ME-224 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES SE-MECHANICAL

ME-215 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

HANDOUT # 02
AIR STANDARD CYCLES AND THEIR ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION:

The cycles encountered in actual devices are difficult to analyze because of the presence of complicating effects,
such as friction.

To make an analytical study of a cycle feasible, we have to keep the complexities at a manageable level and utilize
some idealizations, called Ideal Cycles.

If the Carnot cycle is the best possible cycle, why do we not use it as the model cycle for all the heat engines
instead of bothering with several so-called ideal cycles?

The answer to this question is hardware related. Most cycles encountered in practice differ significantly from the
Carnot cycle, which makes it unsuitable as a realistic model.

IDEALIZATIONS AND SIMPLIFICATIONS:

1. No friction. Thus no pressure drop as fluid flows.

2. All expansion and compression processes are quasi-equilibrium.
3. Heat transfer is negligible.

THE CARNOT CYCLE:

The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally reversible processes:

1-2 isothermal heat addition
2-3 isentropic expansion
3-4 isothermal heat rejection
4-1 isentropic compression

The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle that can be executed between a
heat source at temperature TH and a sink at temperature TL.

Why it is not practical to build an engine that would operate on a cycle that
closely approximates the Carnot cycle?

Reversible isothermal heat transfer is very difficult to achieve in reality

because
- It would require very large heat exchangers and
- It would take a very long time (a power cycle in a typical engine is completed in a fraction of a second).
Therefore, it is not practical to build an engine that would operate
on a cycle that closely approximates the Carnot cycle.

AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS:

1. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed loop and always
behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external
source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process that restores the working
fluid to its initial state.

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OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES:

The ideal Otto cycle consists of four internally reversible processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant-volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection

Thermal efficiency:

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Therefore the expression for thermal efficiency of Otto cycle is:

1
η𝑡ℎ = 1 −
𝑟 𝛾−1
- The thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle increases with both the compression ratio and the specific heat ratio.
- The thermal efficiencies of actual spark-ignition engines range from about 25 to 30 percent.

Work output:

W = Expansion work – compression work

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So, the required equation is:

𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑊= [(𝑟 − 1)(𝑟 𝛾−1 − 1)
𝛾−1 𝑝

𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
𝑀𝐸𝑃 = = =
𝑉𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑉 (1 − 1)
1 𝑟
Work output is directly proportional to pressure ratio, 𝑟𝑝 .

DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES:

The ideal Diesel cycle consists of four internally reversible processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection

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Thermal Efficiency:

So, the required expression is:

1 𝑟𝑐 𝛾 − 1
η𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝛾−1
[ ]
𝑟 𝛾(𝑟𝑐 − 1)

- where 𝑟𝑐 = cut off ratio i.e the ratio of the cylinder volumes after and before the
combustion process
- The cutoff ratio decreases, the efficiency of the Diesel cycle increases.
- Remember, though, that diesel engines operate at much higher compression ratios
and thus are usually more efficient than the spark-ignition (gasoline) engines.
- The diesel engines also burn the fuel more completely since they usually operate
at lower revolutions per minute and the air–fuel mass ratio is much higher than
spark-ignition engines.
- Thermal efficiencies of large diesel engines range from about 35 to 40 percent.

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Work output:

W = area under process 2-3 + area under process 3-4 - area under process 1-2

So, the required equation is:

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑟 𝛾−1
𝑊= [(𝑟𝑐 − 1)(𝛾 − 1) + (𝑟𝑐 − 𝑟𝑐 𝛾 𝑟 1−𝛾 ) − (1 − 𝑟 1−𝛾 )
𝛾−1
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
and 𝑀𝐸𝑃 = 𝑉 = 𝑉 −𝑉 = 1
𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 1 2 𝑉1 (1− )
𝑟

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DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE:

Approximating the combustion process in internal combustion engines as a constant-volume or a constant-pressure

heat-addition process is overly simplistic and not quite realistic.

Probably a better (but slightly more complex) approach would be to model the combustion process in both gasoline
and diesel engines as a combination of two heat-transfer processes, one at constant volume and the other at constant
pressure. The ideal cycle based on this concept is called the dual cycle.

