Numericals in Unit 1

Computer Networks
( NCS-603 )
 Numericals on
Frequency, Period & Phase
The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in
kilohertz?
Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10−3
kHz).
A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.
What is its phase in degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6
cycle is
 Numericals on
Bit Rate & Baud Rate
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
Signal element versus data element

4.7
Baud Rate: The baud rate or signaling rate is defined as the
number of distinct symbols transmitted per second, irrespective
of the form of encoding.
For baseband digital transmission m = 2. So, the maximum baud
rate = 1/Element width (in Seconds) = 2B

Bit Rate:
The bit rate or information rate I is the actual equivalent
number of bits transmitted per second.

I = Baud Rate × Bits per Baud

= Baud Rate × N
= Baud Rate × log2m
Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and
the other with four signal levels
 Baud rate is calculated using the below formula.

here, N is the bit rate and r is the number of data elements carried by
each signal element. Here r must be as great as possible for better
efficiency.

An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal unit. If 1000

signal units are sent per second, find the baud rate and the
bit rate
• Baud rate = 1000 bauds per second (baud/s)
• Bit rate = 1000 x 4 = 4000 bps
The bit rate of a signal is 3000. If each signal unit carries 6
bits, what is the baud rate?

• Baud rate = 3000 / 6 = 500 baud/s

A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are
needed per level?

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are

needed per level?

We calculate the number of bits by using the above formula.

Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits.
However, this answer is not realistic.
The number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer as well as a
power of 2. So, for this example, 4 bits can represent one level.
Assume we need to download text documents at the
rate of 100 pages per minute. What is the required bit
rate of the channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in
each line.

If we assume that one character requires 8 bits, the bit

rate is
A digitized voice channel, is made by digitizing a 4-kHz
bandwidth analog voice signal. We need to sample the
signal at twice the highest frequency (two samples per
hertz). We assume that each sample requires 8 bits.
What is the required bit rate?

Solution
The bit rate can be calculated as
 Nyquist Theorem
The maximum rate at which data can be correctly
communicated over a channel in presence of noise and
distortion is known as its channel capacity.

Consider first a noisefree channel of Bandwidth B.

Based on Nyquist formulation it is known that given a bandwidth B of a
channel, the maximum data rate that can be carried is 2B. This
limitation arises due to the effect of intersymbol interference caused by
the frequency components higher than B.
If the signal consists of m discrete levels, then Nyquist
theorem states:
Maximum data rate C = 2 B log2 m bits/sec
where C is known as the channel capacity, B is the
bandwidth of the channel and m is the number of signal
levels used.
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000
Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels.
(i.e. for each level, we send 1 bit)
The maximum bit rate can be calculated as –

C = 2 B log2m
C= capacity in bps
B = bandwidth in Hz
Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal
with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2 bits). The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as
Assuming there is no noise in a medium of B = 4KHz,
determine channel capacity for the encoding level 4.

Ans: BitRate = 2×4000×log24 = 16 Kbps

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a
bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?

Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase the

number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we have 128 levels, the
bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
 Shannon’s Theorem

• Shannon’s theorem gives the capacity of a

system in the presence of noise.

C = B log2(1 + SNR)

• The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit;

• The Nyquist formula tells us how many signal
levels we need.
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value
of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other
words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For
this channel the capacity C is calculated as-

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot
receive any data through this channel.
Calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone
line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000. The
signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel the capacity
is calculated as

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860
kbps. If we want to send data faster than this, we can either
increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the signal-to-noise
ratio.
 Important Observation

The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels.

Assume that SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth
is 2 MHz. The theoretical channel capacity can be
calculated as
We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this
channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal
level?
Solution:
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.

The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit.

For better performance we choose something lower, 4 Mbps, for
example.
Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the number of signal
levels.
We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with
a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we
need?

Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase the

number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we have 128 levels, the
bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
Calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular
telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually
3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860
kbps. If we want to send data faster than this, we can either
increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the signal-to-noise
ratio.
Measure the performance of a telephone line
(4KHz of bandwidth). When the signal is 10 V, the
noise is 5 mV. What is the maximum data rate
supported by this telephone line?
Solution
C = 4,000 X log2 (1 + 10 / 0.005) = 43,866 bps

A channel has B = 10 MHz. Determine the

channel capacity for signal-to-noise ratio 60 dB.
Solution
C = B * log2(1 + S/N) = 10 x log2(1 + 60)
A channel is given with a bandwidth of 30 kHz and a
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) of 40 dB.
For error free transmission the Shannon’s channel
capacity formula is known as C=B*log2(1+SNR).
Calculate the channel capacity.

Answer: 400 kbps

In a certain communication channel ,the signal power is
100 W and noise power is 10 W in order to send
information at the rate of 10 kbps ,what is require
bandwidth ?
Solution
signal power is 100 W
noise power is 10 W
data rate of 10 kbps
Bandwidth?
Max data rate = bandwidth * log (1 + (Signal power / Noise power))
10 = bandwidth * log (1 + (100 / 10))
{ log (1 + (100 / 10)) = 3.4594 approx. equal to 4 is taken here}
10 = bandwidth * 4
bandwidth = 2.5 Kbps
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an
average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the
throughput of this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in

this case.
 Numericals on
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium
and its power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2
is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power)
can be calculated as:

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

The attenuation of a signal is -10 dB. What is the final
signal power if it was originally 5 W?
Ans –
10 = 10 log10 (P2 / 5) → log10 (P2 / 5) = −1 → (P2 / 5) =
10−1 →
P2 = 0.5 W
A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is
increased 10 times. This means that P2 = 10P1 . In this
case, the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated
as
Let the energy strength at point 2 is 1/50th with respect
to the point 1. Find out the attenuation in dB.

Ans:
Attenuation in dB is –

10 log10 (1/50) = - 16.9 dB.

Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal power
in milliwatts. In this case, it is referred to as dBm and is
calculated as dBm = 10 log10 Pm , where Pm is the power
in milliwatts.
Calculate the power of a signal with dBm = −30.

Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as
The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per
kilometer (dB/km). If the signal at the beginning of a
cable with −0.3 dB/km has a power of 2 mW, what is the
power of the signal at 5 km?

Solution
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 × (−0.3) = −1.5 dB.
We can calculate the power as
 Numericals on
Delay Analysis
What are the propagation time and the transmission
time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if the
bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the
distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000
km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution

Note that in this case, because the message is short and the bandwidth is high,
the dominant factor is the propagation time, not the transmission time. The
transmission time can be ignored.
What are the propagation time and the transmission
time for a 5-Mbyte message (an image) if the
bandwidth of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the
distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000
km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution

Note that in this case, because the message is very long and the bandwidth is
not very high, the dominant factor is the transmission time, not the
propagation time. The propagation time can be ignored.
What is the total delay (latency) for a frame of size 5 million
bits that is being sent on a link with 10 routers each having a
queuing time of 2 μs and a processing time of 1 μs. The
length of the link is 2000 Km. The speed of light inside the
link is 2 × 108 m/s. The link has a bandwidth of 5 Mbps.
Which component of the total delay is dominant? Which one
is negligible?
Propagation time
= distance / propagation speed = 2000 Km / 2 x 108 m/s = 10 ms

Transmission time
= Message size / Bandwidth = 5 x 106 bits/ 5 Mbps = 1 s

Queuing time = 10 routers * 2 us = 20 us

Processing Delay = 10 routers * 1 us = 10 us

Total delay (latency) = 10 ms + 1 s + 20 us + 10 us = 1010.03 ms

Numericals on
Line Coding
 Digital Transmission Types

Unipolar

Bipolar
NRZ

Bipolar
RZ

Manchester
Unipolar scheme
NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes
Polar RZ scheme
Manchester and differential Manchester schemes

4.48
Another Example :
THANKS