RADAR NAVIGATION

Trainee Booklet

Developed by A. Pipchenko, A. Dembitsky

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Notice of Terms of Use
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers. While the advice given in this course has
been developed using the best information currently available, it is intended purely as guidance to be
used at the user's own risk.
Learnmarine accepts no responsibility for the accuracy of any information or advice given in the course
or any omission from the course or for any consequence whatsoever resulting directly or indirectly
from compliance with or adoption of guidance contained in the document even if caused by failure to
exercise reasonable care.
This course has been prepared to deal with the subject of Radar Navigation. This should not, however,
be taken to mean that this course deals comprehensively with all of the issues that will need to be
addressed or even, where a particular issue is addressed, that this course sets out the only definitive
view for all situations.

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MODULE 1:
Basic theory and radar setting

RADAR is the only equipment

That tells
Where the objects around you
really are

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MODULE 1:
Basic theory and radar setting
Radar is an object-detection system designed
for detecting and tracking objects (targets) at
considerable distances.

The word radar is an acronym derived from

the phrase Radio Detection And Ranging.

Radars transmit directional microwave radio

pulses with a rotating ariel (the scanner) in a
360º circle around the machine. It detects the
bearing and range of echoing pulse returns
from significant surrounding targets to
produce a map-like display.

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MODULE 1:
Basic theory and radar setting
Main Radar types

X Band or 3 cm radar requires a smaller scanner to achieve the desired beamwidth and
definition as compared with a 10 cm radar. X-band radars are particularly suited to coastal
navigation and pilotage due to their high picture definition and quality. On the negative side a 3
cm radar produces more side lobes than a 10 cm radar and the radio waves are not as refracted
to the same extent. Therefore they will not achieve the same range as a 10 cm radar.

S Band or 10 cm radars are suited to long range landfall navigation and early detection of
targets for collision avoidance, due to their superior range and the cohesive quality of their
pulses. On the negative side 10 cm radars require a larger scanner, greater power and often a
longer pulse length resulting in a loss of definition at short ranges. However, in heavy
precipitation condition, an S-band radar would have better detection than an X-band radar.

A 3 cm radar is nearly always the preferred choice for small craft due to the greater power and
scanner size requirements of 10 cm radar.

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MODULE 1:
Basic theory and radar setting
LIMITATIONS

MAXIMUM RANGE:
✓ Height of the scanner increases the scanner, the increase of range
✓ Power of the set, marine radar set transmits around 25 to 60 kwt
✓ Wavelength: 10 cm have extended range as compared to 3 cm
✓ Pulse Repetition Frequency
✓ Pulse Length: Long pulses ensures better maximum ranges than shorter pulses cause ,
Long pulses have more wavelength in them.
✓ VBW/HBW: The narrower the beam width the greater the directional concentration,
increases the range.

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Basic theory and radar setting
PRESENTATION MODES:
Relative Motion (RM)
✓ Head-up: Unstabilized
✓ Head-up TB: Head-up with compass-stabilized bearing scale (True Bearing) where the
bearing scale rotates with the compass reading.
✓ Course-up: Compass-stabilized relative to ship’s orientation at the time of selecting
course-up.
✓ North-up: Compass-stabilized with reference to north
True Motion (TM)
✓ North-up: Ground or sea stabilized with compass and speed inputs

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MODULE 1:
Basic theory and radar setting
TYPES OF FALSE ECHOES
Multiple (second-trace) echoes
Multiple echoes occur when a transmitted
pulse returns from a solid object like a
large ship, bridge, or breakwater. A
second, a third or more echoes may be
observed on the display at double, triple or
other multiples of the actual range of the
target as shown below. Multiple reflection
echoes can be reduced and often removed
by decreasing the gain (sensitivity) or
properly adjusting the A/C SEA control.

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Basic theory and radar setting
TYPES OF FALSE ECHOES
Sidelobe echoes

Every time the radar pulse is transmitted,

some radiation escapes on each side of the
beam, called “sidelobes”. If a target exists
where it can be detected by the side lobes
as well as the main lobe, the side echoes
may be represented on both sides of the
true echo at the same range. Side lobes
show usually only on short ranges and
from strong targets. They can be reduced
through careful reduction of the gain or
proper adjustment of the A/C SEA control.