The ideal Dual cycle consists of four internally

reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant-volume heat addition
3-4 Constant-pressure heat addition
4-5 Isentropic expansion
5-1 Constant-volume heat rejection

Thermal efficiency:

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Therefore,
1 𝑟𝑝 𝑟𝑐 𝛾 −1
η𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝑟 𝛾−1 [(𝑟 ]
𝑝 −1)+𝛾𝑟𝑝 (𝑟𝑐 −1)

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Work output:

W = area under process 3-4 + area under process 4-5 - area under process 1-2

𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑊= [𝛾𝑟 𝑟 𝛾−1 (𝑟𝑐 − 1) + 𝑟 𝛾−1 (𝑟𝑝 − 1) − 𝑟𝑝 𝑟𝑐 𝛾 + 1]
𝛾−1 𝑝
and
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
𝑀𝐸𝑃 = = = 1
𝑉𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑉1 −𝑉2 𝑉1 (1− )
𝑟

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COMPARISON OF OTTO, DUAL AND DIESEL CYCLES:

1. Same Compression ratio and heat addition

Figures (a) and (b)

It has been observed from figure that:

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜 < 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 < 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙

Therefore,
𝜂𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜 > 𝜂𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 > 𝜂𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙

What will be your analysis for same compression ratio and heat rejection?

2. Same peak pressure, peak temperature and heat rejection

Figures (a) and (b) (bottom)

𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜 < 𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙

Therefore,
𝜂𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 > 𝜂𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜

What will be your analysis for same maximum pressure and heat input?

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3. Same maximum pressure and work output

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜 > 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙

Therefore,
𝜂𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜 < 𝜂𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙

THE BRAYTON CYCLE:

The Brayton cycle, is made up of four internally reversible processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)

2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection

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HOME WORK ASSIGNMENT # 02

1. Do IC Engines operate on a thermodynamic cycle?

2. Mention various assumptions made in air standard cycles.

3. What is the difference between air standard assumption and cold air standard assumption?

4. Sketch the P-v and T-s diagrams and derive expressions for the thermal efficiency and mean effective pressure of
following cycles:

a) Otto b) Diesel c) Dual

5. What is the effect of compression ratio on the efficiency of Otto cycle with respect of ratio of specific heats?
Illustrate your answer with a suitable graph.

6. Show, with an example, the efficiency of Diesel cycle is lower than the efficiency of Otto cycle for same
compression ratio. Is this a practical approach?

7. Compare Otto and Diesel cycle based on different parameters include heat addition, heat rejection, peak pressure,
maximum temperature etc.

8. What is the cutoff ratio? How does it affect the thermal efficiency of a Diesel cycle?

9. How is the rpm (revolutions per minute) of an actual four-stroke gasoline engine related to the number of
thermodynamic cycles? What would your answer be for a two-stroke engine?

10. How are the combustion and exhaust processes modeled under the air-standard assumptions?

11. As a car gets older, will its compression ratio change?

12. How does the thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle change with the compression ratio of the engine and the
specific heat ratio of the working fluid?

13. Why is high compression ratios not used in spark-ignition engines?

14. An ideal Otto cycle with a specified compression ratio is executed using (a) air, (b) argon, and (c) ethane as the
working fluid. For which case will the thermal efficiency be the highest? Why?

15. What is the difference between fuel-injected gasoline engines and diesel engines?

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Numerical problems

1. An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the beginning of the compression process, air is at 95 kPa and
27°C, and 750 kJ/kg of heat is transferred to air during the constant-volume heat-addition process. Taking into
constant specific heats at room temperature, determine (a) the pressure and temperature at the end of the heat
addition process, (b) the net work output, (c) the thermal efficiency, and (d) the mean effective pressure for the
cycle. (Ans: 4392kPa, 423kJ/kg, 56.4%, 534kPa)

2. The compression ratio of an air-standard Otto cycle is 9.5. Prior to the isentropic compression process, the air is at
100 kPa, 35°C, and 600 cm3. The temperature at the end of the isentropic expansion process is 800 K. Using specific
heat values at room temperature, determine (a) the highest temperature and pressure in the cycle; (b) the amount of
heat transferred in, in kJ; (c) the thermal efficiency; and (d) the mean effective pressure.
(Ans: 1969 K, 6072 kPa, 0.59 kJ, 59.4 % ,652 kPa)

