solids to consider earthquake loading as a necessary design case. A conservative stance with respect to I (importance factor), S (site factor) and R f (structural response factor) was advisable due to the wide use of storage bins at various times. It is also desirable to have all new bin structures checked for seismic loads. C7.5 LOADS DUE TO SWELLING OF STORED BULK SOLIDS (LOAD TYPE C.5) The requirements are taken from the experimental and theoretical study of Rotter (Ref. 7). REFERENCES 1 AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE. Recommended practice for design and construction of concrete bins, silos and bunkers for storing granular materials. Detroit: ACI, 1977. (rev. 1983). pp. 313-377. BOHN, F. The calculation of circular silos for the storage of cement. Cement and Concrete Association. Trans. of an article which appeared in Beton and Stahlbetonbau, Feb, 1956. Vol. 51, No. 2. HANDCOCK, M.G. Reinforced concrete storage silos containing hot materials. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on the Design of Silos for Strength and Flow. Stratford-upon-Avon, Nov. 1983. pp. 82-94. PRIESTLEY, M.J.N. Thermal stresses in cylindrical prestressed concrete water reservoirs. University of Canterbury Research Report 75/13. Canterbury, N.Z.: University of Canterbury, 1975. TRAHAIR, N.S, ABEL, A, ANSOURIAN, P., IRVINE, H.N AND ROTTER, J. M. Structural design of steel bins for bulk solids. Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 1983. ROTTER, J.M. and HULL, T.S. Wall loads in squat steel silos during earthquakes . Research Report R509. Sydney: University of Sydney, School of Civil and Mining Engineering, Oct. 1985. ROTTER, J.M. The effect of increasing grain moisture content on the stresses in silo walls. Investigation report S444. Sydney: University of Sydney, School of Civil and Mining Engineering, Mar. 1983.

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APPENDIX CC

TESTING TO DETERMINE PROPERTIES OF BULK SOLIDS

For further discussion on the effects and the interrelationships of surface roughness, normal pressure, particle size, shape and distribution, and moisture content on total wall function, the following reference should be consulted: OOMS, M. and ROBERTS, A.W. Hopper surface finish and friction interrelation with respect to bulk solids flow from storage bins. Mechanical Engineering Transactions, The Institution of Engineers, Australia. April 1984, Vol. ME9, No 1. pp. 38-44.

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APPENDIX CD

PRESSURE CAUSED BY INTERNAL EXPLOSION

The following references provide guidance on safe practices when dealing with flammable gases associated with bulk solids storage: 1 2 ANSI/NFPA 86 Explosion venting 1978. Maryland: National Fire Protection Association Inc., [1978]. WIBBELHOFF, H. Handling pulverised fuel in the cement industry . Safety Technique for conveying and storage of black and brown coal. Pulverised fuel basic principles method of operation. Steine und Erden, No. 2. BARTKNECHT, W. Gas, vapour and dust explosions, fundamentals, prevention, control. International Symposium on Grain Elevator Explosions, Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: National Materials Advisory Board, 1978.

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