Physics Investigatory Project

NAME: DIVYANSH SRIVASTAVA

CLASS: XII
ROLL NO:
SESSION: 2024-25

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 INDEX

CONTENT PAGE
NO
CERTIFICATE 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4
TOPIC 5
INTRODUCTION 6
PRINCIPLE 7
BASIC GATES 7-8
THE “OR” GATES 9-10
THE “AND” GATES 11-12
THE “NOT” GATES 13-14
THE “NOR” GATES 15-16
THE “NAND” GATES 17-18
THE “EX-OR” GATES 19-20
THE “EX-NOR” GATES 21-22
CONCLUSIONS 23
BIBLIOGRAPHY 24

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that DIVYANSH

SRIVASTAVA of Class: XII has successfully

completed the project on the topic LOGIC GATES

under the guidance of Mr. Rohan Singh during the

year 2024-25 in the partial fulfilment of the physics

practical examination conducted by the CBSE.

SIGN OF EXTERNAL EXAMINER SIGN OF TEACHER

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my special thanks of

gratitude to my Physics Teacher, Mr. Rohan Singh,
for his excellent guidance and encouragement
throughout the project work. I am also grateful to
our Lab Assistant who helped me with the
practical work. This project has helped to enhance
my knowledge and carry out research in depth.

A special acknowledgment goes to our Respected

Principal Ma'am, Ms. Manju Verma, who gave me
the golden opportunity to do this wondrous
project.

I also acknowledge a deep sense of reverence

towards my parents, other faculty members of the
school, and classmates for their valuable
suggestions.

- DIVYANSH SRIVASTAVA

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 TOPIC

LOGIC GATES

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 INTRODUCTION
GATE: A gate is defined as a digital circuit which
follows some logical relationship between the input
and output voltages. It is a digital circuit which either
allows a signal to pass through or stop it. The logic
gates are building blocks at digital electronics. They are
used in digital electronics to change one voltage level
into another according to some logic statement relating
to them.

Truth Table: A logic gate may have one or more

than one inputs, but it has only one output. The
relationship between the possible values of input and
output voltages are expressed in the form of a table
called truth table. Truth table of a logic gate is a table
that shows all the inputs and outputs that are possible
for the logic gates.

Boolean algebra: The algebra is based on binary

nature of the logic gates.

Boolean Expressions: They are the logical

statement, followed by logical gates.
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 PRINCIPLE
་

Any Boolean algebraic operation can be associated

with the input and output, which represents the
statement of Boolean algebra. Although these circuits
may be complex, they may all be constructed from
three basic Devices like a P-N junction diode, a
resistance and an N-P-N transistor.
There are three different types of logic gates,
namely AND gate, OR gate and NOT gate.

BASIC GATES
1. OR Gate: It is a device that combines A and B to
give Y as the result. The OR gate has two or more inputs
and one output. In Boolean algebra, addition symbol
(+) is referred as the OR gate.
The Boolean expression: A+B=Y
This indicates that Y equals to A or B.

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2. AND Gate: It is a device that combines A with B
to give Y as the result. The AND gate has two or more
inputs and one output. In Boolean algebra,
multiplication sign is referred as the AND.
The Boolean expression: A.B=Y or A X B=Y
This indicates that Y equals to A and B.

3. NOT Gate: It is a device that inverts the inputs.

The NOT has one input and one output. In Boolean
algebra, bar symbol is referred as the NOT.

The Boolean expression:

This indicates that Y is not equal to A.

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 The OR Gate
Aim:
To design and stimulate the OR gate circuit.
Components:
Two ideal p-n junction diode (D1 and D2).
Theory and Construction:
An OR gate can be realized by the electronic circuit,
making use of two diodes D1 and D2.

Hear the negative terminal of the battery is

grounded and corresponds to the 0 level, and the
positive terminal of the battery corresponds to level
1. The output Y is voltage at C with respect to earth.

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 The following conclusions can be drawn from the
above circuit:
i. If the switch A and B are kept open (A=1, B=0),
then bulb does not glow, hence Y=0
ii. If switch A is kept closed and B is kept open
(A=1, B=0), then bulb does not glow, hence Y=0
iii. If switch A is kept open and B is kept closed
(A=0, B=1), then bulb does not glow, hence Y=0
iv. If switch A and B both are kept closed (A=1,
B=1), then bulb glows, hence Y=1

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 The AND Gate
Aim:
To design and stimulate the AND gate circuit.
Components:
Two ideal p-n junction diode (D1 and D2) and
resistance R.
Theory and Construction:
An AND gate can be realized by the electronic circuit,
making use of two diodes D1 and D2. The resistance
R is connected to the positive terminal of a 5V
battery permanently.

Here the negative terminal of the battery is

grounded and corresponds to the 0 level, and the
positive terminal of the battery corresponds to the
level 1. The output Y is the voltage at C with respect
to earth.

