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Deterministic photon source interfaced with a programmable

silicon-nitride integrated circuit
Ying Wang1, Carlos F. D. Faurby 1, Fabian Ruf 2, Patrik I. Sund1, Kasper Nielsen1, Nicolas Volet2, Martijn J. R. Heck2, Nikolai Bart3,
Andreas D. Wieck 3, Arne Ludwig 3, Leonardo Midolo 1, Stefano Paesani 1 ✉ and Peter Lodahl1 ✉

We develop a quantum photonic platform that interconnects a high-quality quantum dot single-photon source and a low-loss
photonic integrated circuit made in silicon nitride. The platform is characterized and programmed to demonstrate various
multiphoton applications, including bosonic suppression laws and photonic entanglement generation. The results show a
promising technological route forward to scale-up photonic quantum hardware.
npj Quantum Information (2023)9:94 ; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41534-023-00761-1

INTRODUCTION the typical emission wavelengths of QDs and enables hetero-

Single photons are a key enabler in emerging quantum geneous integration10,14,17,20, although processing of photons
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technologies including secure quantum communications1,2 and from QD sources has yet to be demonstrated on this platform. We
quantum computing3–5. A central challenge in developing have realized this and report on high-fidelity multiphoton on-chip
scalable photonic quantum hardware is to realize high-quality operations with a programmable SiN PIC. These capabilities are
single-photon sources (SPSs) and interface them with advanced showcased via exemplary photonic quantum information proto-
photonic integrated circuits (PICs). SPSs based on solid-state cols: tests of bosonic suppression laws, i.e., experiments on
quantum emitters, such as quantum dots (QDs) or color defect generalized HOM interference, and the probabilistic generation of
centers, are suitable platforms to deterministically generate near- entangled photonic Bell states.
ideal single photons6–8. These high-quality photon sources are
embedded in III-V semiconductor materials like gallium arsenide
(GaAs) or diamond, and large-scale PICs have not yet been RESULTS
realized on these material platforms since fabrication processes Platform configuration
are relatively immature. Consequently, a hybrid approach is The experimental setup for the developed modular platform is
favorable where the photon source chip is feeding a PIC fabricated shown in Fig. 1a. We adopt InAs QDs embedded in a p-i-n GaAs
on a mature material platform to realize a multi-chip photonic diode heterostructure as solid-state photon emitters21. The
quantum processor9. Ultimately the sources may be heteroge- heterostructure is grown with molecular beam epitaxy, and a
neously integrated on the PIC platform10–14. distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) is implemented below the
To build a scalable quantum photonic platform, multiple key sacrificial layer (Supplementary Note 1). The QDs are capped
requirements need to be simultaneously fulfilled. The source must using a monolayer of higher band-gap material (AlAs) enabling
generate highly pure (i.e., emit only one photon at a time) and the elimination of undesired coupling of QD exciton to the
highly indistinguishable photons as generally required for quantum wetting layer continuum improving for the coherence of QD
information processing. Subsequently, the inevitable loss associated exciton emission22,23. Moreover, the QD density is modulated by
with coupling between the source chip and the processor PIC gradient growth of the buffer layer thickness24(Supplementary
should be reduced in order to eventually scale up the technology to Fig. 2). High-quality metal gates are realized to quench the charge
many photons. Finally, the PIC chip needs to be low-loss at the noise and to tune the emitter emission wavelength via a Stark
operation wavelength of the photon source. shift. A photonic crystal waveguide (PCW) planar structure, shown
In this work, we report on the development of a modular in Fig. 1b, is used to interface with the QDs, enabling efficient
photonic platform with all the key functionalities described above. optical coupling via a combination of radiative leakage suppres-
We demonstrate the coupling of single photons from an InGaAs QD sion and Purcell enhancement featuring broadband operation25. A
embedded in a planar GaAs photonic-crystal waveguide to a photonic crystal mirror terminates one side of the PCW to enable
programmable low-loss PIC in SiN. Being a mature and CMOS- single-sided emission from the device, see Fig. 1b. The sample is
compatible platform, SiN is highly promising for developing the mounted in a closed-system cryostat at 1.6 K. A stretched pulsed
scalable and low-loss PICs required for photonic quantum laser (pulse duration 18 ps, repetition rate of 72 MHz and
technologies, with complex programmable circuits15,16, losses as wavelength of 942 nm) is used to coherently excite the QD source
low as ~1 dB/m17, and cryogenic operation18 recently demonstrated. whereby a neutral exciton in the QD is resonantly excited and
The capabilities to program large PIC circuits in SiN for quantum subsequently emits triggered single photons. Our implementation
operations have been successfully demonstrated, but so far using closely follows the work of Uppu et al.21, and the relevant
only probabilistic photon sources based on spontaneous non- differences are discussed in Supplementary Note 4. The emitted
linear processes5,15,19. Importantly, SiN is also highly transparent at photons are routed to a shallow-etched grating (SEG) for

