Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 75 (2017) 205–219

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Thermo-mechanical concepts for bulk energy storage MARK

Wolf-Dieter Steinmann
German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Engineering Thermodynamics, Pfaffenwaldring 38-40, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Grid scale electrical energy storage is considered facilitative for the increased deployment of renewable energy.
Bulk energy storage Recent progress in the development of large scale thermal energy storage systems operated at medium and high
Thermo-mechanical energy storage temperatures has sparked the interest in the application of this technology as a storage sink for electricity. Life
Thermal energy storage expectancies in the range of 20–30 years, low capacity-specific costs, a low environmental impact and flexibility
CAES
regarding sites make thermo-mechanical energy storage a promising option for future bulk storage of electricity.
Pumped thermal energy storage
Compressed heat energy storage
A large number of concepts have been developed, which vary in storage efficiency, complexity and maturity. This
paper provides an overview of the basic concepts for thermo-mechanical energy storage and describes various
implementations and their characteristics. The utilization of waste heat, the combined delivery of heat and
power during discharge and the integration of storage modules into power plants are described as additional
options for some of these thermo-mechanical concepts.

1. Introduction of the total bulk storage capacity for electrical energy. While small
facilities have capacities below 10 kW, the maximum size of a single
The limited flexibility of thermal power plants sparked interest in facility is in the range of 4000 MW, the typical life expectancy is 50–60
electrical energy storage early in the development of electricity net- years. The roundtrip efficiency, which is defined as
works. The availability of a storage option helps to reduce inefficient
electric energy provided during discharging Wel,discharge
partial load or transient operation of thermal cycles. Highly efficient ηroundtrip = =
electric energy consumed during charging Wel,charge (1)
baseload power plants can be operated continuously; expensive and
inefficient peak load capacity can be limited. In recent years, the of PHES facilities is in the range of 75–85%. The costs of PHES systems
increased share of electricity generated from solar irradiation or wind depend strongly on location. Cost estimates for a 1000 MW unit range
has shifted the focus to a different application area. Grid scale from 2000 $/kW to 4000 $/kW [5].
electricity storage is believed to facilitate the effective integration of The main drawbacks of PHES are the geographic dependence and
energy provided by intermittent renewable energy sources [1–3]. the environmental impact. Permitting processes often take several
This paper describes systems for grid scale diurnal storage of years. Usually, sites fulfilling the requirements of PHES plants are in
electricity. These systems should reach 10–500 MWel and discharge remote areas with a low local electricity demand; the conditions for
times in the range of 4–12 h. electricity generation of PV and wind are often less favorable at typical
Pumped hydro energy storage (PHES) has the highest capacity of PHES sites. This requires the extension of the electric grid to connect
today's commercial electricity storage systems [4]. PHES facilities store source, storage and consumer.
off-peak electricity by moving water from a lower to an upper reservoir.
During discharging water is released from an upper reservoir through a 2. Thermo-mechanical energy storage systems
hydroelectric turbine into a lower reservoir, converting potential to
kinetic energy and using this to generate electricity. The potential Due to the specific tariff-structure, large-scale thermal energy
energy stored is defined by the elevation difference between the two storage systems became a viable option for concentrating solar thermal
reservoirs; a system with a height difference of 360 m has an ideal power (CSP) plants in Spain at the beginning of the 21st century [6,7].
capacity of 1 kWh/m3. According to [5], the total global cumulative The Andasol 1 solar thermal power plant with a nominal output of
generating capacity of PHES is 127 GW, representing more than 99% 50 MWel, which started operation in 2009, has a thermal storage unit

Abbreviations: CAES, Compressed Air Energy Storage; CHEST, Compressed Heat Energy Storage; CHP, Combined Heat and Power; COP, Coefficient Of Performance; CSP,
Concentrating Solar Power; HRSG, Heat Recovery Steam Generator; LAES, Liquid Air Energy Storage; ORC, Organic Rankine Cycle; PCM, Phase Change Material; PHCHP, Power to
Heat to Combined Heat and Power; PHES, Pumped Hydro Energy Storage; PHP, Power to Heat to Power; PTES, Pumped Thermal Energy Storage
E-mail address: [email protected].

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.10.065
Received 16 July 2015; Received in revised form 4 October 2016; Accepted 31 October 2016
Available online 04 November 2016
1364-0321/ © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
W.-D. Steinmann Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 75 (2017) 205–219

Nomenclature Tmax, Cycle maximum temperature of thermodynamic cycle [K]

Tmin, Cycle minimum temperature of thermodynamic cycle [K]
Ccapacity capital costs dependent on capacity of storage system [$] wAirStorage volume specific storage capacity of air volume [kWh/m³]
Cpower capital costs dependent on power of storage system [$] wAirStorage, hybrid40 volume specific storage capacity of air volume for
cpower block power specific costs of power block [$/kWel] a hybrid system assuming a fossil fired reference
cstorage capacity specific costs of thermal storage unit cycle with a thermal efficiency of 60% [kWh/m³]
[$/kWhthermal] wAirStorage, hybrid60 volume specific storage capacity of air volume for
CTotal capital costs of storage system [$] a hybrid system assuming a fossil fired reference
Qfossil thermal energy provided by burning of fossil fuels [kWh] cycle with a thermal efficiency of 60% [kWh/m3]
Qhot capacity of hot reservoir of a PTES system [kWh] Wel, charge electric energy required during charging [kWh]
Qhot, min minimum capacity required for hot reservoir of a PTES Wel, discharge electric energy delivered during discharge [kWh]
system [kWh] Wel, fossil electric energy generated from fossil fuel
Qcold capacity of cold reservoir of a PTES system [kWh] Wel, hybrid electric energy generated from stored energy in a hybrid
Qcold, min minimum capacity required for hot reservoir of a PTES system during discharge [kWh]
system [kWh] η1. Law storage efficiency of hybrid system based on first law
p pressure [bar] analysis [-]
Pcharge average power during charging process [kW] ηfossil thermal efficiency of fossil fired reference process [-]
Pdischarge average power during discharging process [kW] ηhybrid storage efficiency of hybrid system assuming a fossil fired
shybrid share of stored energy in total energy provided during reference process [-]
discharging in a hybrid system, assuming a fossil-fuel- ηhybrid40 storage efficiency of hybrid system assuming a fossil fired
fired reference process [-] reference process with a thermal efficiency of 40% [-]
shybrid40 share of stored energy in total energy provided during ηhybrid40 storage efficiency of hybrid system assuming a fossil fired
discharging in a hybrid system, assuming a fossil-fuel- reference process with a thermal efficiency of 60% [-]
fired reference process with a thermal efficiency of 40%[-] ηroundtrip storage efficiency of an adiabatic system [-]
shybrid60 share of stored energy in total energy provided during ηthermal thermal efficiency of thermal cycle [-]
discharging in a hybrid system, assuming a fossil-fuel- ηWasteHeat storage efficiency of system using also waste heat from an
fired reference process with a thermal efficiency of 60%[-] external source [-]
Tcold temperature of cold reservoir of PTES system [K] κ heat capacity ratio [-]
Thot temperature of hot reservoir of PTES system [K] ψ compression ratio gas turbine [-]