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MODULE 1:
Basic theory and radar setting
TYPES OF FALSE ECHOES
Virtual image

A relatively large target close to your ship

may be represented at two positions on
the screen. One of them is the true echo
directly reflected by the target and the
other is a false echo which is caused by
the mirror effect of a large object on or
close to your ship as shown in the figure
below. If your ship comes close to a large
metal bridge, for example, such a false
echo may temporarily be seen on the
screen.

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Basic theory and radar setting
TYPES OF FALSE ECHOES
Indirect Echoes
Indirect echoes may be returned from either a passing ship
or returned from a reflecting surface on your own ship, for
example, a stack. In both cases, the echo will return from a
legitimate contact to the antenna by the same indirect path.
The echo will appear on the same bearing of the reflected
surface, but at the same range as the direct echo. Indirect
echoes may be recognized as follows:
✓ they usually occur in a shadow sector
✓ they appear on the bearing of the obstruction but at the
range of the legitimate con-tact
✓ when plotted, their movements are usually abnormal, and
✓ their shapes may indicate they are not direct echoes.

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Basic theory and radar setting
TYPES OF FALSE ECHOES
Blind and Shadow Sectors

Funnels, stacks, masts, or derricks in the

path of antenna may reduce the intensity
of the radar beam. If the angle subtended
at the antenna is more than a few degrees
a blind sector maybe produced. Within the
blind sector small tar-gets at close range
may not be detected while larger targets
at much greater ranges may be detected

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MODULE 2:
Legal Requirements: MSC.192(79)
Differences in the performance requirements for various sizes/categories of ships to which
SOLAS applies

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MODULE 2:
Legal Requirements: Radar bands
✓ X-Band (9.2-9.5 GHz) for
high discrimination, good
sensitivity and tracking
performance;

✓ S-Band (2.9-3.1 GHz) to

ensure that target detection
and tracking capabilities are
maintained in varying and
adverse conditions of fog,
rain and sea clutter.

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MODULE 2:
Legal Requirements: MSC.192(79)
✓ Since the ship may have multiple radar and GPS
antennas in different locations there is a risk of
errors in bearing – range for objects that are
presented by multiple sensors
*
✓ For example an ARPA target may also be visible *
as an AIS target. It is then important that the two *
targets are on the same position on the screen, *
and that the bearing to the target is the same *
visually from the conning position
* Legend:
✓ IMO has therefore decided that all incoming
information from sensors such as radar and GPS ✓ * RADAR 1, 2, 3
should be converted to a indicate the same place
onboard, the Consistent Common Reference Point ✓ * VISUAL
(CCRP)

✓ The place is normally the wheelhouse ✓ * EPFS 1, 2

conning position
✓ CCRP

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MODULE 2:
Legal Requirements: MSC.192(79)
Minimum detection ranges in clutter-free conditions

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MODULE 2:
Legal Requirements: MSC.192(79)
Minimum Range

With own ship at zero speed, an antenna height of 15 m above the sea level and in calm
conditions, the navigational buoy should be detected at a minimum horizontal range of
40 m from the antenna position and up to a range of 1 NM, without changing the setting
of control functions other than the range scale selector.

Compensation for any range error should be automatically applied for each selected antenna,
where multiple antennas are installed.

Radar Availability

The radar equipment should be fully operational (RUN status) within 4 minutes after switch
ON from cold. A STANDBY condition should be provided, in which there is no operational
radar transmission. The radar should be fully operational within 5 sec from the standby
condition.

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MODULE 2:
Legal Requirements: MSC.192(79) – utilities and accuracy
Display Range Scales

✓ Range scales of 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.5, 3, 6, 12 and 24 NM should be provided. Additional
range scales are permitted outside the mandatory set. Low metric range scales may be
offered in addition to the mandatory set.

✓ The range scale selected should be permanently indicated.

Fixed Range Rings

✓ An appropriate number of equally spaced range rings should be provided for the range scale
selected. When displayed, the range ring scale should be indicated.

✓ The system accuracy of fixed range rings should be within 1% of the maximum range
of the range scale in use or 30 m, whichever is the greater distance.

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MODULE 2:
Legal Requirements: MSC.192(79) – utilities and accuracy
Variable Range Markers (VRM)

At least two variable range markers (VRMs) should be provided. Each active VRM should have a numerical
readout and have a resolution compatible with the range scale in use.

The VRMs should enable the user to measure the range of an object within the operational display area with a
maximum system error of 1% of the range scale in use or 30 m, whichever is the greater distance.