1
Center for Hybrid Quantum Networks (Hy-Q), Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 17, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark. 2Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering, Aarhus University, 8200 Aarhus N, Denmark. 3Lehrstuhl für Angewandte Festkörperphysik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstrasse 150, D-44780
Bochum, Germany. ✉email: [email protected]; [email protected]

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Fig. 1 Experimental set-up overview. a A schematic display of the full picture of the experimental configuration. A QD embedded in a planar
nanophotonic chip is excited within a cryostat to emit a stream of single photons (lower left). The stream of single photons is then converted
into two streams of simultaneous photons via a free space two-mode demultiplexer (upper left), which relies on a resonant electro-optic
modulator (EOM) and a polarizing beams splitter (PBS). The photon streams are coupled into a programmable SiN PIC operating at room
temperature (lower right) and the output is measured via superconducting-nanowire-single-photon-detectors (SNSPDs) (upper right) (b)
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of the GaAs nanophotonic device. c Image of the SiN device and set-up.
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collection. To achieve high collection efficiency, a DBR layer is total coupling losses to the PIC were measured to be between 4.25
grown below the waveguide to enhance the out-of-plane vertical and 7 dB at the QD emission wavelength (see Supplementary
emission. We designed and implemented SEGs that exploit the Note 8). This loss value was due to the fabricated devices having
DBR to boost the reflection of downward emission to significantly an optimal wavelength (with significantly reduced losses of ~2 dB)
enhance the off-plane collection efficiency from the integrated different from the targeted one, and can be readily improved by
waveguide (Supplementary Note 2). We measure the efficiency to adjusting the taper width at the facet.
be 21.5%, corresponding to a detected 15.6 MHz photon rate (see To perform multi-photon on-chip experiments, we add a free-
Fig. 2a). This efficiency is mainly limited by the not fully optimized space demultiplexer setup, as shown in Fig. 1a, to spatially
coupling from the SEG to the fiber and by the limited efficiency of separate and temporally synchronize consecutive photons
the etalon used for phononic-sideband filtering, and can readily emitted by the QD, yielding simultaneous photons pairs at two
be further improved. Notably the demonstrated source efficiency different input modes of the PIC.
is the highest reported to date on planar GaAs nanostructures21,
which enables the integration of the source with the SiN PIC. For a
Platform characterization
detailed description of the source efficiency, see Supplementary
Note 3. The single-photon source was initially characterized in a free-
The photon-emitter platform is optically interfaced to the PIC space setup. The lifetime of the neutral exciton was measured to
through optical fibers, as shown in Fig. 1a. Low-loss photonic be 917 ps (see Fig. 2b). A near-unity single-photon purity of 99.2%
circuits are realized on the SiN platform, with SiN waveguides at π pulse excitation (see Fig. 2c) was recorded together with an
consisting of a rectangular cross-section (100 nm thick,1000 nm intrinsic Hong-Ou-Mandel (HOM) interference of subsequently
wide) surrounded by a SiO2 cladding. The reconfigurability of the emitted photons of VHOM = (94.5 ± 1.7)% (see Fig. 2d) after
circuit is realized using thermal phase shifters that can be sideband filtering with an etalon. This corresponds to a pure
operated at switching rates in the range of kHz26. The length of dephasing rate of 0.03 ns−134. To characterize the quality of the
a phase shifter is 2 mm and it is operated at a heating power up to PIC, we test how these near-ideal properties are affected by the
20 mW in order to implement any phase shift from 0 to π. circuit. To do so, we characterize the on-chip photon purity by
Coupling to and from the chip is implemented using a fiber array implementing an integrated Hanbury-Brown and Twiss experi-
and on-chip waveguide tapers, as shown in Fig. 1c. To develop ment where photons from the QD are directly injected into the
photonic circuitry compatible with the QD source, we designed SiN PIC and routed to a Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) with
and optimized components required for programmable photonic the internal phase difference set to π/2 to implement a 50:50
quantum circuits tailored to the QD emission wavelength of beam-splitter. g(2)(0) is measured by recording coincidences
940 nm, and in particular directional couplers for low-loss 50:50 between the two outputs normalized by coincidences between
splitters (Supplementary Note 7). These SiN components are different pulses, as shown in Fig. 2e, obtaining a purity of 99.5%,
fabricated in a multi-project wafer run, and compatible with which is compatible with the free-space value.
complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) foundry man- To perform a HOM experiment of the on-chip photon
ufacturing processes, allowing for efficient and scalable fabrication indistinguishability, we use the demultiplexer to send single
of complex PICs. In addition to smaller structures used for photons into each of the two input ports of the MZI structure,
preliminary characterization of the platform, we implement the while scanning the internal phase shifter and coincidences
reconfigurable four-mode circuit shown in Fig. 1a which between the two output detectors were recorded. By scanning
constitutes a tunable Fourier transform interferometer. This type the internal phase shifter of the MZI, we obtain the HOM quantum
of circuit finds broad use in photonic quantum information interference fringe shown in Fig. 2f, from which the corresponding
processing27–32, and we use it to explore various classes of HOM visibility is extracted35. We find VHOM = (94.3 ± 1.2)% in full
experiments as reported in the next sections. The propagation loss agreement with the free-space value, indicating that no degrada-
in the single-mode SiN waveguides is estimated via the cut-back tion of the photon properties was observed due to the PIC
method33 to be ~0.3 dB/cm at the QD emission wavelength. The platform.

