PO4 (INVESTIGATION)

CODE/COURSE : DENT3563
SEMESTER/SESSION : 2/2022-2023
TITLE OF ASSIGNMENT : SATELLITE ORBITS
GROUP NO. : 6 DATE : 10 JUNE 2023

NO. STUDENT NAME MATRIX NO.

1 WONG YIT JUN D022110248
2 WEE SHI SHUANG D022110122
3
4

1 - BELOW 2 - NEARLY MEETS 3 - MEETS 4 - EXCEEDS

CRITERIA WEIGHTAGE MARKS
STANDARD STANDARD STANDARD STANDARD

1. Ability to locate and

search relevant Able to locate and search
Major mistakes in locating Minor mistakes in locating Able to locate and search
information for the relevant information
and searching for relevant and searching for relevant relevant information
purpose of thoroughly without
information. information. adequately
investigating well- supervision
defined problems
2. Ability to conduct
investigation of well- All procedures are All procedures are
Few procedures are Most procedures are
defined problems followed correctly within followed correctly in a
followed. followed.
according to allocated time. shorter time.
procedures

TOTAL MARKS

DEN - Revised: April 2022

 PO5 (PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT)

CODE/COURSE : DENT3563
SESSION/SEMESTER : 2/2022-2023
TITLE OF ASSIGNMENT : SATELLITE ORBITS
ASSIGNMENT GROUP NO. : 6 DATE : 10 JUNE 2023

NO. STUDENT NAME MATRIX NO.

1 WONG YIT JUN D022110248
2 WEE SHI SHUANG D022110122
3
4

1 - BELOW 2 - NEARLY MEETS 3 - MEETS 4 - EXCEEDS

CRITERIA WEIGHTAGE MARKS
STANDARD STANDARD STANDARD STANDARD
Major mistakes while
Able to handle modern
1. Ability to use modern using modern tools but Minor mistakes while using Able to handle modern
tools perfectly without
tools understand basic modern tools. tools adequately.
supervision.
function.
2. Ability to identify
Identify a specific
reasonable solution Unable to identify an Identify a general Identify a specific
approach to a reasonable
for well-defined approach to a approach to a reasonable approach to a reasonable
solution with improvement
engineering problems/ reasonable solution. solution solution.
suggestion.
activities
All findings are correctly
3. Ability to record Major mistakes while Minor mistakes while All findings are correctly
recorded and presented in
findings recording findings recording findings recorded.
a proper format.
Provide some rationale for Evaluate and analyze the
Provide some reasonable
Provide no rationale for how the solution relates to solution(s) and describe
4. Ability to evaluate rationale for how the
how or why a solution the problems but is how the solution(s)
findings solution(s) accurately
addresses the problems. missing key connections to accurately and effectively
solve the problems.
the problems. solve the problem.
TOTAL MARKS

DEN - Revised: November 2020

INTRODUCTION

In the realm of celestial marvels and technological prowess, this captivating assignment
unveils an odyssey into the celestial domain, guiding students on an expedition to unlock the
mysteries of satellite orbits. Embark upon this mesmerizing journey, and through the power of
the SAT-LAB simulator, transcend the boundaries of imagination as you delve into the
captivating vistas of satellite trajectories and their enigmatic Keplerian elements. The primary
objective of this assignment is to equip students with the ability to exhibit diverse satellite orbits
through the utilization of the cutting-edge SAT-LAB simulator, ultimately expanding their
understanding of these celestial pathways. To accomplish this, an array of meticulously
selected equipment awaits your embrace, including the ever-potent Personal Computer,
fortified with its unparalleled capabilities, and the esteemed MATLAB, donning the esteemed
Mapping Toolbox. Additionally, the SAT-LAB Simulator, a prodigious instrument forged by
genius minds, stands poised to be our guide in this ethereal expedition.

To commence this spellbinding odyssey, a series of enthralling procedures awaits your

attention. Begin by venturing to the designated realm of the cyber domain, where the SAT-
LAB simulator and its accompanying documentation await our eager grasp. Embark on a quest
of knowledge as we immerse ourselves in the boundless wisdom contained within the
simulator's manual. Then, with a flicker of curiosity and the click of a button, set the simulator
ablaze, allowing its radiant interface to unfold before our eyes, revealing a trove of enlightening
information to explore and familiarize yourself with. The journey unfolds in two distinct parts,
each unveiling new dimensions of cosmic intrigue. In Part 1, we will harness the simulator's
arcane powers to simulate four mesmerizing orbits: the ethereal Geostationary orbit, the
enigmatic Tundra orbit, the mystifying Molniya orbit, and the captivating Low Earth orbit.
Immortalize these celestial pathways by capturing their essence in awe-inspiring screenshots
and delve into the depths of knowledge as we elucidate the intricate Keplerian elements
showcased within the simulator's hallowed realm.
In part 2 it beckons us to traverse the cosmos once more, this time focusing on
operational satellites. Handpick a representative from each celestial category, whether it be the
emissaries of communication, the envoys of scientific exploration, the sentinels of weather and
Earth resources, or the navigators guiding us to our destinies. With reverence and precision,
simulate the orbits of these celestial ambassadors, capturing their grace in stunning screenshots.
Then, breathe life into their celestial existence with a compelling two-page description,
unveiling their purpose and impact on our world. Ultimately, this ethereal sojourn culminates
in a report of cosmic proportions, crafted with meticulous attention to detail and a touch of
celestial magic.
Part 1
A. Geostationary orbit
 A geostationary orbit is characterized by a semi-major axis of approximately
4.22269e+07 m or exactly 42,164 km, which is equivalent to the orbit's radius. It maintains
a circular path with zero eccentricity to ensure a constant altitude above the Earth's equator
and alignment with the Earth's rotation, preventing any backward or forward tracking across
the sky. The argument of perigee is undefined due to the constant equatorial altitude and
adherence to Earth's rotation, resulting in a circular orbit with a consistent distance from the
center of mass at all points and a constant orbital speed and angular momentum. The right
ascension of the ascending node can be anywhere along the equator since the geostationary
orbit lies on the equatorial plane, and it is measured as an angle from the vernal point to the
ascending node in the direction of Earth's rotation. The inclination of a geostationary orbit is
zero, signifying its alignment with the equatorial plane, providing a stationary perspective
with respect to latitude for ground observers. The mean anomaly of a geostationary orbit
varies depending on the satellite's position in its orbit and represents the angle measured from
the periapsis, defining the orbiting body's location along the ellipse at a specific time.

