Cells and Organs of

the Immune system

Dr Arun Kumar
KMC, Delhi University
Hematopoiesis:
➢ Self-renewing hematopoietic stem cells give rise to

lymphoid and myeloid progenitors.

➢ Lymphoid cells from lymphoid progenitor cells

➢ myeloid lineages arise from myeloid progenitors.

Note: Some dendritic cells come from lymphoid

progenitors, and others come from myeloid precursors.

 Lymphocytes are the central cells of the immune system, responsible for:
➢ adaptive immunity and the immunologic attributes of diversity, specificity, memory,
➢ self/nonself recognition.
Other type of blood cells roles:
➢ engulfing and destroying microorganisms,
➢ Presenting antigens,
➢ secreting cytokines

Lymphoid Cells:
➢ Lymphocytes constitute 20%–40% of the body’s WBCs and 99% of the cells in the lymph. About 1010–1012 different Lymphocytes in human
body (Size and age)
➢ continually circulate in the blood and lymph and are capable of migrating into the tissue spaces and lymphoid organs.
➢ On the basis of function and cell-membrane components. Lymphocyes broadly subdivided into three populations—B cells, T cells,
and natural killer cells.

Natural killer cells (NK cells) are large, granular lymphocytes that do not express the set of surface markers typical of B or T
cells.
B and T lymphocytes are small, motile, nonphagocytic cells,which cannot be distinguished morphologically. (Specific receptors)
➢ B and T lymphocytes that have not interacted with antigen—
referred to as naive, or unprimed—G0 phase of cell cycle.
➢ Interaction of small lymphocytes with antigen induces these cells
to enter the cell cycle
➢ Lymphoblasts: differentiate into effector cells or into memory
cells.
➢ Effector cells function in various ways to eliminate antigen and
short Life Spans (few days to weeks).
Plasma cells—the antibody-secreting effector cells of the B cell
lineage—characteristic cytoplasm that contains abundant
endoplasmic reticulum (More Protein form).

The effector cells of the T-cell lineage include the cytokine-secreting

T helper cell (TH cell) and the T cytotoxic lymphocyte (TC cell).

Memory cells: differentiation of Some of B and T cells to

lymphoblasts progeny called Memory cells. (life-long immunity to
many pathogens) looks like naive cells but distriguish by by their
expression of membrane molecules cluster of differentiation
(CD)
B LYMPHOCYTES:
➢ letter B derived from its site of maturation, bursa of Fabricius in birds;
➢ bone marrow is its major site of maturation in a mammalian species.
➢ Mature B cells are distinguished from other lymphocytes by their synthesis
and display of membrane-bound Ab molecules; serve as receptors for Ag
➢ a single B cell approximately 1.5X105 molecules of Ab has an identical
binding site for antigen

Among the other molecules expressed on the membrane of mature B cells are the following:
❖ B220 (a form of CD45) : frequent marker for B cells and their precursors. However, unlike antibody, it is not expressed uniquely by B-
lineage cells.
❖ Class II MHC molecules permit to function as an antigen-presenting cell (APC).
❖ CR1 (CD35) and CR2 (CD21) are receptors for certain complement products.
❖ FcRII (CD32) is a receptor for IgG, a type of antibody.
❖ B7-1 (CD80) and B7-2 (CD86) are molecules that interact with CD28 and CTLA-4, important regulatory molecules on the surface of
different types of T cells, including TH cells.
❖ CD40 is a molecule that interacts with CD40 ligand (CD154) on the surface of helper T cells, In most cases this interaction is critical
for the survival of antigen stimulated B cells and for their development into antibody-secreting plasma cells or memory B cells.
Interaction between antigen and the membrane-bound antibody
on a mature naive B cell, as well as interactions with T
cells and macrophages, selectively induces the activation and
differentiation of B-cell clones of corresponding specificity.

In this process, the B cell divides repeatedly and differentiates

over a 4- to 5-day period, generating a population of plasma
cells and memory cells.
Plasma cells, which have lower levels of membrane-bound antibody
than B cells, synthesize and secrete antibody.