with a thermal capacity of 1 GWh which is cycled between 290 °C and 2.1. Basic concepts
390 °C. More than a dozen similar solar thermal energy power plants
with integrated storages have been built thus far. The thermal energy Three basic principles for thermo-mechanical energy storage can be
storage system of the Solana CSP plant near Phoenix generates distinguished:
280 MWel during discharging for 6 h. While today's commercial storage
systems for CSP applications use molten salt as the storage material, a – Compressed air energy storage (CAES), in which a volume is
variety of alternative concepts for large-scale storage at medium and charged with pressurized air. This pressurized air is later used to
high temperatures has been developed [8]. operate an expander process during discharging. The expander
The characteristics of thermal energy storage systems also make process requires the addition of heat.
them promising candidates for large-scale storage of electricity. There – Power to Heat to Power (PHP), in which a thermal energy storage
are no specific requirements regarding the geology of the site. The unit is charged by electric energy. During the discharging phase, the
systems are designed for life expectancies in the range of 20–30 years. heat delivered by the thermal storage energy unit is used to operate a
The required materials are abundant, the environmental impact is low. thermal cycle. A modification of this concept is Power to Heat to
Capacity-specific costs of 15 $/kWthermal have been defined as the goal Combined Heat and Power (PHCHP). Here, the storage unit
of the ongoing development of thermal energy storage systems [9]. provides not only energy for operating a thermal cycle, but also
Although the required thermal capacity is 2–5 times the electrical thermal energy for heating or process industry applications.
energy storage capacity, the resulting costs are attractive. – Pumped Thermal Energy Storage (PTES), in which excess electrical
Thermo-mechanical energy storage systems are based on transfor- energy is used to power a heat pump during charging, creating a
mations between mechanical and thermal energy. Internally, thermal temperature difference between two heat reservoirs. During dis-
energy storage might be combined with mechanical energy storage. The charging, this temperature difference is used to operate a thermal
storage components are combined with standard components such as cycle. A PTES system can store heat at temperatures above the
heat exchangers, compressors or turbines. Some of these components ambient temperature or alternatively cold energy below the ambient
require modifications, other are identical to components used in the temperature can be stored; some systems use both kinds of storage.
process industry or in power plants. While the capital costs of thermal
energy storage units mainly depend on capacity, the costs of the other The technical maturities of the concepts vary significantly. A first
components are dependent on power. The costs of the resulting generation CAES plant has been in operation since 1978. While PHP/
thermos-mechanical energy storage system depend on both capacity PHCHP has not been demonstrated, thus far all components required
and power, comparison of different concepts requires the specification for this concept are commercially available. PTES, which theoretically
of both parameters. Thermo-mechanical energy storage concepts may promises the highest roundtrip efficiency for a concept without
be the basis for independent storage plants; some of these concepts geographic restrictions, is in an earlier stage of development.
may also be integrated into thermal power plants. Integration helps to For each of the basic concepts, various implementations have been
reduce costs by the dual use of components and helps to ensure supply developed. Fig. 1 shows an overview of these concepts described in this
security. paper.
Within these concepts, a further differentiation can be made based

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Wel,discharge − Wel,fossil
ηhybrid =
Wel,charge (3)
The electric energy produced from the fossil fuel energy is
calculated by assuming an efficiency ηfossil for the conversion of the
fossil fuel energy Qfossil
Wel,fossil=ηfossil Qfossil (4)
A clear determination of ηfossil is usually not possible in a thermo-
mechanical storage system. Instead, representative values for ηfossil
must be assumed. Two different cases can be distinguished here:
modern gas-fired peak load gas turbines reach efficiencies in the range
of 40%. While these gas turbines represent the systems with the
shortest start-up time, combined cycle power plants reach the highest
thermal efficiencies of up to 60%, representing the optimum transfor-
mation of fossil fuel energy into mechanical work. Compared to gas
Fig. 1. Overview of concepts for thermo-mechanical energy storage.
turbines, combined cycle power plants are less flexible. Regarding
thermal efficiency and flexibility, future fossil fuel fired power plants
on the utilization of external heat sources. Three cases can be
are expected to be in between gas turbines and combined cycle plants,
distinguished here:
so the efficiencies of these two systems are used as extreme values to
estimate the contribution of the fossil fuel in a hybrid thermo-
– Adiabatic concepts: only electrical energy is used to operate the
mechanical energy storage system.
system Hybrid thermo-mechanical energy storage systems can be consid-
– Hybrid concepts: electrical energy is combined with thermal energy
ered as combination of storage system and power cycle. This must be
provided by fossil fuels considered in the definition of characteristic figures like storage
– Waste heat concepts: electrical energy is combined with low
capacity and storage density. In order to estimate the proportion
temperature heat provided by an external source provided by the stored electricity, the electric energy generated from
the fossil fuel is deducted from the total electric energy generated
The possibility for the integration of waste heat is a unique feature during the discharging process. Again, the definition of an efficiency
of thermo-mechanical storage concepts. This offers a cost-effective
ηfossil for the transformation of fossil fuel energy into electric energy is
compensation of losses in the charging/discharging processes. Waste necessary. Using this methodology, the storage capacity Wel, hybrid of
heat utilization is more simple for concepts without geographic
the hybrid storage system is
restrictions, since the location can be chosen according to the avail-
ability of external waste heat sources. Wel,hybrid=Wel,discharge−Wel,fossil=Wel,discharge−ηfossil Qfossil (5)
Another option for thermo-mechanical energy storage concepts is
The share shybrid of the stored energy is
to provide not only electric energy during discharging, but also thermal
energy which might be used for heating or as process heat. This allows Whybrid ηfossil Qfossil
shybrid = =1 −
for the adaptation to the needs of a consumer with a varying demand Wel,discharge Wel,discharge (6)
profile and helps to improve the economic viability of concepts with a
The share shybrid is important for the calculation of storage-specific
limited number of roundtrip cycles.
costs and the volumetric storage density of hybrid storage systems.
The term waste heat is used here synonymously with low tempera-
2.2. Evaluation criteria
ture energy. Not only industrial processes or data centers are potential
sources; low temperature heat might also be provided by solar thermal
Adiabatic storage concepts can be evaluated on the basis of the
collectors, solar ponds or geothermal sources. A maximum temperature
roundtrip efficiency ηroundtrip defined in Eq. (1). For hybrid storage
of 100 °C is assumed here; the conversion of this thermal energy in a
concepts, the integration of external heat sources complicates the
thermal cycle is often not profitable. This limit was also chosen since
comparison of different storage concepts. Different definitions for the
this is the limiting temperature for storing heat in low cost water tanks
storage efficiency have been suggested for hybrid compressed air
at ambient pressure. This is important for fluctuating waste heat
energy storage (CAES) plants [10], which can be also applied for other
streams; the dependence on the availability of waste heat can be
thermo-mechanical storage concepts. Depending on the methodology
reduced by a cost-effective storage option. In the definition of the
used, the value of the efficiency varies between 24% and 81% for an
efficiency of a thermo-mechanical storage system, waste heat is
existing CAES system. The efficiency η1.Law, based on a first law
neglected:
analysis is defined as
Wel,discharge electric energy provided during discharging Wel,discharge
ηWasteHeat = =
η1.Law = electric energy consumed during charging Wel,charge (7)
Wel,charge + Q fossil (2)
with the electric energy consumed during the charging process Wel, This definition is similar to the roundtrip efficiency ηroundtip of the
system without the addition of external thermal energy. A separate
charge, the electric energy Wel, discharge provided during discharging and
the thermal energy of the natural gas Qfossil. This efficiency definition definition for systems using waste heat is introduced here, since in
neglects the differences in the exergetic qualities of electric energy and contrast to ηroundtip, the value of ηwasteHeat might exceed 1.0.
energy provided by the combustion of natural gas. In an alternative Another criterion often used in the economic assessment of storage
definition of the storage efficiency [11], the electric energy provided systems are power specific costs. For some of the thermo-mechanical
during the discharging process is reduced by the electric energy Wel, storage systems, the duration of the charging process is not equal to the
duration of the discharging process; the average power pcharge trans-
fossil that could be produced from the fossil fuel energy in a stand-alone
power plant: ferred to the system during charging is different from the average
power pdischarge provided by the system during the discharging process.
For a storage system with capital costs CTotal, the power-specific costs