Electronic Bearing Lines (EBLs)

At least two electronic bearing lines (EBLs) should be provided to measure the bearing of any point object
within the operational display area, with a maximum system error of 1° at the periphery of the display.

Parallel Index lines (PI)

A minimum of four independent parallel index lines, with a means to truncate and switch off individual
lines, should be provided.

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MODULE 2:
Legal Requirements: MSC.192(79)
Tracked Target Accuracy (95% probability figures)

Accuracy may be significantly reduced during or shortly after acquisition, own

ship manoeuvre, a manoeuvre of the target, or any tracking disturbance and is
also dependent on own ship’s motion and sensor accuracy.

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MODULE 2:
Legal Requirements: MSC.192(79) – Targets presentation

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MODULE 2:
Legal Requirements: MSC.192(79) – AIS presentation

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MODULE 2:
Legal Requirements: MSC.192(79) – AIS presentation

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MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
Radar Fixes

Radar bearings are subject to compass error.

Therefore the best way to obtain a fix by radar, is to take two or more
radar distances off charted and identified objects.

From the other hand, the radar range-bearing method is most convenient,
having moderate error and that most important needs only one land mark
for a fix.

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MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
Radar Fixes: Range-Bearing Fix

Tank

Light
FL 6s 58ft 9M
9
9 5 5 5 9
9 9
9
11 5 9 11
11 9 9 15 11
15 11 11
19 15 9 11 15 17
PA 96 17 17 19 19
17 19 11
20 20
2 20 21 20
2
21 20 0 20 21
0 20
21
21 21
RaFix 11:00
23 23 23
23 23 23

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MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
RACONs and AtoNs
Radar beacon (short: RACON)

A transmitter-receiver associated
with a fixed navigational mark
which, when triggered by a radar,
automatically returns a distinctive
. Racon O
signal which can appear on the
display of the triggering radar,
providing range, bearing and
identification information.

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MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
RACONs and AtoNs
AtoN – AIS Aid to Navigation

The new information helps improve

maritime safety and domain awareness
AIS AtoN + RACON = Correlate positions
with the use of Synthetic and Virtual AtoN Radar reference with From AIS of vessels
information. They serve to identify an Known position With radar targets
For position verification
existing physical AtoN (Synthetic) or one
that is nonexistent (Virtual). These AtoNs
Range/bearing to
may be displayed on the mariners’ Radar reference
With known position
ECS/radar to allow easy identification of = Calculate own position
radar return of the AtoN or to augment
physical AtoN in tough-to-maneuver areas.

RADAR
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MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
RACONs and AtoNs
AtoN – AIS Aid to Navigation

The new information helps improve

maritime safety and domain awareness
with the use of Synthetic and Virtual AtoN
information. They serve to identify an
existing physical AtoN (Synthetic) or one
that is nonexistent (Virtual). These AtoNs
may be displayed on the mariners’
ECS/radar to allow easy identification of
radar return of the AtoN or to augment
physical AtoN in tough-to-maneuver areas.

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MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
RACONs and AtoNs

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MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
Parallel indexing

WRONG PARALLEL INDEXING

PI must be plotted only relatively

to a radar conspicuous object
on the chart.

Otherwise, you might run your

vessel aground!

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MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
Parallel indexing

There’re various ways to define a parallel index line:

Line parallel to the track line positioned on the distance equal
to distance between track and hazard
✓ NMT – not more then line, marking the maximum range
on which vessel may move away from indexed mark safely
✓ NLT – not less then line, marking the minimum range on
which vessel may come close to indexed mark safely

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MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
Parallel indexing

NLT index is used to

indicate the
underwater hazard

If your actual parallel

index is equal or less
than NLT, it means
that you will pass
over hazard when
approach it.

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MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
Parallel indexing

NMT index is used to

indicate the underwater
hazard

If your actual parallel

index is equal to NMT, it
means that you will pass
over hazard when
approach it.

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MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
Parallel indexing

NMT index is used to

indicate the Hazards
(not radar
underwater hazard conspicuous)

If your actual parallel

index is equal or more
than NMT, it means
that you will pass over
hazard when approach Indexed mark
it. (radar conspicuous)

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MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
The ‘wheel-over’ position
✓ When transiting a very confined channel and/or
conning a large vessel, it is advisable to plan the NLT 1.4’
PI 1
wheelover positions using a knowledge of the BRG 050ᵒ (T)
ship’s turning characteristics including any RNG -2.2’

interaction effects.
✓ Use of this data should make it possible to keep NLT 1.8’

on the track line required.