All clonal progeny from a given B cell secrete antibody molecules with
the same antigen-binding specificity.
Plasma cells are terminally differentiated cells, and many die in 1 or 2
weeks.
➢ T Lymphocytes : derive their name from their site of maturation in the thymus.
➢ Like B cells, membrane receptors for antigen.
➢ Although the Ag binding T-cell receptor (TCR) is structurally distinct from immunoglobulin,
➢ TCR does not recognize free antigen unlike Memb. Bound Ab of B Cell
➢ Most T cells recognize antigen only when it is bound to a self-molecule encoded MHC
➢ Fundamental Difference of Humoral and Cell mediated response
➢ Like B cells, T cells express distinctive membrane molecules. CD3; CD4 and CD8, CD28, and CD 45

• CD4 restricted to recognizing antigen bound to class II MHC

molecules, T helper (TH) cells
• CD8 restricted to recognizing antigen bound to class I MHC
molecules, T cytotoxic (TC) cells
• Ratio of CD4 and CD8 T cells ---- 2:1
• Some CD4 cells can act as killer cells.
activated by recognition of an antigen and gives rise to a clone of
effector cells,
TH cells secrete various cytokines, which play a central role in the activation of B cells, T cells, and other cells that participate
in the immune response.
Change in Cytokine secretion leads change in immune respone
➢ TH1 response produces a cytokine profile that supports inflammation and activates mainly certain T cells and
macrophages,
➢ TH2 response activates mainly B cells and immune responses that depend upon antibodies.
➢ TC cells are activated when they interact with an antigen–class I MHC complex on the surface of an altered self-cell (e.g.,
a virus-infected cell or a tumor cell) in the presence of appropriate cytokines.
➢ Activation cause ; TC cell to differentiate into an effector cell called a cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL).
➢ In contrast to TH cells, most CTLs secrete few cytokines.

➢ Another subpopulation of T lymphocytes—called T suppressor (TS) cells—has been postulated

➢ actual isolation and cloning of normal TS cells is a matter of controversy and dispute among immunologists.

NATURAL KILLER CELLS: first described in 1976, granular lymphocytes that cytotoxic against a wide range of tumor cells
5%–10% of lymphocytes, do not express the membrane molecules and receptors
Recognize potential target cells: NK cell receptors CD16, a membrane receptor antibody-dependent cellmediated
cytotoxicity (ADCC)
mononuclear phagocytic system consists: monocytes in blood and macrophages in tissues

➢ Enlarges five- to tenfold;

➢ organelles increase (No. and Complexity)
➢ increased phagocytic ability
➢ Produces higher levels of hydrolytic enzymes,
Macrophage serve different functions and name in different tissues:
Alveolar macrophages in the lung Mesangial cells in the kidney
Histiocytes in connective tissues Microglial cells in the brain
Kupffer cells in the liver Osteoclasts in bone
Antigens serves as an initial activating stimulus of Macrophages
further enhanced by cytokines secreted by activated TH cells ((IFN-ᶌ)Inflammation)
help them eliminate a broad range of pathogens, including virus-infected cells, tumor
cells, and intracellular bacteria.

Activated macrophages also express higher levels of class II MHC molecules, function
more effectively as APCs
Chemotaxis: pseudopodia, phagosome, lysosome to form a phagolysosome
Exocytosis

Antibody functions as an opsonin, a molecule that binds to

both antigen and macrophage and enhances phagocytosis. Process called opsonization.
 Scanning electron micrograph of a macrophage. Note the
long pseudopodia extending toward and making contact
with bacterial cells, an early step in phagocytosis

Phagocytosis and processing of exogenous antigen by macrophages

(Central Lymphoid Organs) (Peripheral Lymphoid Organs)
The lymphatic system: This system in vertebrates consists of lymphoid organs, lymphatic vessels, and
lymphoid tissues. It forms an important part of the immune system and is complementary to the
circulatory system.