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for the charging process are different from the power-specific costs of 1. 0kWh − 0. 96kWh
ηhybrid60 = =0.05
the discharging process: 0. 8kWh (10)
CTotal C The electrical energy provided by the Huntorf during discharging
≠ Total
pcharge pdischarge (8) approaches the output of a modern combined cycle plant using the
same amount of fossil fuel. Compared to today's gas turbines, the
This difference is increased by the losses of the storage process; the maximum temperature in the Huntorf gas turbine is low; the natural
electric energy transferred to the storage system is usually higher than gas is used here at non-optimal efficiency. While this CAES system has
the energy provided during the discharging process. Since for some the advantage of greater flexibility, for discharging periods of several
applications the nominal power during the charging process is also hours, the electrical work delivered is close to the electrical work
relevant, the application of power-specific costs as a criterion for the generated in a combined cycle using the same amount of fossil fuel with
comparison of concepts requires a clear definition of the value assumed no storage capacity. Efficiency losses also result from the high amount
as the nominal power. of energy in the air at the outlet of the low pressure turbine. According
to [19], the temperature of the exhaust air is 400 °C. Originally, the
3. Description of concepts Huntorf plant was intended to also provide blackstart capabilities for
nuclear power plants; storage efficiency was less important for this
In this section, the various concepts developed for the implementa- application. In the second CAES plant near McIntosh, Alabama, USA,
tion of thermo-mechanical energy storage are described. the thermal efficiency is improved by a recuperator, which uses heat
from the exhausting air to preheat the incoming air to about 295 °C
3.1. Compressed air energy storage (CAES) [Fig. 3]. The temperature of the flue gas is reduced to 135 °C.
Using this heat recovery, the consumption of fossil fuel energy is
Compressed air energy storage plants are based on a two-stage reduced to 1.21 kWh per 1 kWh of electric energy provided during
Brayton cycle. Off-peak electricity is used to compress air, which is then discharging, while 0.82 kWh is required for compressing the air [20].
stored in a volume. During discharging, the pressurized air is used to In a gas turbine with an efficiency of 40%, about 0.48 kWh would be
operate an expander. CAES decouples the compression and expansion generated; a combined cycle with an efficiency of 60% would provide
process of a gas turbine. A comprehensive overview of the early studies 0.73 kWh. The resulting efficiencies for the two different fossil fuel
on CAES until 1985 is given in [12]; reviews also including recent reference processes are
developments are given in [13,14].
1. 0kWh − 0. 48kWh
ηhybrid40 = =0. 63
3.1.1. Hybrid CAES 0. 82kWh (11)
The first CAES plant was built at Huntorf, Germany and was and
commissioned in 1978 [15,16]. Fig. 2 shows a simplified schematic of
the Huntorf plant. Air is compressed in an intercooled compression 1. 0kWh − 0. 73kWh
ηhybrid60 = =0.33
train, which is composed of an axial low pressure compressor and a 0. 82kWh (12)
centrifugal high pressure compressor with a total power demand of For the calculation of the contribution of the compressed air to the
68 MW. Two underground caverns with a total volume of 310000 m3 electricity generated during the discharging, Eq. (6) is applied. For a
are used to store the compressed air at a maximum pressure of 70 bar. gas turbine reference cycle with ηfossil=0.4, the share shybrid40 of the
The caverns, which lie between 650 and 800 m, were created in a salt compressed air is 36% for the Huntorf plant and 52% for the McIntosh
deposit by a leaching process. Before being stored, the air is cooled facility. If a combined cycle power plant is assumed as the reference
down and the heat of the compression process is transferred to the cycle for the conversion of the fossil fuel, the share shybrid60 of the
environment. During discharging, the air from the caverns flows with a compressed air in the Huntorf plant is 4% and 27% for the McIntosh
reduced constant pressure of 42 bar into the combustion chamber of facility. Often, the total electric output is used for the calculation of the
the gas turbine, where the air is heated by natural gas. The gas inlet specific capital costs of a hybrid CAES plant. The resulting cost figures
temperature is 550 °C for the high pressure turbine. After the first are misleading; the specific costs of the storage system decrease with
stage, the gas is reheated using natural gas to 825 °C before entering increasing fossil fuel share. Instead, costs should be related to the
the second turbine stage with a pressure of 11 bar. While the charging output generated by the stored air, which can be estimated by using
process takes about eight hours, the generator provides 320 MW for shybrid40 and shybrid60.
two hours. Due to the usage of fossil fuel energy, this concept is For the Huntorf plant, the storage density of the cavern related to
denoted as diabatic CAES. Fuel is added due to capacity and opera-
tional considerations [17]. Without fuel combustion, the temperature
at the outlet of the low pressure turbine would be in the range of
−170 °C, posing a significant icing risk. Low temperature operation
might cause embrittlement of turbine components.
According to [18], the Huntorf plant requires 0.8 kWh of electric
energy during charging and 1.6 kWh of thermal energy from the
burning of natural gas to generate 1 kWh of electric energy during
discharging. Assuming an efficiency of 40%, 0.64 kWh could be
generated in a gas turbine power plant. In a combined cycle with an
efficiency of 60%, 0.96 kWh could be generated from this fossil fuel
energy input. The resulting storage efficiencies for the two different
values of ηfossil are
1. 0kWh − 0. 64kWh
ηhybrid40 = =0.45
0. 8kWh (9)
and

Fig. 2. Simplified scheme of the Huntorf CAES plant.

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3.1.3. Adiabatic CAES

Adiabatic CAES concepts eliminate the need for fossil fuel by
reusing the heat released during compression to reheat the cavern air
prior to expansion. This approach requires a thermal energy storage
system that stores heat during charging and supplements heat during
discharging (Fig. 5). An ideal adiabatic CAES system with reversible
compressors and expanders, infinitesimal temperature differences in
the storage system and without any pressure losses would have a
storage efficiency of 100%. No-fuel concepts are not only emission-free;
they also avoid the uncertainties of the future development of the gas
price, which might present an economic risk for systems with life
expectancies of 20–40 years.
While the adiabatic CAES concept was identified as an attractive
Fig. 3. Simplified scheme of the McIntosh CAES plant. option in the early stage of the development of CAES technology [26],
the simpler hybrid concepts were preferred for the first CAES plants.
the total electric energy generated during the discharge process is After the feasibility of pressurized air storage in caverns was proven
Wel,discharge 321MW∙2h and both compressor technology and thermal energy storage concepts
kWh
wAirStorage= = =2. 07 3 have been further developed, the interest in adiabatic CAES has been
VCavern 310000m3 m (13)
renewed. The successful implementation of adiabatic CAES requires
The storage density is reduced if the share of the fossil fuel energy is the availability of a highly efficient compressor train, allowing for
subtracted. Assuming a gas turbine as a reference, the resulting increased values for pressure and temperature at the outlet compared
volume-specific storage capacity is to the compressors of conventional gas turbines. Additionally, short
start-up times are required. A central element of adiabatic CAES is the
Wel,discharge∙ shybrid 40 321MW∙2h∙0. 36 kWh
wAirStorage,hybrid40= = =0. 75 3 thermal energy storage. The thermal capacity of the storage system is
VCavern 310000m3 m (14) close to the electric capacity of the plant. Hobson et al. provided a
3
This value is reduced to 0.08 kWh/m , if the share shybrid60 for a detailed conceptual design of an adiabatic CAES system [27]. A two-
combined cycle reference plant is used. stage cycle is applied; the maximum pressure at the exit of the
For the McIntosh storage plant, the corresponding storage densities compressor is 82 bar, the maximum temperature is 462 °C. Two
are underground packed bed thermal energy storage units are operated
at different pressure levels. The calculated roundtrip efficiency of this
Wel,discharge 110MW∙26h kWh
wAirStorage= = =5. 3 3 concept is 67.5%. The main characteristics of this system are given in
VCavern 538000m3 m (15) Table 2. An analysis of an adiabatic CAES system with packed bed
Wel,discharge∙ shybrid 40 thermal energy storage described in [28] provided a roundtrip effi-
110MW∙26h∙0. 52 kWh
wAirStorage,hybrid40= = =2. 76 3 ciency in the range of 70%. A packed bed of PCM particles is described
VCavern 538000m3 m (16)
in [29] as an alternative thermal energy storage solution for adiabatic
Wel,discharge∙ shybrid60 110MW∙26h∙0. 27 kWh CAES.
wAirStorage,hybrid60= = =1. 43 3 Within the framework of a European research project, the
VCavern 538000m3 m (17)
Advanced Adiabatic Compressed Air Energy Storage (AA-CAES) was
Table 1 shows the main characteristics of the two existing hybrid developed between 2003 and 2007 [30]. In this concept, the air is
CAES plants. heated in the compression process to 620 °C and stored at 62 bar. Solid
storage media were selected in this concept; cylindrical structures
3.1.2. Alternative hybrid CAES concepts made of pre-stressed concrete are considered an advantageous solution
Various concepts have been suggested to improve the efficiency of for the pressure vessel containing the thermal storage material.
hybrid CAES systems. The focus is usually on a more efficient
utilization of the fossil fuel. The compressed air might be heated by Table 1
waste heat provided by topping gas turbines. Fig. 4 shows a CAES Characteristics of existing hybrid CAES plants.