3. Repeat Problem 2, but replace the isentropic expansion process by a polytropic expansion process with the
polytropic exponent n=1.35. (Ans: 1759K, 5426kPa, 0.5543kJ, 56.7%, 586kPa)

4. An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 9.2 and uses air as the working fluid. At the beginning of the
compression process, air is at 98 kPa and 27°C. The pressure is doubled during the constant-volume heat-addition
process. Accounting for cold air standard assumptions, determine (a) the amount of heat transferred to the air, (b) the
net work output, (c) the thermal efficiency, and (d) the mean effective pressure for the cycle.
(Ans: 523.3kJ/kg, 307.9kJ/kg, 58.8%, 393kPa)

5. An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 16 and a cutoff ratio of 2. At the beginning of the
compression process, air is at 95 kPa and 27°C. Accounting for constant specific heats at room temperature,
determine (a) the temperature after the heat-addition process, (b) the thermal efficiency, and (c) the mean effective
pressure. (Ans: 1818.8K, 61.4%, 660.4kPa)

6. An ideal diesel engine has a compression ratio of 20 and uses air as the working fluid. The state of air at the
beginning of the compression process is 95 kPa and 20°C. If the maximum temperature in the cycle is not to exceed
2200 K, determine (a) the thermal efficiency and (b) the mean effective pressure. Assume constant specific heats for
air at room temperature. (Ans: 63.5 %, 933 kPa)

7. Repeat Problem 5, but replace the isentropic expansion process by polytropic expansion process with the
polytropic exponent n=1.35. (Ans: 47%, 691kPa)

8. A four-cylinder two-stroke 2.4-L diesel engine that operates on an ideal Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of
17 and a cutoff ratio of 2.2. Air is at 55°C and 97 kPa at the beginning of the compression process. Using the cold-
air standard assumptions, determine how much power the engine will deliver at 1500 rpm. (Ans: 46.6kW)

9. A six-cylinder, four-stroke, 4.5-L compression-ignition engine operates on the ideal diesel cycle with a
compression ratio of 17. The air is at 95 kPa and 55°C at the beginning of the compression process and the engine
speed is 2000 rpm. The engine uses light diesel fuel with a heating value of 42,500 kJ/kg, an air–fuel ratio of 24, and
combustion efficiency of 98 percent. Using constant specific heats at 850 K, determine (a) the maximum
temperature in the cycle and the cutoff ratio (b) the net work output per cycle and the thermal efficiency, (c) the
mean effective pressure, (d ) the net power output, and (e) the specific fuel consumption, in g/kWh, defined as the
ratio of the mass of the fuel consumed to the net work produced.
(Hint: Qin = mass of fuel x heating value x combustion efficiency)
(Ans: 2383 K, 2.7, 4.36 kJ, 0.543, 969 kPa, 72.7 kW, 159 g/kWh)

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10. Consider an engine operating on the ideal Diesel cycle with air as the working fluid. The volume of the cylinder
is 1200 cm3 at the beginning of the compression process, 75 cm3 at the end, and 150 cm3 after the heat-addition
process. Air is at 17°C and 100 kPa at the beginning of the compression process. Determine (a) the pressure at the
beginning of the heat-rejection process, (b) the net work per cycle, in kJ, and (c) the mean effective pressure.
(Ans: 294.3kPa, 0.803kJ, 714kPa)

11. An air standard dual cycle has a compression ratio of 10. The pressure and temperature at the beginning of
compression are 1 bar and 27°C. The maximum pressure reached is 42 bar and the maximum temperature is 1500°C.
Determine (a) temperature at the end of constant volume heat addition (b) cut off ratio(c) net work done per cycle,
and (d) the thermal efficiency. (Ans: 987°C, 1.407, 878.1kJ/kg, 58.42%)

12. For an engine working on ideal Dual cycle, the compression ratio is 10 and the maximum pressure is limited to
70bar. If the heat supplied is 1680kJ/kg, find (a) temperatures and pressures at all states and (b) the thermal
efficiency. The pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression is 1 bar and 100°C respectively.
(Ans: 25.12bar, 663.9°C, 2338°C, 2815.8°C,1041.4°C,3.53bar,59.82%)

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