Lymphoid organs and tissues: in which lymphocytic cells originate as lymphocyte precursors then mature and differentiate; the
cells finally lodge in the lymphoid organs or move throughout the body
Primary lymphoid organs:
➢ These organs include the bone marrow and the thymus. (T Cells Zone)

➢ They create special immune system cells called lymphocytes. (B Cells Zone)

Secondary lymphoid organs:

• include the lymph nodes, the spleen (Naive Lymphocytes
(Lymphocytes (APC)

• actual job of fighting off germs and foreign substances. Lymphoid Organs
( Maturation and Ag interaction) Adenoids: two glands Back of the Payer’s Patches: Lymphoid
• Tonsils, and payer’s Patches and certain tissue in nasal passage tissue in large intestine
Appendix: Small tube that Tonsils: two oval masses in
various mucous membrane layers in the body
connected to Large Intestine. the back of throat
• Production and activation of Lymphocytes. Lymph Nodes: bean shape organs Speen/ Thymus: abdomen
located throughout the body and cavity and two lobes tat join in
connected via lymphatic vessels. front of trachea.
 Primary lymphoid organs:
Bone marrow:

• a sponge-like tissue found inside the bones.

• Most immune system cells are produced and then multiply.

Especially B lymphocytes

• cells move to other organs and tissues through the blood.

• red bone marrow is abundance during the time of birth in many

bones

• In adulthood, red bone marrow turns into fatty tissue and restricts

its presence in the ribs, breastbone and pelvis.

• Bone marrow Produces B cells, NK cells, Granulocytes, RBC,

platelets, and immature T cells,

Thymus: A site of T-cell (thymus cell lymphocytes) development and maturation

• Flat bilobed organ Situated at back of the breastbone and above the heart.

• Reaches its full maturity during childhood.

• As adulthood commences, it is replaced by fatty or adipose tissue.

• The T cells coordinate the innate and adaptive immune systems.

• Each lobe is surrounded by a capsule and is divided into lobules, separated by strands

of connective tissue called trabeculae.

• Each lobule is organized into two compartments: the outer compartment, or cortex, is

densely packed with immature T cells, called thymocytes, whereas the inner

compartment, or medulla, is sparsely populated with thymocytes.

❑ thymus in immune function can be studied in mice by examining the effects of neonatal thymectomy (Remove by surgery)
❑ a congenital birth defect in humans (DiGeorge’s syndrome) and in certain mice (nude mice) (Fail to develop thymus)
In both cases, there is an absence of circulating T cells and of cell-mediated immunity and an increase in infectious disease.
• Lobulated organ enclosed by a connective tissue called a
capsule. From which arises Trabeculae.
• Trabeculae extend into interior of organ and sub-divided
thymus gland into numerous incomplete lobules.
• Each lobule consists darkly stained outer cortex (densely
packed lymphocytes that don’t form lymphatic nodules)
• and light stain medulla cortex (loosely packed lymphocytes
and more reticular cells) that characterizes the thymus
gland.
• Blood vesicle passes into the thymus gland via capsule and
trabeculae.

▪ Histology of the thymus varies with age of the individual.

▪ After puberty, thymus gland begins to show gradual regression and
degradation (Hassall Capsule)
▪ More than 95% of all thymocytes die by apoptosis in the thymus without
even reaching to maturity.
• Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissue (GALT)
• Peyer’s Patches
• Tonsil
▪ Round or bean structure placed on Lymphatic vessels Cortex: Lymphocytes (Mostly B cells), Macrophages, and
▪ Immunological filter Dendritic cells arrange in primary follicles
▪ Found throughout the body Paracortex: T Lymphocytes, migrating tissue to node
▪ Drains fluid from outer tissues Medulla: Most populated lymphoid lineage cells are
▪ During Infection, Expend due to intense Proliferation of B cells mainly plasma cells actively secreting Ab.
 Spleen:

• without duct glands (ductless),

• Main cell moves; lymphocytes and macrophages,

Located in the upper left abdominal cavity (abdominal
cavity), between the diaphragm and gastric (stomach).
• Main cells settle, the reticuloendothelial and plasma cells.

• Reddish colour and is a largest lymphoid mass in the body.

• Play many functions, but not a vital organ for the body

In general, serves to accumulate spleen lymphocytes and

macrophages, degradation of erythrocytes, the blood reserves, and as an

organ of defense against infection foreign particles that enter the blood.
Internal Structure of Spleen:
Waldeyer’s ring: lymphoid tissue surrounding the
opening of the digestive and respiratory tract.
➢ Most prominent accumulation occurs in the
ileum and appendix in the form of peyer’s
patches
➢ In ileum, Dome shape prjection

➢ Dome Projection of epithilial lining from

lamina propria to sub mucosa .