concept with air injection and a bottoming cycle expander (CAES-AI- Huntorf [14,16] McIntosh [18]
BCE) described in [21]. The exhaust gases of a fossil fuel fired gas
turbine are used here to heat the air taken from the cavern prior to Year of commissioning 1978 1991
expansion in the high pressure expander. Air is extracted after the high Power of compression train [MW] 60 49
Duration of charging pross [h] 8 41
pressure expander and injected into the gas turbine. The remaining air Power provided during discharge [MW] 321 110
is expanded to atmospheric pressure at nearly ambient temperature. Duration of discharging at full power [h] 2 26
According to [21], about 1.1 kWh of fossil fuel thermal energy is Volume of cavern [m³] 310000 538000
required to generate 1 kWh of electric energy; the electric energy Air pressure in cavern [bar] 43–70 46–75
Max. air mass flow [kg/s] 417 154
required during charging is 0.78 kWh. The resulting storage efficiency
Electric Energy required per kWh output 0.8 0.82
η40 based on a gas turbine reference process is 0.72; the storage [kWhel, in/ kWhel, out]
efficiency based on a combined cycle reference plant is 0.44. The Fossil Energy required per kWh output 1.6 1.21
contribution of the stored air to the produced electrical energy is 56%, [kWhfossil, in/ kWhel, out]
assuming a gas turbine reference process and 34% for a combined cycle
Storage efficiency based on fossil fired references processes
reference process. ηhybrid40 0.45 0.63
The utilization of the heat from the compression stage has also been ηhybrid60 0.05 0.33
suggested as an option for improving efficiency and economics of
hybrid CAES systems. In [22,23], the combination of CAES with Share of compressed air storage in energy provided during discharge based on fossil
fired reference process
district heating systems is investigated. Cold air delivered by the
shybrid40 0.36 0.52
expansion process can be used for cooling purposes as described in shybrid60 0.04 0.27
[24,25].

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Fig. 6. Multi-stage adiabatic CAES concept.

given in Table 2. A first experimental study of a low temperature

adiabatic CAES pilot plant is described in [33].

Fig. 4. Alternative concept for hybrid CAES with air injection and a bottoming cycle
expander (CAES-AI-BCE) described in [21]. 3.1.4. Isothermal CAES
In an ideal isothermal CAES concept, the air is compressed and
expanded at a constant temperature. While this requires cooling of the
gas during compression, heat must be transferred to the gas during the
expansion process. An ideal isothermal CAES system attains an
efficiency of 100% and requires neither fossil fuel nor a thermal energy
storage.
Fig. 7 shows three different options for expanding a gas in the p-v
diagram. Compared to the isothermal expansion, the adiabatic expan-
sion, which starts at the same initial temperature and pressure, ends at
a lower temperature and provides less mechanical work; the area below
the curve is smaller. If air is heated before an adiabatic expansion, the
expansion ending at the temperature of the isothermal process
provides more work than the isothermal expansion. While isothermal
CAES avoids the thermal storage, a larger storage volume for the air is
required to provide the same output as adiabatic CAES with initial
preheating. Fig. 8 shows the ideal volume-specific work for the three
different expansion processes dependent on initial pressure. The final
Fig. 5. Schematic of adiabatic CAES system. pressure is always 1 bar.
Isothermal CAES systems are operated close to ambient tempera-
In an alternative approach, the maximum temperature of an ture. The resulting small thermal inertance allows a very short ramp-up
adiabatic CAES plant is limited to allow for the integration of time. Nearly isothermal compression and expansion can be realized by
conventional turbomachinery and liquid thermal energy storage media reducing the speed of the processes. This approach is impractical, since
such as molten salt or pressurized water. Multi-stage compression and the volume-specific power of compressors and expanders is signifi-
expansion is applied (Fig. 6). In [31], a four-stage concept with a cantly reduced, compared to adiabatic processes. Several concepts have
maximum temperature of 200 °C is described. For a 150 MW system been suggested to overcome this limitation. In [34], a system using a
with air stored at 150 bar, roundtrip efficiencies between 52 and 60 droplet spray heat transfer is described. By increasing the interfacial
were calculated. Due to the lower maximum temperature, the concept surface area for heat transfer, a nearly isothermal process is possible at
is also expected to have a shorter ramp-up time than high temperature higher mass flow rates. An alternative heat transfer concept uses
adiabatic CAES. By increasing the number of stages, the maximum aqueous foams to enhance the rate of heat exchange [35]. Water is
temperature can be reduced [32]. Results for a system with a 6-stage mixed with intake air to create foam at atmospheric pressure. The heat
compression using water at ambient temperature for heat storage are generated by the air compression is stored in the water portion of the
foam. The pressurized foam is stored at pressures up to 200 bar. The

Table 2
Characteristics for various types of CAES concepts without addition of heat from fossil fuel, results from theoretical analysis.

Adiabatic 2-stage compression ηpol=0.88, 0.82 (2nd Low temperature adiabatic 6-stage compression Isothermal [29] ηpol=0.9
stage) [22] ηpol=0.8 [25]

Power of compression train [MW] 243 1.0 1.34e−3

Duration of charging [h] 12 28.2 N/A
Power during discharge [MW] 200 1.0 1.0e−3
Duration of discharging [h] 10 16.4 N/A
Air pressure [bar] 83 90 50
Max air mass flow [kg/s] 325 N/A N/A
Max temperature [°C] 450 157 20 °C
Roundtrip Efficiency [-] 0.68 0.58 0.73
Volume air storage [m³] 860000 1000 0.213 / kWh
Thermal storage Packed bed of iron oxide; storage mass is 190000 t Liquid water at ambient pressure; storage mass is No thermal storage
280 t

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– Caverns created by excavation in hard rock

– Depleted oil or gas fields
– Porous rock formations
– Abandoned mines

The constant volume caverns of the two existing CAES plants are
operated in a sliding pressure mode, the exiting air is throttled down to
the inlet pressure of the turbine during discharge. Alternatively,
compressed air can be supplied at a constant pressure by varying the
gas volume in the cavern. The cavern is connected by a water-filled
tunnel with an above-ground pond. The water level in the cavern varies
according to the charging status; the pressure in the cavern is kept
constant. According to [16], the required volume of a constant pressure
cavern is only one quarter of the volume required by a sliding pressure
Fig. 7. Comparison of isothermal expansion, adiabatic expansion and adiabatic expan- cavern. The constant pressure concept might be cost-effective for
sion after preheating in p-v-diagram. caverns excavated in hard rock due to the higher volume specific costs.
A CAES concept with an isobaric cavern is described in [41]. A
comparison of the different discharging modes is given in [42].
For CAES plants below 10 MW and a limited storage capacity of 1–
2 h, above ground storage in pressure vessels is also considered
[43,44]. There are three options for above ground storage [34]:

– air storage tanks

– gas cylinders
– gas storage pipelines

A cost analysis for these three options is presented in [45].