Keplerian elements:
Inclination: 0°
Argument of perigee: 0
Period: 1436 minutes
Eccentricity: 0
Semi-major axis: 42164

B. Tundra Orbit
 The Tundra Orbit, known for its unique characteristics and specific orbital parameters,
offers several key features that contribute to its effectiveness in various missions. Firstly, the
semi-major axis of the Tundra Orbit is approximately 4.22269e+07 m or exactly 42,164 km
(26,199 miles). This value is of great importance as it provides crucial information about the
orbit, including the period of revolution, orbital energy, stability, and shape. By utilizing
Kepler's third law of planetary motion, the semi-major axis can be employed to calculate the
period of revolution of a satellite in the Tundra Orbit, aiding in mission planning and
scheduling. Furthermore, the semi-major axis also influences other orbital properties, such
as the satellite's potential energy. A greater semi-major axis corresponds to a higher potential
energy, while a smaller semi-major axis results in a lower potential energy. With a semi-
major axis of 42,164 km, a satellite in the Tundra Orbit possesses a specific amount of orbital
energy. By accurately determining this energy beforehand, mission planners can ensure that
the satellite always maintains sufficient energy reserves for its operational requirements.
Another significant characteristic of the Tundra Orbit is its eccentricity, which
generally varies between 0.2 and 0.4 based on mission-specific considerations. The
eccentricity of an orbit determines its deviation from a perfect circle. A lower eccentricity,
such as 0.2, results in a more circular orbit, allowing the satellite to spend a longer duration
during each orbital revolution above the desired coverage areas. This increased visibility
contributes to greater ground coverage, improved ground track repeatability, and enhanced
communication capabilities. In contrast, a higher eccentricity provides the satellite with the
ability to reach higher latitudes during its orbit, expanding the coverage area over those
regions. The selection of an appropriate eccentricity for the Tundra Orbit depends on the
specific mission requirements, coverage demands, ground track patterns, and satellite
operational considerations.

The argument of perigee, an essential orbital parameter, plays a significant role in

defining the behavior of the Tundra Orbit. In the case of Tundra Orbit, the argument of
perigee is fixed at 270°. The selection of 270 degrees as the Argument of Perigee for a Tundra
Orbit is primarily motivated by the aim to improve coverage in the high northern latitudes.
By positioning the argument of perigee at 270°, the satellite spends a greater amount of time
over these regions, resulting in enhanced visibility and communication capabilities. This
deliberate positioning ensures that the satellite optimizes its coverage for the geographic
regions of interest, leading to improved visibility, tracking, and communication
performance.
The right ascension of the ascending node (RAAN) is another crucial parameter for
the Tundra Orbit. In simulations of the Tundra orbit, the right ascension of the ascending
node is often set at 0°. This value indicates that the ascending node of the orbit is located at
the vernal equinox point, where the orbit crosses from the southern to the northern
hemisphere of the Earth's equator. This specific configuration aligns the ascending node with
the reference plane at a certain point, facilitating accurate tracking and communication. It's
worth noting that the RAAN for a Tundra Orbit can be varied within the range of 0° to 180°,
depending on several factors, including coverage area, ground station visibility, interference,
and collision avoidance considerations. These variations in the RAAN provide flexibility in
optimizing the orbit for specific mission objectives and operational requirements.