✓ This information will appear on the chart as a
point on the course line spaced a calculated
distance prior to the alter-course position. BRG 046ᵒ (T)
RNG 2.3’
✓ This distance can be used on the display to PI 2
indicate the point on the index line where the BRG 050ᵒ (T)
RNG 2.4’
ship should begin to turn. Wheel-over position

✓ It is advisable to make these turning predictions

for a moderate value of helm (10ᵒ to 15ᵒ) on the
understanding that, if the conditions are other
than calm (and assuming deep water), the actual
turn as executed may not correspond with the
predictions.

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 MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
The ‘wheel-over’ position
PI 1
MODE: NU TM BRG 132ᵒ (T) NLT 1.4’ PI 1
RNG -2.1’ BRG 132ᵒ (T)
RNG -2.1’

WOP CONTROL
NLT 1.8’
BRG 046ᵒ (T)
RNG 2.3’

NMT 3.2’
EBL ON THE LANDMARK:
START THE TURN

PI 2
BRG 050ᵒ (T)
Wheel-over position RNG 2.4’

- NO GO AREA

BRG 046ᵒ (T)

RNG 2.3’

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 MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
The ‘wheel-over’ position

MODE: NU TM NLT 1.4’ PI 1

BRG 132ᵒ (T)
RNG -2.1’

• SET UP A NEW PI
• CONTROL CROSS- WOP CONTROL
TRACK DISTANCE NLT 1.8’
BRG 046ᵒ (T)
RNG 2.3’

NMT 3.2’

PI 2
BRG 050ᵒ (T)
RNG 2.4’ PI 2
BRG 050ᵒ (T)
Wheel-over position RNG 2.4’

- NO GO AREA

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 MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
The ‘wheel-over’ position

MODE: NU TM NLT 1.4’ PI 1

BRG 132ᵒ (T)
RNG -2.1’

• ADJUST HEADING
• CONTROL CROSS- WOP CONTROL
TRACK DISTANCE NLT 1.8’
BRG 046ᵒ (T)
RNG 2.3’

NMT 3.2’

PI 2
BRG 050ᵒ (T)
Wheel-over position RNG 2.4’
PI 2
BRG 050ᵒ (T)
RNG 2.4’
- NO GO AREA

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 MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
The ‘wheel-over’ position and turn radius
Waypoint
Radius [nm] from Speed and Rate-of-Turn

Radius
RATE OF TURN
Distance to overcome inertia SPEED
(from wheel-house poster) 5 10 15 20 25 30
Wheel-over line 2 0.38 0.19 0.13 0.10 0.08 0.06

Wheel-over position
4 0.76 0.38 0.25 0.19 0.15 0.13
Radius 6 1.15 0.57 0.38 0.29 0.23 0.19
8 1.53 0.76 0.51 0.38 0.31 0.25
10 1.91 0.95 0.64 0.48 0.38 0.32
12 2.29 1.15 0.76 0.57 0.46 0.38
14 2.67 1.34 0.89 0.67 0.53 0.45

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 [𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑠] 16 3.06 1.53 1.02 0.76 0.61 0.51

𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠[𝑛𝑚] = 0.955 18 3.44 1.72 1.15 0.86 0.69 0.57
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 [𝑑𝑒𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛]
20 3.82 1.91 1.27 0.95 0.76 0.64

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 MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
The ‘wheel-over’ position and turn radius

Rate-of-Turn [deg/min] from Speed and Radius

WAYPOINT

Distance to overcome inertia RADIUS

RADIUS SPEED
(from wheel-house poster or
one ship length) 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 1
Wheel-over line 2 10 7 5 4 3 2
4 21 14 10 8 6 4
Wheel-over position
RADIUS 6 31 21 16 13 9 6
8 42 28 21 17 12 8
10 52 35 26 21 15 10
12 63 42 31 25 18 13
14 73 49 37 29 21 15
16 84 56 42 34 24 17
𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 [𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑠]
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 1.05 18 94 63 47 38 27 19
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠[𝑛𝑚] 20 105 70 52 42 30 21

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 MODULE 3:
Radar Navigation
The ‘wheel-over’ position and turn radius

I Case I – Rate-of-Turn is too High

Remedy: Reduce rudder angle or propeller thrust

II Case II – Rate-of-Turn corresponds to the radius

Remedy: Keep monitoring and control of ROT & Speed

III Case III – Rate-of-Turn is too Small

Remedy: Increase rudder angle or propeller thrust

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MODULE 4:
Manual radar plotting
✓ What will be the CPA?
✓ What is the target's relative speed and heading?
✓ What is the target's true speed and heading?
✓ How should we manoeuvre?