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Fig. 2 Single-photon source characterization performed with free-space optics (left) and on-chip using the SiN PICs (right). a Resonance
fluorescence data showing the onset of Rabi oscillations when resonantly pumping the QD with a laser of pulse duration 18 ps. The QD is
biased at a fixed external voltage of 1.256 V at a wavelength of 942 nm. b Time-resolved fluorescence measurement of the spontaneous
emission rate of the emitter (green data), modeled with a single exponential decay (orange curve). The blue curve represents the
characterized intrinsic instrument response function from the excitation laser pulse. c Single-photon purity g(2)(0) characterization performed
with a free-space Hanbury Brown and Twiss (HBT) setup (details in Supplementary Note 5), and (e) using the SiN PIC. Indistinguishability data
obtained (d) in the free-space setup and (f) using an on-chip MZI circuit. In all figures, data are shown as dots and numerical fittings are shown
as solid lines (Supplementary Note 6). Error bars, visible when larger than markers, represent 1 s.d. calculated assuming Poissonian photon
statistics.

Bosonic suppression laws configurations (c1 = 1, c2 = 2), (c1 = 1, c2 = 4), (c1 = 2, c2 = 3), and
To investigate the performance of our platform for practical (c1 = 3, c2 = 4) such that c1 + c2 is an odd number.
photonic quantum information processing applications, we use it We experimentally test the suppression law by demultiplexing
to test generalized HOM quantum interference in the form of photon pairs from the quantum emitter and injecting them in all six
bosonic suppression laws in a discrete Fourier transform (DFT) possible pairs of different input modes of the integrated DFT. The
interferometer. Introduced by Tichy et al.27,28,36, they are a output statistics for all antibunched two-photon output configurations
generalization of the HOM quantum interference, which is a are measured via four superconducting nanowire single-photon
suppression of coincidences when photons are interfered on a detectors connected to the output modes (see Fig. 1) and analyzed
balanced beam splitter (two-mode DFT), to higher number of with a time-tagger. The results are shown in Fig. 3a, where the
modes and photons. Applications of bosonic suppression laws in expected suppressed and enhanced configurations are highlighted in
photonic quantum technologies include the verification of red and green, respectively. The experimental data show good
quantum advantage experiments via boson sampling27,28 and agreement with the theoretical expectations, i.e., showing clear
schemes for high-dimensional photonic quantum computing29. suppression of the configurations which sum to an odd number for
By programming the phase shifters in the SiN PIC shown in the cyclic inputs. The remaining contributions to the amplitudes of
Fig. 1, we implement a four-mode DFT described by the unitary suppressed configurations can be well explained considering the
transformation matrix Uj;k ¼ exp½ðj  1Þðk  1Þ2πi=4=2, where j, k finite degree of indistinguishability of the photons generated by the
∈ {1, 2, 3, 4} label the circuit spatial modes (Supplementary Note quantum emitter, as analyzed in Supplementary Note 7.
7). The suppression law states that whenever a cyclic input
configuration of n photons is injectedP to the DFT all output
configurations where the value of ni¼1 ðci mod nÞ is different than Photonic entanglement generation and characterization
zero are suppressed (i.e., have zero amplitude), where ci represents We now proceed to investigate the generation of photon-photon
the output mode number of the i-th photon36. For example, entanglement, a key building block in photonic quantum
considering n = 2 photons in a four-mode DFT, a cyclic input information processing. A pair of path-encoded qubits can be
configuration could be sending two photons in the input modes encoded in two photons propagating in the four-mode SiN PIC
(1, 3), for which suppression is expected at the output mode associating the occupation of each mode to the computational