The inclination of the Tundra Orbit is a significant orbital parameter, usually set at an
angle of 63.4°, which is often referred to as the critical inclination. This critical inclination
is derived from the formula 4-5sin²i, where 'i' represents the critical inclination angle. When
substituting the value of 63.4° into the formula, it yields a value very close to zero. This
property of the critical inclination results in a significant reduction in the expenditure of fuel
or energy required to maintain the satellite in its intended orbit. The critical inclination
ensures that the position of the perigee remains fixed over time, making the orbit effectively
frozen. This characteristic is particularly valuable in satellite operations as it minimizes the
need for constant adjustments and conserves valuable resources.
Finally, the mean anomaly of the Tundra Orbit can vary based on specific orbital
parameters and mission requirements. An example of this is the Sirius Satellite Radio
constellation, which operates a group of satellites in Tundra orbits with each satellite having
its mean anomaly offset by 120°. This strategic offset enables a specific phasing
arrangement, ensuring seamless coverage and smooth handover between satellites. By
continuously adjusting the mean anomaly, the Tundra Orbit configuration allows for
continuous coverage, reduced reliance on ground-based repeaters, and improved mission
performance.
In conclusion, the Tundra Orbit offers a range of distinctive characteristics that make
it well-suited for various mission requirements. Its carefully selected semi-major axis,
eccentricity, argument of perigee, right ascension of the ascending node, inclination, and
mean anomaly work together to provide optimized coverage, improved visibility, enhanced
communication capabilities, and efficient use of resources. These orbital parameters are
carefully chosen and tailored to specific mission objectives, ensuring the Tundra Orbit's
effectiveness in achieving mission goals and delivering reliable and consistent satellite
services.
Inclination: 63.4°
Argument of perigee: 270°
Period: 1436 minutes
Eccentricity: 0.24 – 0.4
Semi-major axis: 42164 km
C. Molniya Orbit
 The Keplerian Elements for the Molniya Orbit encompass a set of specific orbital
parameters that define its unique characteristics and behavior. Firstly, the semi-major axis of
the Molniya Orbit is typically around 26,273 kilometers (16,334 miles). This parameter
represents the average distance from the center of the Earth to the orbiting satellite, providing
valuable information about the orbital size and shape. The eccentricity of the Molniya Orbit
is relatively high, usually ranging from 0.7 to 0.8. This high eccentricity indicates a
significant deviation from a circular orbit, resulting in a more elongated and elliptical path.
The argument of perigee, a vital element of the Molniya Orbit, is typically set at around
270 degrees. This specific value defines the angle between the ascending node and the
perigee point, where the satellite is closest to the Earth. The argument of perigee plays a
crucial role in determining the positioning and coverage characteristics of the Molniya Orbit.
By selecting 270 degrees, the Molniya Orbit achieves a unique ground coverage pattern,
focusing on high latitudes and providing extended dwell times over these regions. This
configuration is particularly beneficial for communication and observation purposes in polar
regions.
The right ascension of the ascending node (RAAN) for the Molniya Orbit is usually
set at 0 degrees. This parameter signifies the angle between the vernal equinox and the
ascending node, which is the point where the orbit crosses the Earth's equatorial plane from
the southern hemisphere to the northern hemisphere. The choice of 0 degrees for the RAAN
ensures alignment with the reference plane, aiding in accurate tracking, communication, and
coordination with ground-based stations.
 Inclination, another critical element of the Molniya Orbit, typically ranges from 62 to
64 degrees. The inclination angle determines the tilt of the satellite's orbital plane relative to
the Earth's equatorial plane. The Molniya Orbit's relatively high inclination enables the
satellite to reach high latitudes during its orbit, providing extended coverage over these
regions. This inclination is carefully chosen to optimize the coverage of polar areas while
maintaining a stable and predictable orbital path.
Lastly, the mean anomaly is an important parameter in the Keplerian Elements of the
Molniya Orbit. The mean anomaly represents the position of the satellite along its elliptical
path at a specific point in time, measured from the perigee. The mean anomaly value
continuously changes as the satellite orbits around the Earth, following Kepler's laws of
planetary motion. It is calculated based on the specific time and orbital parameters of the
satellite. The mean anomaly of the Molniya Orbit varies continuously, contributing to its
unique coverage characteristics and phasing arrangement.
In summary, the Keplerian Elements for the Molniya Orbit include the semi-major
axis, eccentricity, argument of perigee, right ascension of the ascending node, inclination,
and mean anomaly. Each of these parameters plays a crucial role in defining the behavior,
coverage, and characteristics of the Molniya Orbit. By carefully selecting and adjusting these
elements, the Molniya Orbit achieves a highly specialized orbital configuration, providing
optimized coverage over high latitudes and delivering specific mission capabilities such as
communication, observation, and remote sensing in polar regions.
Inclination: 63.4°
Argument of perigee: 270°
Period: 718 minutes
Eccentricity: 0.74
Semi-major axis: 266,000 m
D. Low Earth orbit
 Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is characterized by a specific set of Keplerian Elements that
define its orbital parameters and behavior. Firstly, the semi-major axis of LEO is relatively
small, typically ranging about 8,413 km. This short average distance from the center of the
Earth indicates that LEO satellites orbit relatively close to the planet's surface. The
eccentricity of LEO orbits is generally close to zero, implying a nearly circular path. This
circularity ensures that LEO satellites maintain a consistent altitude and do not deviate
significantly from their intended orbit. The low eccentricity also contributes to the stability
and predictability of LEO satellite trajectories.

In terms of the argument of perigee, LEO orbits have varying values. The argument
of perigee represents the angle between the ascending node and the point of closest approach
to the Earth (perigee). Different LEO missions may have specific requirements regarding the
argument of perigee, which can be adjusted to optimize coverage, ground track patterns, and
mission objectives. The right ascension of the ascending node (RAAN) for LEO is also
subject to variation. The RAAN specifies the angle between the vernal equinox and the
ascending node, where the orbit crosses the Earth's equatorial plane from south to north. The
selection of the RAAN allows for flexibility in positioning LEO satellites to achieve specific
mission goals, such as optimal ground station visibility, interference avoidance, or desired
coverage areas.

LEO orbits typically have a moderate inclination, ranging from a few degrees to about
60 degrees. The inclination angle represents the tilt of the satellite's orbital plane relative to
the Earth's equatorial plane. Different missions require different inclinations to achieve
specific coverage objectives or observe specific regions of the Earth. For example, remote
sensing satellites may have higher inclinations to provide global coverage, while
communication satellites may be inclined at lower angles to focus on specific geographic
regions.

The mean anomaly, which represents the satellite's position along its elliptical path at
a specific time, is continually changing in LEO orbits. This dynamic parameter is determined
by the satellite's specific orbital elements and time. The mean anomaly allows for precise
tracking, prediction, and control of the satellite's position and ensures accurate
communication and coordination with ground-based stations.