Guidelines for the design of pressure vessels for small-scale CAES
system are given in [46]. While above-ground storage in pressure
vessels avoids geological constraints, the specific costs are expected to
be significantly higher compared to sub-surface storage. According to
[47], above-ground systems are estimated to be about five times more
Fig. 8. Volume specific work provided by different expansion processes depending on
expensive than underground salt-based air storage caverns.
initial pressure, final pressure 1 bar.
Offshore storage of compressed air in an underwater reservoir
taking advantage of the hydrostatic pressure is also considered,
heat stored in the water phase allows for expansion at a nearly constant
especially for CAES systems connected to offshore wind farms. Both
temperature. The water is recovered after the expansion. The feasibility
flexible balloons [48] and vessels made of concrete [49] have been
has been demonstrated by a 1.5 MW prototype [36]. The design is
suggested as containments. These concepts allow for discharging at a
based on a turbo diesel engine. Full power is reached from standby in
constant pressure.
60 s; the turnaround time from charging to discharging is less than 1 s.
The maximum power of a single reciprocating engine is probably
limited to below 10 MW for an isothermal process. 3.2. Power to heat to power (PHP)
Table 2 shows results from a theoretical analysis of an isothermal
CAES system presented in [37]. The data are given for a system A solution for a thermo-mechanical storage system is charging a
providing 1 kW electrical power during discharging. thermal energy storage unit by Joule heating. During discharging, the
An alternative option for the implementation of isothermal com- storage unit provides heat to power a thermal cycle. The maximum
pression in a CAES system is the application of the liquid piston roundtrip efficiency is limited by the Carnot efficiency
concept as described in [38]. The heat transfer between the air and the electric energy provided during discharging Wel,discharge
moving fluid column limits the temperature variation of the gas during ηPHP max = =
electric energy consumed during charging Wel,charge
expansion and compression. A small scale CAES system using a liquid
Tmin,Cycle
piston device for compression and expansion is presented in [39]. =1 −
Tmax,Cycle (18)

3.1.5. Storage volumes for compressed air depending on the maximum temperature Tmax, Cycle of the working
As shown in Fig. 8, the theoretical volume specific storage density of fluid in the thermal cycle and the minimum temperature of the thermal
compressed air is in the range of 5–20 kWh/m³ for pressures between cycle. Increasing the maximum temperature in the storage beyond
50 and 100 bar. The availability of large, cost-effective storage volumes Tmax, Cycle does not improve the roundtrip efficiency but allows for a
for pressurized air is essential for the economic viability of CAES higher storage capacity and facilitates the operation of the thermal
systems. The two existing CAES plants use solution-mined salt caverns cycle at a constant inlet temperature.
[40]. Similar caverns are used for the storage of natural gas. Water is There are no geological restrictions for PHP systems; systems can
used to dissolve the salt; the brine produced in this process is pumped be implemented using off-the-shelf components from today's CSP
into a river. Care must be taken to ensure a sufficient dilution of the applications as suggested in [50]. Externally heated thermal cycles
cavern brine. The maximum allowed pressure in the cavern depends on can be applied to generate electricity. While smaller systems (Pdischarge
the depth, a pressure between 50 and 100 bar requires a minimum < 5 MW) can be realized using an organic Rankine cycle (ORC), steam
depth of 500 m to ensure stability. cycles would be preferred for larger plants due to the higher thermal
There are also other options which have been considered for efficiency.
subsurface storage of compressed air: As an alternative to the electric heating of the storage volume, the

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application of a heat generator is described in [51]. This heat generator, winter, the storage system cannot be charged completely by the energy
which has lower costs and a lighter weight, is integrated into a wind provided by the collectors; trace heating of the molten salt might be
turbine to convert the rotating power into thermal energy. The thermal required to prevent freezing. Reduced solar insolation often goes along
energy is transferred to a thermal energy storage system. During with an increase of the energy delivered by wind. By adding an
discharging, the thermal storage provides heat to operate a turbine. electrical heater, surplus electricity generated by wind turbines might
be stored in the storage system of a CSP plant during periods of
reduced daily insolation, also reducing the amount of parasitic energy
3.2.1. Basic concept
required to avoid freezing.
The PHP concept requires a thermal energy storage system that is
able to provide heat in the temperature range demanded by the thermal
cycle. This concept can apply storage technologies which have been 3.2.2. Combined heat and power (PHCHP)
developed for solar thermal power plants in recent years. Two tank The Carnot efficiency limitation is less disadvantageous if electri-
storage systems using molten salt as the storage medium have become cally heated storage units are used to supply both electric power and
the standard solution for large scale energy storage. The storage system thermal energy for heating, operation of absorption chillers or applica-
of the Gemasolar solar tower power plant uses 7900 t of molten nitrate tions in the process industry. This concept is especially suitable for
salt cycled between 560 °C and 290 °C to operate a steam turbine small and medium sized CHP (Combined Heat and Power) plants. A
generating 19.9 MW electric power for a duration of 15 h [52]. Fig. 9 PHCHP (Power to Heat to CHP) plant can be built close to the
shows the transfer of this thermal energy storage technology to the consumer, since it is completely emission free. This simplifies the
PHP concept. During charging, molten salt is pumped out of the cold distribution of the thermal energy. The heat provided by the heat
storage tank to the electrical heating unit, where the temperature of the engine may be stored in integrated low temperature heat storage to
salt is increased from 290 °C to 560 °C. The hot salt is stored in the decouple the delivery of electric and thermal energy. In modular
second tank at ambient pressure. During the discharging phase, the storage systems, the same storage volume might be consecutively used
flow direction is reversed and the hot molten salt is used to generate for low temperature storage and high temperature storage.
superheated steam in a heat exchanger. This is used to drive a turbine. While two tank molten salt systems have become a commercial
The efficiency of the thermal cycle ηthermal is about 42% and the technology for applications requiring storage capacities in the
volumetric thermal storage capacity of the molten salt is 190 kWh/m³. GWhthermal range, alternative thermal storage concepts might be more
The volumetric capacity for electric energy is therefore in the range of suitable for the implementation of the PHCHP concept. The tempera-
80 kWh/m³. ture of the molten salt must always be kept above the freezing point
The total volume of the storage tanks is approximately twice the (around 240 °C) and below the temperature of thermal decomposition
volume of the molten salt inventory. A first cost estimation can be done (at 580 °C). A promising alternative here is the application of low cost
using cost data given for solar thermal power plants with an integrated solid media storage materials like stones or bricks; the capacity-specific
thermal storage. While the costs for the two tank molten salt storage costs for these materials are only 5–10% of the costs of molten salt.
unit mainly depend on the capacity Wel, discharge and the efficiency There is no risk of freezing or leakage and for some solid storage
ηthermal of the power block, the costs for the steam generator and the materials the operational temperature range exceeds 800 °C. This is
power block are mainly dependent on the power Pel, discharge provided especially attractive for PHCHP applications, since electrical heating
during discharging. The resulting total costs CTotal of the PHP-storage allows for high temperatures. Due to the low thermal conductivity,
system are a combination of the capacity dependent costs Ccapacity and solid storage media require large heat transfer surfaces. Air at ambient
the power dependent costs Cpower: pressure is an attractive option for direct contact heat transfer to or
from solid storage material. In order to apply sensible heat storage in
CTotal (Wel,discharge, pel,discharge)=Ccapacity (Wel,discharge)+C power (pel,discharge) (19) low cost solid storage materials also for systems, which do not use air
as the working fluid, the CellFlux storage concept has been developed
Assuming linear dependencies for Ccapacity and Cpower, the total
[54,55]. Here, an intermediate closed air loop is used to transfer heat
costs can be calculated as
between a heat exchanger and the storage volume. In the heat
Wel,discharge exchanger, the thermal energy is transferred between the working fluid
CTotal (Wel, pel)=cstorage +(c power block +csteam generator )pel
ηthermal (20) of the external process and the air. This approach offers high flexibility
regarding working fluids and temperature range. Since the CellFlux
with the specific costs for the thermal storage unit, the power block system is composed of modules, power and storage capacity can be
and the steam generator. Based on today's state of the art, the following easily adapted to the specific application. The concept has been
values are assumed [53]: demonstrated in the 100 kW range and an electrically heated oil loop
cstorage: 50 $/kWhthermal.
cpower block: 1000 $/kWel.
csteam generator: 350 $/kWel.
For an example storage system with a rated power of 50 MWel and
8 h storage capacity, this estimation provides capital costs CTotal of
117,5 Mio.$. The capacity specific costs of this system are 294 $/kWhel,
the power specific costs are 2350 $/kWel. The expected round trip
efficiency is in the range of 40%. While the capacity-specific costs
decrease with increasing storage capacity, the power-specific costs
increase. For a facility with a storage capacity of 16 h, the specific
capital costs of the system described change to 210 $/kWhel and 3350
$/kWel. If the costs of future thermal energy storage systems are 15
$/kWhthermal, the resulting costs for a 8 h PHP-system would be 206
$/kWhel and 1650 $/kWel. The adaptation of the power cycle offers
potential for further cost reductions.
The storage capacity of the already existing CSP plants could be
used for a low cost implementation of the PHP concept. Seasonal Fig. 9. Power to heat to power (PHP) concept; exemplary implementation with two tank
variations of the utilization of the storage system can be assumed. In molten salt storage unit charged electrically.