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The following conclusions can easily be drawn from
the working of this circuit:

i. If the switch A and B are kept open (A=0, B=0),

then bulb does not glow, hence Y=0.
ii. If switch A is kept closed and B is kept open
(A=1, B=0), then bulb does not glow, hence Y=0.
iii. If switch A is kept open and B is kept closed
(A=0, B=1), then bulb does not glow, hence Y=0.
iv. If both switch A and B are kept closed (A=1,
B=1), then bulb glows, hence Y=1.

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 The NOT Gate
Aim:
To design and stimulate the NOT gate circuit.
Components:
An ideal n-p-n transistor.
Theory and Construction:
A NOT gate cannot be realized by using diodes.
However, an electronic circuit of NOT gate can be
realized by making use a n-p-n transistor.

The base of the transistor is connected to the input

A through a resistance Rb and the emitter is earthed.
The collector is connected to 5V battery. The output Y
is voltage at C with respect to earth.

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 The following inferences can be easily drawn from
the working of circuit:

i. If the switch A is kept open (A=0) then bulb glows,

hence Y=1
ii. If the switch A is kept closed (A=1) then bulb does
not glow, hence Y=0

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 The NOR Gate
Aim:
To design and stimulate the NOR gate circuit.
Components:
Two ideal p-n junction diode (D1 and D2)
An ideal n-p-n transistor
Theory and Construction:
If we connect the output Y' of OR gate to the input of a
NOT gate, then the gate obtained is the NOR gate. The
output Y is voltage at C with respect to earth.

In Boolean expression, the NOR gate is expressed as:

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The following inferences can be easily drawn from the
working of electrical circuit:
i. If the switch A and B is kept open (A=0, B=0) then
bulb glows, hence Y=1.
ii. If the switch A is kept closed and B is kept open
(A=1, B=0) then the bulb glows, hence Y=0.
iii. If the switch A is kept open and B is kept closed
(A=0, B=1) then the bulb does not glow, hence Y=0.
iv. If the both switch A and B are kept closed (A=1,
B=1) then bulb does not glow, hence Y=0.

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 The NAND Gate
Aim:
To design and stimulate the NAND gate circuit.
Components:
Two ideal p-n junction diode (D1 and D2)
A resistance R
An ideal n-p-n transistor
Theory and Construction:
If we connect the output Y' of the AND gate to the input
of a NOT gate then the gate obtained is the NAND gate.
The output Y is voltage at C with respect to earth.

In Boolean expression, the NAND gate is expressed as:

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The following inferences can be easily drawn from the
working of circuit:
i. If the switch A and B are kept closed (A=0, B=0)
then bulb glows, hence Y=1.
ii. If the switch A is kept open and B is kept closed
(A=0, B=1), then bulb glows, hence Y=1
iii. If switch A is kept closed and B is kept open (A=1,
B=0), then bulb glows, hence Y=1
iv. If both switch A and B are kept closed (A=1, B=1)
then bulb does not glow, hence Y=0.

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 The EX-OR Gate
Aim:
To design and stimulate the EX-OR gate circuit.
Components:
Two AND gates, An OR gate, Two NOT gate
Theory and Construction:
The operation EX-OR checks for the exclusivity in the
value of the two signals A and B. It means if A and B are
not identical, the output Y=1, and if both are identical,
then output Y=0. This operation is also called exclusive
OR gate, designated EX-OR.

In Boolean expression, the EX-OR gate is expressed as:

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The following inferences can be easily drawn from the
working of electrical circuit:
i. If the switch A and B are kept open (A=0, B=0) then
bulb does not glow, hence Y=0
ii. If the switch A is kept open and B is kept closed
(A=0, B=1) then bulb glows, hence Y=1
iii. If the switch A is kept closed and B is kept open
(A=1, B=0) then the bulb will glow, hence Y=1
iv. If the switch A and B are kept closed (A=1, B=1)
then bulb will not glow, hence Y=0

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 The EX-NOR Gate
Aim:
To design and stimulate the EX-NOR gate circuit.
Components:
Two AND gates, And OR gate, Three NOT gates
Theory and Construction:
The operation EX-NOR checks for the exclusively in the
value of the two signals A and B. it means if A and B are
not identical, the output Y=0, and if both are identical,
then the output Y=1. This operation is also called
exclusive NOR gate, designated EX-NOR.

In Boolean expression, the EX-NOR gate is expressed as:

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The following inferences can be easily drawn from the
working of electrical circuit:
i. If the switch A and B are kept open (A=0, B=0) then
bulb glows, hence Y=1
ii. If the switch A is kept open and B is kept closed
(A=0, B=1) then bulb does not glow, hence Y=0
iii. If the switch A is kept closed and B is kept open
(A=1, B=0) then the bulb does not glow, hence Y=0
iv. If the switch A and B are kept closed (A=1, B=1)
then bulb will glow, hence Y=1

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 CONCLUSIONS
 Logic gates are used to develop many IC circuits or
microchips in today's modern world.

 NAND gate and NOR gate are known as universal

gates because we can construct all the three basic
gates using NAND and NOR gates.

 Without logic gates, electronic world would be

nearly incomplete!

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Scribd.com
 Google

 www.youtube.com

 Physics NCERT book for class XII

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