In summary, the Keplerian Elements for Low Earth Orbit include the semi-major axis,
eccentricity, argument of perigee, right ascension of the ascending node, inclination, and
mean anomaly. These parameters determine the size, shape, orientation, and behavior of
LEO orbits. By carefully selecting and adjusting these elements, LEO satellites can achieve
specific mission objectives such as global coverage, targeted observations, or efficient
communication services. The flexibility and adaptability of LEO orbits make them suitable
for a wide range of applications, including Earth observation, communication, navigation,
and scientific research.

Inclination: 86°
Argument of perigee: 270°
Period: 90 minutes
Eccentricity: 0
Semi-major axis: 422,000 m
Part 2

A. Communication Satellites

Model: MEASAT-3A ORBIT

COMMUNICATION SATELLITES DESCRIPTIONS
MEASAT-3A, a geostationary satellite situated at approximately 91.5 degrees East
longitude, plays a vital role in revolutionizing communication and broadcasting services
throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Its strategic position above the equator guarantees
uninterrupted connectivity and seamless transmission of data. MEASAT-3A's extensive
coverage area encompasses vast regions, including Asia, Australia, the Middle East, and parts
of Eastern Africa, making it an indispensable asset for a multitude of industries. At the heart of
MEASAT-3A lies a sophisticated and advanced communications payload, featuring an
impressive array of C-band, Ku-band, and Ka-band transponders. These transponders operate
within various frequency bands, enabling the satellite to cater to a wide range of applications,
including television broadcasting, data transmission, broadband connectivity, and video
distribution.
The C-band transponders on MEASAT-3A serve as the backbone for broadcasting and
telecommunications services. Renowned for their reliability and ability to provide high-quality
coverage over expansive regions, these transponders are instrumental in delivering content to
Direct-to-Home (DTH) television subscribers and supporting telecommunication networks.
The C-band frequency is well-suited for long-distance transmission and is capable of
withstanding adverse weather conditions, making it a trusted choice for broadcasters and
telecommunication providers alike. In addition to the C-band capabilities, MEASAT-3A boasts
a suite of Ku-band transponders that cater to the ever-growing demand for broadband
connectivity. These transponders play a crucial role in bridging the digital divide by facilitating
broadband access in remote and underserved regions. The Ku-band capacity of MEASAT-3A
is pivotal in ensuring that communities across the Asia-Pacific region have access to reliable
and high-speed internet services, enabling socio-economic development and empowering
individuals and businesses to thrive in the digital age.
MEASAT-3A also incorporates advanced Ka-band transponders, which offer increased
data rates and enhanced bandwidth. The Ka-band's capabilities make it particularly well-suited
for bandwidth-intensive applications and services. Enterprises, government agencies, and
communication providers can leverage MEASAT-3A's Ka-band capacity to establish efficient
enterprise networks, enable secure government communications, and support data-intensive
backhaul services. The significance of MEASAT-3A's orbit extends far beyond its technical
capabilities. The satellite's extensive coverage area and versatile frequency bands make it an
asset across various industries. In the broadcasting sector, MEASAT-3A acts as a catalyst for
delivering high-definition television channels and multimedia content to homes and businesses.
Its wide coverage area ensures that viewers in even the most remote locations can access a
diverse range of programming, including news, sports, movies, and educational content,
fostering cultural exchange, and providing entertainment to millions of people.
Telecommunications greatly benefits from MEASAT-3A's capabilities as well. The
satellite serves as a vital backbone for international voice and data communications, facilitating
corporate communication, international phone calls, internet connectivity, and other data
services. Its reliable and wide-reaching coverage ensures seamless connectivity for individuals
and businesses, transcending geographical boundaries and enabling global collaboration.
Furthermore, the maritime industry relies heavily on MEASAT-3A for uninterrupted
communication links. Vessels at sea depend on the satellite's capabilities to navigate, ensure
safety, and maintain operational efficiency. Real-time data exchange between ships and shore-
based facilities is made possible, enhancing maritime operations and supporting global trade.

In critical situations such as disaster management and emergency response, MEASAT-

3A emerges as a lifeline. The satellite's reliable and rapid communication capabilities facilitate
coordination, rescue operations, and the dissemination of crucial information to affected areas.
MEASAT-3A plays a pivotal role in connecting emergency response teams, government
agencies, and humanitarian organizations, enabling effective crisis management and assistance
to those in need. MEASAT-3A's orbit and technological capabilities also contribute to the
growth and development of various sectors, including telemedicine, e-learning, and e-
commerce. The satellite's seamless connectivity allows remote areas to access essential
healthcare services, educational resources, and online marketplaces, empowering individuals
and communities and promoting inclusivity.
To ensure its continuous operation and reliability, MEASAT-3A is supported by a
dedicated team of professionals who diligently monitor and maintain the satellite's
performance. Their expertise and commitment ensure that MEASAT-3A remains at the
forefront of cutting-edge technology and serves as a reliable communication and broadcasting
platform for businesses, governments, and individuals across the Asia-Pacific region.
In conclusion, MEASAT-3A's strategic orbital position, advanced technology,
extensive coverage capabilities, and diverse frequency bands make it an invaluable asset for
communication and broadcasting services in the Asia-Pacific region. Its ability to cater to
diverse applications, ranging from broadcasting and telecommunications to maritime
communication and emergency response, ensures seamless connectivity and access to
information for millions of users. MEASAT-3A continues to be at the forefront of facilitating
communication, bridging gaps, and empowering industries in the pursuit of progress,
development, and connectivity in the Asia-Pacific region and beyond.
B. Scientific Satellites
Model: PROBA-1
SCIENTIFIC SATELLITES DESCRIPTIONS