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was used to charge the storage volume with air at nearly 400 °C. In a
PHCHP application of the CellFlux concept (Fig. 10), the air of the
closed cycle is heated electrically before flowing into the storage
volume. The maximum temperature is limited by the storage material;
for low cost materials the maximum temperature is in the range of
800–1000 °C. During discharging, the maximum air temperature at the
inlet of the heat exchanger is limited either by the mass flow rate or by
mixing with cold air to 600 °C to allow for the application of cost
effective heat exchangers. In the heat exchanger, the thermal energy
provided by the storage volume is transferred to the working fluid of
the thermal cycle. Heat from the storage can also be used to improve
the dynamics of the thermal cycle by keeping the thermal cycle in a
Fig. 11. Basic principle of Pumped thermal energy storage.
standby modus if no electricity is generated. In a PHP application, the
temperature of the discharged storage volume is in the range of 200 °C;
the resulting specific thermal capacity of a solid medium storage for compression and expansion and the temperatures of the hot and
volume is about 250 kWh/m3. CellFlux is a modular concept; power cold reservoirs. For a PTES system with a hot reservoir at a tempera-
and capacity of a storage system can be adapted to the demand by ture Thot and a cold reservoir at Tcold, the minimum capacity Qhot, min of
combining the required number of storage modules. The storage the hot thermal energy storage can be calculated by using the Carnot
capacity might range between a few MWh and several hundreds of efficiency:
MWh. Since the PHCHP concept is emission free and non-hazardous Wdischarge Wdischarge
storage materials are applied, it can be built close to the heat Q hot,min= = T
ηCarnot 1− Tcold (21)
consumers, facilitating the distribution of the thermal energy signifi- hot

cantly.
The minimum capacity required for the cold reservoir is

3.3. Pumped thermal energy storage (PTES) Wdischarge

Q cold,min=Q hot,min −Wdischarge= Thot
Tcold
−1 (22)
In a third basic concept for thermo-mechanical energy storage,
excess electricity is used to create a temperature difference between Although the roundtrip efficiency of the ideal PTES system is not
two heat reservoirs. This temperature difference is used during the dependent on the ratio between Qhot and Wdischarge, low values for this
discharging phase to operate a thermal cycle (Fig. 11). ratio are advantageous for real PTES systems since:
This concept is not limited by the Carnot efficiency; an ideal
implementation attains a roundtrip efficiency of 100%, i.e. the work – For a given mechanical storage capacity, the capital costs of the
Wdischarge provided during discharge is equal to the work Wcharge storage system increase with this ratio. This might be compensated
consumed during the charging process. by the application of a low cost thermal storage concept.
Various terms have been used for this basic principle; it has been – The heat flow that has to be circulated increases with this ratio; in
denoted as pumped heat energy storage [56] or as electro-thermal non-ideal PTES systems, the entropy generation of internal pro-
energy storage [57]. The term pumped thermal energy storage (PTES) cesses increases with the heat flow rate.
[58] is preferred here to avoid confusion with pumped hydro energy – At a constant temperature level, costs of components increase with
storage (often abbreviated as PHES) or with devices based on the the mass flow rate of the working fluid.
Peltier/Seebeck effect.
While an early patent describing PTES was filed in 1922 [59], the In contrast to conventional heat pump applications, a low value for
concept has not been demonstrated to date. Recent progress in thermal the coefficient of performance (COP), which relates the heat delivered
energy storage technology and the continuous improvement of turbo- at a high temperature to the mechanical work, is advantageous for the
machinery have enhanced the prospect of a successful implementation charging cycle of a PTES concept.
of the PTES concept. PTES is geologically independent; the nominal Essential for the successful implementation of a PTES system is the
power of plants based on this concept can vary between a few MW and minimization of irreversibilities. Devices for compression and expan-
hundreds of MWs. sion of the working fluid must have a high efficiency; temperature
The ratio between the amount of thermal energy Qhot which has to differences in storage units and heat exchangers must be kept as small
be stored in the hot reservoir and the work Wel, discharge which is as possible, and pressure losses must be minimized. The performance
delivered during discharging depends on the thermal processes chosen of PTES based on Carnot cycles has been analyzed in [60,61].

Fig. 10. Power to heat to CHP (PHCHP) concept based on a CellFlux storage unit; storage is charged by air heated electrically (left). Heat provided by the storage is used to operate a
CHP-system during discharge (right).

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Different options for the implementation of the PTES concept have regenerators. If the working fluid is in direct contact with low cost
been proposed. Based on the working fluid and the thermal cycle four storage material, contamination with dust must be limited to avoid
groups of concepts can be distinguished. damaging the turbomachinery. An analysis of a PTES system using a
packed bed regenerator and a reciprocating engine is given in [65]. The
3.3.1. PTES based on Brayton cycle losses of the reservoirs are analyzed in detail in [58]. Results given in
Fig. 12 shows the simplified schematic of a PTES using a single [64] for an example PTES plant based on a Brayton cycle using argon
phase gas; Fig. 13 shows the corresponding ts-diagram. Heat is as working fluid are shown in Table 3.
transferred to the cold gas in the low temperature reservoir (1−2); The development of a PTES system using a reciprocating engine is
after compression (2−3), the gas transfers energy to the high tempera- described in [66]. According to [66], a higher isentropic efficiency is
ture storage (3−4). The charging cycle is closed by expanding the gas expected for reciprocating engines than for turbomachinery. Another
(4-1). The discharging process is similar to a closed Brayton cycle. The advantage of reciprocating engines is that, in principle, the same device
gas is heated in the high temperature storage (5−6). After expansion in can be used as the compressor and the expander. On the other hand,
the turbine (6−7), the gas transfers energy to the cold reservoir (7−8). the maximum power for a single reciprocating machine is limited. In
The discharging cycle is closed by compressing the gas (8-5). Fig. 13 [67] the theoretical analysis and optimization of a 2 MWel system is
shows a system with non-ideal compressors and turbines. During described.
discharging, the temperature at the outlet of the hot storage (6) is
lower than the maximum temperature of the charging process after 3.3.2. PTES based on CO2-cycle
compression (3) due to finite heat transfer surfaces. The temperature at In a second approach, water is used as the storage medium. Salt
the exit of the cold reservoir (8) is higher than the minimal temperature water ice slurry is used for cold storage, allowing for a minimum
during the charging process (1) for the same reason. temperature of −21 °C. For pressurized water, the economic limit for
An early version of this concept based on gas turbine components the maximum temperature in the PTES process is in the range of
was described in [62,63]. A thermal energy storage system similar to 200 °C due to the costs of the water tanks. Using water as the storage
the Cowper stoves applied in the steel industry for the preheating of air medium in the reservoirs requires a thermal cycle that can be operated
was proposed. The calculated roundtrip efficiency based on the state of with low temperature heat. Rankine cycles using organic working fluids
the art at that time was in the range of 50–55%. In [64], a similar represent one option here. In [51] the application of a low temperature
concept is described using turbomachinery and pressurized packed Rankine cycle using CO2 as the working fluid is proposed. A transcri-
beds for thermal energy storage. For a system with a maximum tical process is selected in order to optimally match the thermal profiles
temperature of 600 °C, a roundtrip efficiency of 70% is expected. of the working fluid and the water used as the storage medium. The
Similar to the adiabatic CAES concept, this requires the availability of simplified schematic of a PTES system using CO2 as a working fluid is
compressors, which can be operated at higher temperatures compared shown in Fig. 15; the corresponding Ts-diagram is for the charging
to the current state of the art. process (1−4) and the discharging process (5−8) is given in Fig. 16.
Using the notation from Fig. 13, the roundtrip efficiency of a PTES Since the specific heat capacity of CO2 varies significantly during
system according to [64] is condensation (3−4) and heat addition (5−6), the use of multiple
3
T4 (1−ψ (1/η )−η) storage tanks is proposed in [68]. By using smaller storage tanks at
ηroundtrip =1 + intermediate temperatures, the temperature profile of the water can be
T3 (1−ψ−1/η) + T4 (ψ−η−1) (23)
adjusted to the temperature profile of the CO2.
using the thermal compression ratio For a 50 MWel CO2-PTES system with a maximum pressure of
κ−1 κ−1 118 bar, a roundtrip efficiency of 64% was calculated. The thermo-
⎛p ⎞ κ ⎛p ⎞ κ
economic analysis of this concept is presented in [69]. Results
ψ=⎜ max ⎟ =⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ pmin ⎠ ⎝ p2 ⎠ (24) computed for a 1 MWel pilot-scale plant given in [57] are shown in
Table 3.
with the heat capacity ratio κ. For turbines and compressors, the same
polytropic efficiency η is assumed. An ideal storage system is assumed
here; there are no pressure losses, minimum and maximum tempera- 3.3.3. PTES based on water-steam cycle (CHEST)
tures are the same for charging and discharging. The CHEST (Compressed Heat Energy STorage) concept is based
Fig. 14 shows the dependence of the roundtrip efficiency on the on conventional steam cycle technology [70]. In contrast to the PTES
maximum temperature (T3 at exit of compressor) for various values of concepts described before, there is no cold storage system. Instead, the
the polytropic efficiency of the turbomachinery. The pressure ratio p3/ environment is used as the cold reservoir. During charging, saturated
p2 is 3; the temperature at the exit of the high temperature storage steam is generated from low pressure water by heat from the environ-
during the charging process is 20 °C. Argon is chosen as the working ment. This saturated steam is compressed using electrical energy. The
fluid. In order to reach efficiencies in the range of pumped hydro power steam exiting the compressor is de-superheated, condensed and
plants, turbomachinery with polytropic efficiencies in the range of 0.9 subcooled in the thermal storage system. During discharging, the
is required and the temperature at the exit of the compressor should thermal energy provided by the thermal energy storage system is used
reach 600 °C. to operate a conventional medium temperature Rankine cycle. This
Regenerator type storage systems using gravel as the storage approach was already proposed in the early descriptions of the PTES
material have been suggested as hot and cold reservoirs for the PTES concept [71]. Fig. 17 shows the simplified schematic of a PTES process
concept based on a Brayton cycle. Various loss mechanisms reduce the
roundtrip efficiency of the system. According to Eq. (23), reducing the
pressure ratio and increasing the maximum temperature improves the
roundtrip efficiency, but this will also increase the pressure losses in
the hot reservoir due to the higher volume flow rate. Finite temperature
differences in the storage system result in exergy losses. The exit
temperature of regenerators is not constant during operation and the
storage capacity of the regenerator depends also on the variation,
which is acceptable for the exit temperature. A transient analysis is Fig. 12. Simplified schematic of a PTES system based on a Brayton cycle; charging (left)
required to calculate the roundtrip efficiency of a PTES system using and discharging (right).