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Fig. 3 Quantum information processing experimental results. a Experiment result of Bosonic suppression laws. Raw detection histograms
are reported for all anti-bunched input-output configurations, together with the associated measurement probabilities obtained where the
raw data is plotted in red while the expected curve is in black. The combinations that are expected to be suppressed and enhanced by the
suppression law are highlighted in red and green, respectively. b Correlation data for Pauli X1X2, Y1Y2, and Z1Z2 qubit measurements on the
generated Bell state jψþ i. Top histograms are measured expectation values, while bottom values are theoretical expectations. c Density matrix
reconstruction of the post-selected Bell state via state tomography. The red pillars represent the absolute values of the reconstructed density
matrix, with transparent dashed pillars representing theoretical expectations. The corresponding measured state fidelity for jψþ i is 92%.

qubit states as 17!j0i1 , 27!j1i1 , 37!j0i2 , and 47!j1i2 . When we large-scale photonic quantum technologies. The direct heteroge-
inject a photon in each of the input modes 1 and 3, the SiN circuit neous integration of the solid-state photon sources with SiN PICs
transforms the input state into a superposition, whichpffiffiffi leads to the represents a potentially important route to further reduce losses. In
entangled Bell state jψþ i ¼ ðj0i1 j1i2 þ j1i1 j0i2 Þ= 2. This state is which case the PIC is required to operate at cryogenic temperatures.
obtained after post-selecting on the two-photon coincidence We note that the thermal phase shifters used here are not well suited
events where each photon ends up in separate qubit modes37–39, to such cryogenic environment. Phase shifters based on electro-opto-
which happens with a success probability of 50%. The MZIs and mechanical (MEMS) devices41 or heterogeneous integration with
phase-shifters at the output of the circuit (see Fig. 1) can be used electro-optic materials, such as BaTiO3, represent more suitable
to measure the two qubits in arbitrary qubit bases, which we use alternatives42. For example, recent advances have shown the
to perform a tomographic reconstruction and analysis of the possibility of large-scale integration of quantum emitters and
generated entangled state. More details on the functioning of the waveguides with pick-and-place techniques in similar platforms14,17.
circuit can be found in Supplementary Note 7. Such techniques can be readily adapted also to our high-quality
The experimental results are reported in Fig. 3b, c. The two photon sources as they are embedded in photonic nanostructures
input photons are again obtained by demultiplexing the stream of suitable for transfer-printing onto SiN43. Achieving a platform that
photons from the QD. Correlation data in the Pauli matrices bases explores both state-of-the-art QD photon sources with the scalability
X1X2, Y1Y2, and Z1Z2 are shown in Fig. 3b, showing high of CMOS-compatible PICs in SiN represents a promising avenue for
correlations in the first case and anticorrelations for the latter developing photonic quantum technologies. In this work, we have
two, as expected for the jψþ i state. Measuring the qubits in other taken the first steps to explore such opportunities.
additional Pauli bases allows us to reconstruct the density matrix
of the output state via quantum state tomography40. The obtained
density matrix is reported in Fig. 3c, which presents a fidelity of DATA AVAILABILITY
92% with the ideal jψþ i entangled state, providing another Data underlying the results presented in this paper are available https://doi.org/
confirmation of the good performance of the PIC. The remaining 10.17894/ucph.9000be18-5de4-4dac-bb2c-5f2b1c9ba4fb.
infidelity can again be attributed to partially distinguishable
photons, as analyzed in Supplementary Note 7.
CODE AVAILABILITY
The data analysis codes used in this paper are available from the corresponding
DISCUSSION authors upon reasonable request.

We have demonstrated a modular quantum photonic platform based

on a high-quality and efficient QD single-photon source interfaced Received: 14 March 2023; Accepted: 8 September 2023;
with a low-loss and scalable SiN PIC. This allowed us to demonstrate
various on-chip multiphoton quantum experiments relevant to
emerging photonic quantum technologies. The Bosonic suppression
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