PROBA-1 is a small, innovative satellite developed by the European Space Agency

(ESA) that has made significant contributions to the field of Earth observation. Despite its small
size, measuring just 0.60 meters by 0.60 meters by 0.80 meters and weighing only 94
kilograms, PROBA-1 has demonstrated impressive capabilities and has paved the way for
future missions and technologies. PROBA-1, launched by the European Space Agency (ESA)
on October 22, 2001, is a remarkable satellite that has made significant contributions to the
field of Earth observation. PROBA-1 follows a sun-synchronous orbit, which means it
maintains a constant relationship with the Sun as it orbits the Earth. This type of orbit is
particularly beneficial for Earth observation missions as it ensures consistent lighting
conditions during image acquisition, allowing for accurate and comparable data collection. The
orbit of PROBA-1 is inclined at an angle of approximately 98.7 degrees to the equator. This
inclination allows the satellite to cover a wide range of latitudes during its orbit, providing a
global coverage area for Earth observation. As PROBA-1 orbits the Earth, it completes a full
revolution every 101 minutes, traveling at an average speed of about 7.4 kilometers per second.
The altitude of PROBA-1's orbit is approximately 610 kilometers above the Earth's surface.
This relatively low altitude allows for high-resolution imaging and precise data collection. The
low orbit also helps to minimize atmospheric interference, resulting in clearer and more
accurate observations.

Originally designed as a technology demonstration mission, PROBA-1 quickly evolved

into a valuable Earth observation platform, thanks to its array of state-of-the-art instruments
and sensors. One of the key instruments onboard PROBA-1 is the Compact High-Resolution
Imaging Spectrometer (CHRIS). CHRIS is a hyperspectral imager capable of capturing images
across 62 spectral bands, providing detailed and precise data about Earth's land, water, and
atmospheric features. The hyperspectral data captured by CHRIS offers valuable insights into
vegetation health, urban development, water quality, and atmospheric composition, among
other environmental parameters. By analyzing the unique spectral signatures of various
materials and substances, scientists can gain a deeper understanding of our planet's ecosystems
and monitor changes over time.

In addition to CHRIS, PROBA-1 is equipped with other instruments that complement

its Earth observation capabilities. The High-Resolution Camera (HRC) captures images with a
resolution of 5 meters, offering even finer details than CHRIS. This high-resolution imagery is
particularly useful for mapping and monitoring urban areas, identifying land use patterns, and
assessing the impact of human activities on the environment. The Multispectral Camera (MSC)
operates at a resolution of 20 meters and provides imagery in four spectral bands, enabling
analysis of vegetation health, land cover classification, and monitoring of coastal zones.
Together, these instruments work in synergy, providing a comprehensive and multi-
dimensional view of Earth's surface.

PROBA-1's compact size and low cost make it an ideal platform for testing and
validating new technologies in space. It has served as a testbed for various experimental
payloads and systems, including attitude control algorithms, miniaturized electronics, and
advanced power systems. The satellite's successful operation and demonstration of these
technologies have paved the way for their incorporation into larger missions and commercial
applications. PROBA-1 has played a pivotal role in pushing the boundaries of miniaturization,
autonomy, and efficiency in satellite design, inspiring the development of other small satellite
missions.

An exceptional feature of PROBA-1 is its autonomous operations capability. The

satellite is equipped with an onboard computer and software that enables it to perform various
tasks autonomously, including image acquisition, data processing, and payload operations.
This autonomy reduces the need for constant human intervention and allows PROBA-1 to
operate efficiently and collect data without interruption. The satellite's autonomous capabilities
have been instrumental in optimizing its resource utilization and maximizing its scientific
output. It has proven the feasibility and effectiveness of autonomous operations in space,
setting a precedent for future missions.

PROBA-1's mission has been extended multiple times due to its outstanding
performance and continued relevance in the field of Earth observation. Over the years, it has
captured and delivered a vast amount of data to scientists and researchers worldwide. The data
collected by PROBA-1 has been utilized in a wide range of applications, including
environmental monitoring, agriculture, urban planning, disaster management, and climate
studies. Its high-resolution imagery and hyperspectral data have facilitated detailed analyses
and insights into Earth's dynamic processes and changes. For example, the data acquired by
PROBA-1 has been used to monitor deforestation, assess the health of coral reefs, track the
spread of wildfires, and study the effects of pollution on coastal areas.

Furthermore, PROBA-1 has played a crucial role in the development of future satellite
missions and technologies. Its success has demonstrated the feasibility and effectiveness of
small satellite platforms for Earth observation, inspiring the design and implementation of other
similar missions. The knowledge gained from PROBA-1 has informed the development of
subsequent missions, allowing for advancements in miniaturized instruments, autonomous
operations, and data processing techniques. The experience gained from PROBA-1 has been
instrumental in shaping the design and implementation of future Earth observation missions,
ensuring their success and scientific value.