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W.-D. Steinmann Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 75 (2017) 205–219

Fig. 15. Schematic of PTES concept using CO2 as working fluid.

Fig. 13. PTES-concept based on Brayton cycle, charging (1−4) and discharging (5−8)
process.

Fig. 16. Ts-Diagramm of a PTES system using CO2 as working fluid, charging (1−4) and
discharging (5−8).

Fig. 14. Roundtrip efficiency of a PTES concept based on Brayton cycle with an ideal
storage for various values of the polytropic efficiency of turbomachinery, dependent on
maximum temperature after compression.

based on subcritical steam cycles using water as the working fluid.

During the charging process, a major share of the heat is transferred
from condensing steam to the storage system. In the discharging phase,
the evaporation process demands much of the thermal energy provided
by the storage. Due to the significance of isothermal heat transfer for
sub-critical steam cycles, the efficient implementation requires a
storage system that is able to store and release heat within a narrow
Fig. 17. : Schematic of the CHEST concept, charging (left) and discharging (right).
temperature range.
In the initial theoretical analysis [71], steam accumulators were
assumed as the storage systems. Steam accumulators store sensible between the storage system and the working fluid can be fulfilled.
heat at a varying temperature and the resulting roundtrip efficiency for Fig. 18 shows the T-s-diagram of the charging process of a CHEST
a PTES system is low due to the irreversibilities resulting from high system. After a compression from below 1–100 bar, the steam tem-
temperature differences. Recently, pilot-scale latent heat storage perature would be significantly higher than the maximum temperature
systems have been demonstrated for power plant applications [72]. of the steam cycle used during discharging. This would not only reduce
These storage systems allow for a significant improvement of the the efficiency of the process, it is also disadvantageous regarding the
efficiency of PTES systems based on Rankine cycles. By combining requirements for the compressor and the thermal energy storage
latent heat storage systems with sensible heat storage systems, the system. Instead, a stepwise compression is applied. Between the stages,
requirement for minimizing the average temperature differences the steam is cooled to the saturation state by injection of condensate,
which is evaporated. The steam mass flow rate increases in the

Table 3
Characteristics of various types of PTES concepts, results from theoretical analysis.

Concept Brayton Argon [48] Transcritical CO2 [43] CHEST Rankine H2O [53]

Power during discharge [MW] 100 1 100

Duration of discharging [h] 6 N/A 6
Max.pressure [bar] 4.6 140 105
Max. temperature [°C] 995 123 365
Min. temperature [°C] −70 −3 10
Roundtrip Efficiency [-] 0.67 0.51 0.68
Capacity hot storage [MWh] 1991 7.6 / MWhel 1631
Capacity cold storage 1172 6.6 / MWhel Environment is used as cold reservoir

