Phase Margin (PM): Φpm is defined as the amount of additional phase that should added at gain

crossover frequency to bring the system to the verge of instability.  Gain crossover frequency is the
frequency at which the gain is unity.  It is a measure of relative stability.

Gain Margin (GM): It is defined as the amount of additional gain that should be added at the phase
crossover frequency to bring the system to the verge of instability.  Phase crossover frequency is the
frequency at which the phase angle of the transfer function is -1800 .  It is a measure of relative
stability.

BODE PLOT:  It is also called as asymptotic (or) corner Plot.

1.To draw the frequency response of open loop transfer function.

2. To find the close loop system stability.

3. To find the gain margin, phase margin, gain cross over frequency phase cross over frequency.

 If phase margin is positive, gain margin is positive then the system is stable.

 If phase margin is negative, gain margin is negative then the system is unstable.

 If phase margin is zero, gain margin is zero then the system is marginally stable.

 If ωpc > ωgc then the system is stable

 If ωpc < ωgc then the system is unstable

 If ωpc = ωgc then the system is marginally stable

POLAR PLOTS It is a plot of magnitude and phase of G(S) H(S) in polar coordinates while  is varied
from 0 to 

 Point of interaction of the polar / Nyquist lot with respect to negative real axis is calculated as given
below Let ‘a’ be the point of intersection a = ( ) ( ) pc G S H S  

Purpose: 1. To draw the frequency response of open loop Transfer function.

2. To find the closed loop system stability.

3. To find the gain margin & phase margin.

4. To find the relative stability

Nyquist plot

It only uses the Nyquist plot of open-loop control systems, making it unnecessary to calculate the
poles and zeros of closed-loop or open-loop systems.

Advantages of Lead Compensator

1. As we have discussed that lead compensator introduces a dominant zero and a pole to the
transfer function. Hence this improves damping of the overall system.
 2. The enhanced damping of the system supports less overshoot along with less rise time and
settling time. Therefore, the transient response gets improved.

3. The addition of lead network improves phase margin.

4. A system with lead network provides a quick response as it increases bandwidth thereby
providing a faster response.

5. Lead networks do not disturb the steady-state error of the system.

6. It maximizes the velocity constant of the system.

Disadvantages of Lead Compensator

1. The introduction of the lead network in the system adds some attenuation to it. Thus to
compensate the attenuation there must be an additional gain enhancement. But with an
increase in gain, the requirement of more element increases. This leads to cause cost
enhancement as well as more weight and greater space.

2. The lead network reduces the overshoot, this increases the conditions of undershoot. This
sometimes makes the system conditionally stable.

3. A single lead network offers a lead angle of about 60°. Thus for the higher lead of around 70
to 90° multiple lead compensator is required to be added with the system.

4. The lead network increases bandwidth but with increased bandwidth, the system becomes
more susceptible to noise.

This is all about lead compensator.

Lag Compensator

Advantages of Lag Compensator

1. A phase lag network offers high gain at low frequency. Thus, it performs the function of a low
pass filter.

2. The introduction of this network increases the steady-state performance of the system.

3. The lag network offers a reduction in bandwidth and this provides longer rise time and
settling time and so the transient response.

Disadvantages of Lag Compensator

1. In lag compensator, the attenuation offered by it shifts the gain crossover frequency to a
lower point, thereby decreasing the bandwidth.

2. Though the system response is longer due to decreased bandwidth; however, the response is
quite slow.

3. A control system with a lag network shows more sensitivity towards variation in the
parameters than a system with a lead network.

4. Like in lead compensator, in lag compensator also, due to the addition of external network,
some attenuation is introduced. So, the overall gain must be increased to handle the
 attenuation. But this will increase the requirement of more elements and so the cost and
space requirement.

5. A lad compensator somewhat acts as a proportional plus integral controller hence adversely
affects the stability of the system.

It is to be noted in case of lag compensator that, it operates in a way to provide attenuation to high-
frequency range. Thus in lag compensation, phase lag angle is of no justifiable use.

The use of lead or lag compensators raises the order of the system by one. The use of lag-lead
compensator raises the order of the system by two

PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER Purpose : To change the transient response as per the requirement

Disadvantage:  The p-controller can’t eliminate the complete error in the system.

 As the Kp value increases the damping ratio ‘ξ’ decreases, hence % peak over shoot increases so
the system becomes more oscillatory and less relatively stable.

INTEGRAL CONTROLLER Purpose: To decrease the steady state error

 The I-controller added one pole at origin which increases the type of the system. As type increases
steady state error decreases but the system stability is effected.

 Before using the integral controller we require to check the system stability. If the stability is
effected then the I-controllers are not used.

DERIVATIVE - CONTROLLER Purpose: To improve the stability

 The best example for D-controller is tachometer.

 The D-controller added one zero at origin hence the type of the system decreases.

 As type decreases the stability improved but the steady state error increases so the system
becomes less accurate.

Proportional plus derivative controller reduces the peak overshoot and settling time.

 As PD controller improves transient part and PI controller improves steady state part; thus, overall
time response of the system improves drastically in case of PID Type Controller.

PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL CONTROLLER

Purpose: To decrease the steady state error without effecting

 The Transfer Function of PI-Controller is        S K K I p

 The PI-controller added one pole at origin hence the type of the system increases. As type
increases steady state error decreases.
 The PI-controller added one finite zero in the left hand side, which avoids the effect on system
stability due to the addition of pole at origin.

PROPORTIONAL AND DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER

Purpose: To improve the stability without effecting steady state errors.

 The Transfer Function of PD-controller is (Kp + KDS)

 The PD-controller added one finite zero in the left hand side which improves the system stability.

 The PD-controller not changes the type hence no effect on steady state error.

PID CONTROLLER

Purpose: To improve the stability and decreases the steady state error.

 The PID – controller added one pole at origin, hence the type of the system increases. As type
increases steady state error decreases.

 The PID controller added two finite zeros, in the left hand side, one finite zero, avoid the effect on
stability. And another zero improves the stability.