In conclusion, PROBA-1 is an extraordinary satellite that has defied its small size to
become a significant player in the field of Earth observation. Its advanced instruments,
including the CHRIS hyperspectral imager, have provided valuable data about our planet's land,
water, and atmosphere. The satellite's autonomous operations capability, combined withits role
as a technology demonstrator, has opened doors for new technologies and systems in space.
PROBA-1's longevity and contributions to the scientific community have solidified its place as
a pioneering mission and a testament to the capabilities of small satellite platforms. The lessons
learned from PROBA-1 will continue to shape the future of Earth observation andinspire the
development of innovative satellite missions, ensuring that we can better understandit.
C. Weather and Earth Resources Satellites

NOAA-21 (JPSS-2)

Figure 1.0

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2
Description

Figure 2: NOAA-21 satellite.

NOAA-21, also known as NOAA-N Prime, is a satellite in the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) polar-orbiting satellite program which follows a polar
orbit around the Earth. It was launched on February 6, 2009, and is part of the Joint Polar
Satellite System (JPSS) constellation. The J-2 satellite, or the JPSS-2 satellite is the third in a
series of five next generation low Earth orbiting weather satellites where the satellite's polar
orbit means that it travels from the North Pole to the South Pole and back, providing global
coverage of the Earth's surface which can be seen in figure 1.0, figure 1.1 and 1.2 that serve
the United States and international weather communities today. NOAA-21 orbits the Earth at
an altitude of approximately 824 kilometers above the surface. The orbit of NOAA-21 is
classified as a sun-synchronous orbit. This means that the satellite passes over any given point
on Earth at the same local solar time during each orbit. For example, if the satellite passes over
a specific location at noon, it will continue to pass over that location at approximately the same
local solar time during subsequent orbits.

The sun-synchronous orbit of NOAA-21 is designed to optimize the satellite's observations of

the Earth's surface and atmosphere. By maintaining a consistent solar illumination angle, the
satellite can capture consistent and comparable data during each pass. JPSS-2 will observe
every place on earth at least twice a day as the satellite orbits the earth from pole to pole 14
times daily. This is particularly important for monitoring changes in weather patterns, climate
variables, and environmental conditions over time. The precise orbital parameters of NOAA-
21, including the inclination, orbital period, and orbital inclination, are determined, and
controlled by mission operators to ensure optimal data collection and coverage. To predict
weather, NOAA-21 needs to observe the atmosphere from a global perspective. The dust storm
in Africa can affect the development of a hurricane that hits the East coast. A typhoon in Japan
can cause heavy rain in California several days later. JPSS satellites provide sophisticated
meteorological data and observations of atmosphere, ocean, and land for daily and long-term
monitoring and forecasting. NOAA’s National Weather Service uses this data to increase the
accuracy of forecasts three to seven days in advance of a severe weather event. These forecasts
allow for early warnings and enable emergency managers to make timely decisions to protect
American lives and property, including ordering effective evacuations.
JPSS satellites also provide support for zero- to three-day operational forecasting. JPSS data
are particularly important in polar regions where other observational data are sparse. In Alaska,
JPSS provides critical data for nearly all the weather forecasting for aviation, as well as for the
economically vital maritime, oil, and gas industries. NOAA-21 is equipped with advanced
instruments that provide crucial observations and data for weather forecasting, climate
monitoring, and environmental research. Its primary mission is to gather information about
Earth's atmosphere, land, and oceans to learn more about the planet's weather patterns and
climate dynamics. Whether preparing for devastating severe weather events such as Hurricane
Ian or checking tomorrow's forecast on smartphone. To accomplish this mission, the JPSS-2
satellite carries four key instruments to orbit. The Visible Infrared Imaging, Radiometer Suite,
or VIIRS, is essentially the eyes of the satellite. It measures the infrared invisible part of the
spectrum and shows the images of hurricanes, floods, dust storms, cloud patterns, and ocean
color. It is also used to locate and map wildfires and track wildfire smoke. The Advanced
Technology Microwave Sound or ATMS observes passive radiated microwave energy from
the earth to see through clouds and inside storms. The ATMS in conjunction with the Cross
track Infrared Sounder, or CRIS instrument, gives weather forecasters a global 3D picture of
atmosphere's temperature and moisture, the most fundamental information required by forecast
models.

The fourth instrument is the Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite or OPS. The OPS tracks the
concentration of ozone in the atmosphere. Data from OPS is used for ultraviolet index forecast,
which keep the public informed about the harm of UV damage. OPS also provides valuable
measurements of stratospheric aerosols such as those caused by volcanic eruptions and
wildfires. The latest OMPS instrument consists of two native viewing spectrometers, which
measure the altitude profile and total column ozone, as well as a limb viewing spectrometer
whose primary role is to track the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere as a function of
altitude [1]. The data from the OMPS sensors help scientists track and monitor the health of
the ozone layer. This is an instrument that is integrated onto the JPSS-2 satellites, and it is the
third OMPS instrument that Ball has built and it's the third in the series.

JPSS is also critical for monitoring the state of the global climate. JPSS has higher space
resolution for better detection of wildfires, flood waters, and since it's a polar orbiting satellite,
monitors ice coverage over both poles. JPSS has unique visible imagery at night, allowing
better detection of low clouds and fog, and for emergency response, JPSS also monitors the
health of the ocean through derived products of harmful algal blooms, marine heat waves, and
the health of marine ecosystem such as coral reefs and JPSS, monitors the health of the ozone
layer and its recovery. This showed that JPSS provides the nation with critical information for
a wide range of applications and decision support with using a wide variety of data collection
platforms dedicated to environmental study and protection collect and transmit data within the
401.610-MHz to 401.690-MHz DCS/2 receiver bandwidth. These platforms consist mainly of
drifting and moored buoys, subsurface floats, remote weather stations that serve meteorological
and oceanographic applications, fishing vessels for fishing resource management, and tracking
animals for biological and species protection purposes. The platforms relay data such as
atmospheric pressure, sea surface temperature and salinity, surface and subsurface ocean
currents, sea and river levels, vessel positions, and animal temperature and activity.