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waste heat. If this waste heat allows for increasing the evaporation
temperature of the first stage of the compression process, the total
compression work can be reduced. During discharging, the condensa-
tion temperature is defined by the environment. As a result, the ratio
between compression work and expansion work is improved and the
roundtrip efficiency increases. Fig. 21 shows the increase of the
efficiency of the storage process on the evaporation temperature of
the steam generated using waste heat during the charging process.
Depending on the temperature of the waste heat, the losses due to
irreversibilities might be compensated; the work delivered during
discharging might even exceed the work required in the charging
process [70]. For the example shown in Fig. 21, the work delivered
during discharging is equal to the work required during charging if the
available waste heat allows for evaporation of the steam at 83 °C. If
Fig. 18. t-s-diagram of the charging process of the CHEST concept with stepwise
evaporation is possible at higher temperatures due to the utilization of
compression.
waste heat, the discharge process provides more work than the
charging process requires. Due to the utilization of waste, cascading
compression process. At the exit of the compressor, the steam is only
is not needed in the charging process.
slightly superheated. The subsequent thermal energy storage system is
The integration into a power plant is another option for the CHEST
divided into three sections where the steam is de-superheated,
concept. As shown in Fig. 22, the CHEST module can be operated
condensed and subcooled. The charging cycle is closed when the water
alternatively with a steam generator firing biomass or fossil fuel. If the
enters the evaporator. Fig. 19 shows the T-s-diagram for the basic
power provided by renewable sources exceeds the demand, the CHEST
steam cycle used in the discharging process. Conventional steam cycle
module is charged. If the demand is higher than the available power
technology is used, except for the steam generator, which is replaced by
from renewables, the storage system is discharged. After a complete
the thermal energy storage system. Due to the limited maximum
discharge, steam is generated from other energy sources if the power
temperature of the steam, cycles are similar to systems used in solar
provided by renewable sources is not sufficient. The specific costs for
thermal power plants or nuclear power stations.
the added storage capacity are lower than for a stand-alone CHEST
system, since the storage system can use components (e.g. the turbine)
3.3.3.1. Cascaded CHEST concept. The specific physical properties of
and the infrastructure of the power plant.
water require some modifications of the basic cycle shown in Fig. 17.
Due to the very high specific volume, low pressure steam compression
is difficult. Instead, a two fluid concept is applied for charging the 3.3.4. PTES based on cryogen storage
storage system (Fig. 20). In the first stage the temperature of heat from The temperature difference required for the operation of a thermal
the environment is increased in a heat pump cycle using ammonia as cycle can also be created by removing heat from a cold reservoir below
the working fluid. The energy provided by the last stage of the ammonia ambient temperature, which is later used as the heat sink of the
cycle is transferred to the second section of the compression system. process. During discharging, the environment or waste heat sources are
This uses water as the working fluid. used as hot reservoirs to operate a turbine. The application of cryogens
such as liquid air or nitrogen have been suggested both as working
In an example implementation, saturated steam is generated at fluids and storage media for the implementation of this concept.
75 °C in an ammonia/water heat exchanger. In a 6-stage intercooled Surplus electricity is used to produce cryogens during charging
compressor system, this steam is compressed to 105 bar/365 °C. By (Fig. 23). When electricity is needed, the cryogens are transformed
evaporation of the injected condensate, the mass flow rate of the steam into a high pressure gas by absorbing heat (Fig. 24). The gas drives a
is increased by 40% in the compressor. A key element of the storage cryogenic turbine generating electricity.
system is a latent heat storage unit, where the heat of condensation is Compared to compressed gas, the volume specific exergy of
used to melt NaNO3 at 305 °C. cryogens is an order of magnitude higher. Cryogens are stored in low
In the discharging process, the heat provided by the storage system pressure insulated vessels with low standing losses and commercially
is used to operate a Rankine cycle with an evaporation pressure of available components can be used. The major drawback of PTES based
80 bar and a two-stage expansion. After expansion in the first turbine on the storage of cryogenics is currently the limited roundtrip
stage and separation of the liquid phase, the gas phase is superheated efficiency. Conventional liquefaction generates a significant amount
again before being expanded in the second turbine stage to the of waste heat and cold energy is released in the evaporation of the
condensation pressure. More details of the calculation of an example cryogen during the discharge process. The integration of these energy
CHEST system are given in [70].
In Table 3, the main characteristics for a CHEST plant are shown
together with the results calculated for PTES systems based on a
Brayton cycle or CO2 cycles. Although the maximum temperature of the
CHEST concept is significantly lower than the maximum temperature
of the PTES concept based on a Brayton cycle, the roundtrip efficiencies
of both concepts are similar. Table 3 also shows that the specific
thermal energy storage capacity required for the system based on the
transcritical CO2 process is significantly higher than for the other two
concepts, which results from the low maximum temperature of the CO2
cycle. The value given for the roundtrip efficiency results from the
lower nominal power of the CO2 cycle; the value given for the roundtrip
efficiency of a 50 MW plant given in [57] is 65%, which is close to the
value of the other two concepts.
The CHEST concept can also profit from the use of low temperature Fig. 19. t-s-diagram of the simplified discharging process of the CHEST.

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Fig. 20. Combination of NH3-stage and H2O-stage in the charging process of a CHEST
concept (left); discharging by H2O-cycle (right).

Fig. 24. Discharging of a PTES-System with liquid air.

flows is essential for improving the roundtrip efficiency of the concept.

A heat storage can be used to transfer the waste heat produced in the
charging process to the discharging process. Here, the waste heat is
used to increase the temperature of the gas generated from the cryogen.
Another storage unit is used to transfer the cold energy released during
the evaporation process of the cryogen to the liquefaction process in the
next charging cycle.
Various concepts for the implementation of the PTES concept using
cryogens have been described in literature. These concepts are often
denoted as liquid air energy storage (LAES). In an early concept [73],
air is compressed to 50 bar at 800 °C. The air is cooled in a regenerator
to 78 K before being throttled to atmospheric pressure. The liquid
fraction of the air is stored in a cryogenic tank. During discharging,
liquid air from the tank is delivered by a cryogenic pump to the
Fig. 21. CHEST system with utilization of external waste heat during the charging
process; dependence of the efficiency of the storage process on the increased evaporation
regenerator, where it is reheated. The hot air is used to drive a turbine.
temperature during the charging process. The calculated roundtrip efficiency of this concept for a 20 MW facility
was 72%. In an alternative concept, liquid air was used in a Brayton
cycle [74]. Similar to the CAES-concept, the storage system should
provide pressurized air to replace the compressor of the gas turbine.
According to [74], liquid air stored at ambient pressure requires only
1/80 of the volume required by compressed air at 80 bar. After
evaporation, the air is heated by fossil fuels before entering the turbine.
This concept was demonstrated in a pilot plant [75]. A detailed analysis
of PTES based on liquefaction of air using a Rankine cycle for
discharging is given in [76]. Different implementations varying in
complexity are optimized; the integration of the air liquefaction and the
energy releasing process has been recognized as being essential for
improving the efficiency. For a storage system using no external heat
Fig. 22. CHEST module integrated into a power plant with alternative primary power
sources exceeding ambient temperature, a maximum roundtrip effi-
sources. ciency of 46% is calculated. If heat from an external source at a
temperature of 300 °C can be used in the discharging process, 90% of
the electric energy required for the liquefaction of the air can be
delivered during discharging. PTES based on liquid air storage is
particularly apt for the integration into industrial sites producing
significant amounts of medium temperature waste heat.
A 300 kW/2.5 MWh pilot scale storage system was built to prove
the feasibility of the PTES concept based on liquid air storage [77]. The
construction of a pre-demonstration 5 MW/15 MWh storage unit was
announced as a next step [78]. A review of storage concepts using
liquid air is given in [79]. The main advantage of these concepts is the
high volumetric storage density. The round trip efficiencies of most
concepts described in literature is below 50%, if no waste heat from
external sources is added.

4. Conclusions

A large number of concepts for thermo-mechanical energy storage

Fig. 23. PTES based on cryogenic energy storage; liquefaction and storage of air during have been developed. These concepts profit from recent progress made
charging. in large scale thermal energy storage systems for medium and high

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temperatures. Life expectancies in the range of 20–30 years and the meet the requirements regarding efficiency or operating temperature.
low capacity-specific costs make thermo-mechanical concepts promis- Some additional options distinguish thermo-mechanical concepts
ing candidates for future large scale energy storage systems. from other types of energy storage. Besides electricity, also heat flows
These concepts vary significantly in cost, efficiency, maturity and might be used to exchange energy with the environment. Low
development potential. The choice of the optimal concept strongly temperature waste heat from external sources can be integrated to
depends on the weighting of the evaluation criteria. improve the storage efficiency. During discharging, thermo-mechanical
Hybrid CAES plants represent today's state of the art in commercial storage concepts can deliver both electricity and heat, thus improving
thermo-mechanical storage. The application of modern gas turbine the utilization of the energy transferred to the system during the
technology might allow for some improvements compared to the two charging process beforehand. Some of the thermo-mechanical concepts
existing CAES plants. Besides the geological restrictions resulting from can be integrated into power plants. This would allow for a choice
the requirement for nearby caverns, the dependence on fossil fuel is between renewable energy and other primary energy sources depend-
another drawback of this concept. The combined use of electric energy ing on availability. Additionally, the integration into existing power
and fossil fuel complicates the comparison of hybrid CAES with other plants would facilitate the implementation of first demonstration
storage concepts. A concise definition of the share of the stored electric facilities.
energy in the output of the plant is required. Otherwise, the values for Due to the recent progress in thermal energy storage technology,
performance figures such as storage efficiency, specific costs of storage the large variety of concurrent concepts and the application of mostly
or storage density might be misleading. conventional components, thermo-mechanical systems are considered
Adiabatic CAES eliminates the dependence on fossil fuels by the as a promising option for future bulk energy storage. Most of the
integration of thermal energy storage capacity. Both low temperature concepts do not require specific geological conditions and have little
and high temperature heat storage are considered here. Isothermal environmental impact.
CAES avoids the need for fossil fuel by limiting the temperature
variations during compression/ expansion by enhanced heat exchange Acknowledgements
with the environment. For both these CAES concepts, the availability of
low cost storage reservoirs for compressed air remains a critical issue The author would like to thank Maike Johnson for proofreading this
and pressure vessels are only a viable solution for small scale systems. paper for both technical as well as linguistic aspects.
Other thermo-mechanical storage concepts avoid geological restric-
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