The DCS onboard the satellite collects the messages transmitted by the platforms and measures
its received frequency. The data is transmitted in real time along with the High-Resolution
Picture Transmission (HRPT) data and is also stored onboard for later transmission from the
satellite. The stored data is transmitted to the ground once per orbit to NOAA Command and
Data Acquisition (CDA) stations at Wallops Island, Virginia, and Fairbanks, Alaska, and then
relayed to Argos ground processing centers in Largo, Maryland, and Toulouse, France, for data
processing and dissemination. Data Collection System NOAA-N/12 The ground processing
centers process the frequencies measured onboard the satellite and locate the mobile platforms
using the Doppler effect. Location accuracies range from 150–1000m on average.[2]

In summary, NOAA-21 plays a crucial role in the global network of weather and environmental
satellites, providing valuable data to meteorologists, climatologists, and researchersworldwide.
Its observations contribute to more accurate weather forecasting, improved understanding of
climate change, and informed decision-making for various sectors, including agriculture,
transportation, emergency management, and public safety.
D. Navigation Satellites

GPS BIII -1 (PRN 04)

Figure 3.0

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2
Description

Figure 4: GPS Block III satellites

GPS Block III (BIII) satellites are the latest generation of GPS satellites deployed by
the United States. Each satellite in the GPS BIII constellation is assigned a unique PRN
(Pseudorandom Noise) number for identification. In the case of PRN 04, it refers to the specific
GPS BIII satellite identified as Satellite 4. The GPS Block III satellites are deployed in Medium
Earth Orbit (MEO), which is a circular orbit approximately 20,200 kilometers above the Earth's
surface. The MEO orbit is situated between the Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and the Geostationary
Orbit (GEO). Specifically, the GPS Block III satellites are placed in what is known as a "semi-
synchronous" orbit, with an inclination angle of approximately 55 degrees. This means that the
satellite's orbital plane is inclined at an angle of 55 degrees relative to the Earth's equator. The
GPS Block III constellation is designed to have multiple satellites distributed across several
orbital planes, ensuring global coverage. Currently, the GPS Block III satellites are organized
into three orbital planes, with each plane having multiple satellites evenly spaced around it.
This configuration allows for a minimum of four satellites to be visible from any point on Earth
at any given time, enabling accurate positioning and navigation calculations. The satellites in
the GPS Block III constellation travel around the Earth in their respective orbital planes,
completing two orbits per day. Their orbits are carefully maintained and monitored by ground
control stations to ensure their proper functioning and to provide continuous global coverage
for GPS users.

GPS Block III introduces a new civil signal called L1C, which provides improved
accuracy, integrity, and interoperability with other international satellite navigation systems. to
be broadcast on the same L1 frequency (1575.42 MHz) that contains the C/A signal used by all
current GPS users. L1C broadcasting will start when GPS III Control Segment (OCX) Block1
becomes operational, currently scheduled for 2022. The L1C signal will reach full operational
status when being broadcast from at least 24 GPS Block III satellites, currently projected for
the late 2020s.[3] Implementation of new civilian L1(L1C) will provide C/A (Coarse
Acquisition) code to ensure backward compatibility while assured of 1.5 dB increase in
minimum C/A code power to mitigate any noise floor increase. Besides, non-data signal
component will contain a pilot carrier to improve tracking and enable greater civil
interoperability with Galileo L1.

GPS Block III satellites are equipped with advanced anti-jamming technology to
improve resistance against intentional and unintentional interference, ensuring reliable
navigation signals even in challenging environments. The new L1C signal, which is being used
by GPS Block III satellites, is intended to work with other global navigation satellite systems
(GNSS), including Galileo and GLONASS. Compared to the more traditional L1 C/A signal,
this signal has better anti-jamming capabilities since it uses more sophisticated modulation and
coding techniques. To reduce the possibility of jamming and spoofing attempts, the GPS Block
III satellites were also built with stronger encryption and security capabilities. With these
security upgrades, GPS signals should be better protected from malicious interference and
unauthorized usage. Another one is a new military signal known as M-code, which is a
significant part of the modernization process, was created to further enhance the military GPS
signals' anti-jamming and safe access. The P(Y) code, the old military code, is still in use on
the L1 and L2 frequencies where the M-code is transmitted. The new signal is tailored to
concentrate most of its energy away from the current P(Y) and C/A carriers near the edges. The
M-code, in contrast to the P(Y) code, is intended to be autonomous, allowing users to determine
their positions solely from the M-code signal. Receivers of the P(Y) code normally first lock
onto the C/A code before switching to lock onto the P(Y)-code.

The GPS Block III satellites have stronger signals and more power than the GPS Block
II satellites. The GPS system operate better overall and more reliable. The GPS Block III
satellites transmit stronger signals to ground receivers by boosting their power and signal
intensity. This improves precision, signal reception in difficult conditions, and interference
resistance. The GPS Block III satellites' stronger signals also aid in reducing the effects of
unwanted interference, such as signal deterioration brought on by multipath reflections, in
which signals bounce off objects and travel along many pathways before arriving at the
receiver. A more precise location is achieved because of the increased signal strength's ability
to aid receivers in differentiating between direct and multipath signals. The battery system that
was used by GPS Block III is Nickel hydrogen (NiH2) which is rechargeable by 307 ft2; high-
efficiency UTJ cells; 4,480-W EOL capability solar array that was controlled by Central
controller with redundant discharge converters, battery chargers.[4] Better signal penetration
through impediments like structures, trees, and other obstructions is a result of the GPS Block
III satellites' improved power and signal strength. This is especially advantageous in urban
settings or places with lots of vegetation where satellite signals may be degraded or obstructed.

GPS Block III satellites have an extended operational lifespan compared to previous
generations which is roughly 15 years, contributing to overall system reliability and continuity
of service. Not only that, the GPS Block III satellites also feature enhanced spacecraft design,
including more powerful onboard computers, improved atomic clocks, and better radiation-
hardened components, ensuring long-term operational stability. For example, the modular
design uses four aluminium honeycomb panels mounted to a central composite core with
passive thermal use heat pipes in equipment panels, control blankets, thermal coatings,
radiators, and electrically controlled heaters.

All in all, in relation to earlier generations, GPS Block III satellites provide improved
performance, accuracy, and dependability. They are made to give users stronger signals, better
anti-jamming abilities, and greater positioning accuracy in a variety of settings, all of which
contribute to a more reliable and resilient GPS system.
 CONCLUSION

To summarize, SAT-LAB MATLAB is a software tool that allows users to simulate and analyze
satellite systems using MATLAB. It provides a platform for testing and evaluating the performance of
satellite subsystems and operations, SAT-LAB allows users to conduct a variety of tests and studies. To
assess the satellite's performance and durability, they can model various operational scenarios,
environmental variables, and system faults. Users of the simulator can use it to evaluate the effects of
different parameters on the functionality of the satellite and come to wise judgements about how to best
design and run their satellite systems. The SAT-LAB MATLAB simulator enables users to do various
analysis and experiments. To evaluate the effectiveness and dependability of the satellite, they can simulate
a variety of mission scenarios, climatic circumstances, and system breakdowns. Users can use the
simulator to assess how various parameters affect the satellite's behavior and come to wise judgements for
system optimization. Besides, SAT-LAB MATLAB also offers capabilities for data processing and
visualization in real-time. The robust data processing and visualization features of MATLAB enable users
to track the behavior of the satellite, monitor and analyze its telemetry data, and assess performance
indicators. This makes it possible to efficiently debug, assess, and enhance satellite systems. Engineers,
academics, and operators of satellites can all benefit from the SAT-LAB MATLAB simulator. It enables
the verification and refinement of satellite designs, the testing of various operating scenarios, and the
performance enhancement of satellite systems. The simulator aids in the creation of dependable and
effective satellite systems by utilizing MATLAB's comprehensive mathematics and simulation
capabilities. On the other hand, artificial objects called satellites are positioned in orbit around the Earth
or other celestial bodies to carry out a variety of tasks and services. For example, Communication satellites
by sending and receiving signals across great distances, these satellites make communication easier. They
make possible several services, including data transfer, internet connectivity, telephony, and television
broadcasting, weather satellites which are used to track and study the climate, atmospheric conditions, and
weather patterns on Earth while scientific satellites which are used to conduct research experiments and
collect data. Their main areas of interest are the Sun, other planets, galaxies, and cosmic phenomena, as
well as different facets of space. They help with astronomy, astrophysics, planetary science, and space
exploration. Lastly, Navigation and Communication Satellite Systems which are large constellations of
interconnected satellites that work together to provide global navigation and communication services.
Examples include the GPS system, Galileo, BeiDou, and GLONASS. Satellites have developed into
essential technologies that improve many facets of contemporary living. They support military and security
operations, enable international communication networks, offer precise navigation and location services,
track and forecast weather patterns, and make it easier to conduct scientific study and exploration. Through
their contributions to communication, weather forecasting, environmental monitoring, and more, satellites
play a critical role in advancing human knowledge of the Earth, the universe, and our daily lives .
REFERENCE

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https://www.noaa.gov/media-advisory/experts-to-preview-upcoming-noaa-jpss-2-
launch-and-mission

[2] “NOAA-N.”

[3] T. Nakatani, J. J. Yan, H. Ghajari, A. E. Fathy, and D. F. Kimball, “High

Efficiency GPS Block-III RF Front-End Supporting Multi-Code and Multi-Carrier
Waveforms.”

[4] “GPS III The Next Generation Global Positioning System,” 2014. [Online].
Available: www.lockheedmartin.com/gps

[5] “PROBA-1 - Earth Online.” n.d. ESA Earth Online. Accessed June 10, 2023.
https://earth.esa.int/eogateway/missions/proba-1

[6] “PROBA-1 (Project for On-Board Autonomy - 1).” 2012. eoPortal.

https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/proba-1#performance-specifications

[7] “MEASAT 3a.” Gunter's Space Page, 14 January 2023,

https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/measat-3a.htm Accessed 10 June 2023.

[8] “MEASAT-3a.” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEASAT-3a

Accessed 10 June 2023.

[9] Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia. "Geostationary orbit". Encyclopedia

Britannica, 8 Jun. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/science/geostationary-orbit
Accessed 10 June 2023.

[10] “Tundra – Spacecraft & Satellites.” Spaceflight101,

https://spaceflight101.com/spacecraft/tundra/ Accessed 10 June 2023.

[11] “Catalog of Earth Satellite Orbits.” NASA Earth Observatory, 4 September

2009, https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/OrbitsCatalog/page2.php Accessed 10
June 2023.
Appendix

Figure: discussion on what is SAT-LAB MATLAB

Figure: discussion on which satellites to choose