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MODULE 4:
Manual radar plotting
TRUE MOTION RELATIVE MOTION

𝑡𝑣 = 𝑟𝑣 + 𝑜𝑣

՜
𝑟𝑣

𝑜𝑣

՜
𝑡𝑣

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MODULE 4:
Manual radar plotting
STEP 1: ASSESSMENT 0’
TCPA 3’
6’
✓ RML – Relative Motion Line
RML
✓ CPA – Closest Point of Approach

✓ TCPA – Time to the CPA

CPA
Factors affecting the accuracy of derived
course, speed and aspect:

✓ Inappropriate mode of radar

presentation;

✓ Error of observed bearing and range of

targets;

✓ Inappropriate plotting scale, error of

plotting and calculation.

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Manual radar plotting
STEP 2: PARAMETERS ESTIMATION

✓ SHIP TARGET SPEED AND COURSE

Factors affecting the accuracy of derived

course, speed and aspect:

✓ Inappropriate mode of radar

presentation;

✓ Error of observed bearing and range of

target ship;

✓ Error of the own ship's course and speed;

✓ Inappropriate plotting scale, error of

plotting and calculation.

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MODULE 4:
Manual radar plotting TRUE VECTORS
RELATIVE VECTORS
STEP 2: PARAMETERS ESTIMATION

✓ TRUE VECTOR

✓ RELATIVE VECTOR
823(19) Performance standards for automatic radar
plotting aids (ARPA's):

✓ An ARPA should present within one minute of

steady state tracking the relative motion trend

✓ An ARPA should present within three minutes

of steady state tracking the motion of a target

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MODULE 4:
Manual radar plotting
STEP 2: PARAMETERS ESTIMATION

✓ TRUE TRAILS

✓ RELATIVE TRAILS
On your ARPA/RADAR you can choose different
modes:

✓ True vectors / True trails

✓ Relative vectors / Relative trails

✓ True vectors / Relative trails

✓ Relative vectors / True trails

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MODULE 4:
Manual radar plotting 3’
0’
6’
STEP 3: MANEUVER ESTIMATION
12’
✓ NRML – New Relative Motion Line NRML

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MODULE 4:
Manual radar plotting 3’
0’
6’
STEP 3: MANEUVER ESTIMATION
12’
✓ NRML – New Relative Motion Line NRML

STEP 4: DECISION MAKING

✓ Heading maneuver

✓ Speed maneuver

✓ Combined maneuver

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MODULE 4:
Manual radar plotting 3’
0’
6’
STEP 3: MANEUVER ESTIMATION
12’
✓ NRML – New Relative Motion Line NRML

STEP 4: DECISION MAKING

✓ Heading maneuver

✓ Speed maneuver

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MODULE 4:
Manual radar plotting 3’
0’
6’
STEP 5: RETURN TO INITIAL HEADING
12’
NRML
18’
20’

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MODULE 4:
Manual radar plotting
HOW DO RML’s change with the course
alteration?
Generally, when OV turns to STBD

✓ RML’s to AHEAD of the beam from OV turn

clockwise;

✓ RML’s to ASTERN of the beam from OV turn

anti-clockwise;

And vice-versa for PORT turn

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MODULE 4:
Manual radar plotting 0’
3’
0’
6’ 6’
ASSESSING THE LIMITING TARGET
C 12’
12’
In this case, when turning to STBD, we NRML A
bring TARGET C closer to OV!

TARGET C may not expect such change

0’
of situations as initially it passes clear at 12’
6’
distance more then 2 NM.

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MODULE 4:
SPEED MANEUVER OPTION?
Manual radar plotting 0’
3’
0’
6’ 6’
ASSESSING THE LIMITING TARGET
C 12’
12’
Generally, when OV REDUCES the SPEED NRML A
✓ RML’s to STBD from OV turn
clockwise;

✓ RML’s to PORT from OV turn anti- 0’

6’
12’
clockwise;

And vice-versa when OV INCREASES the

SPEED
B

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MODULE 5:
ARPA & AIS: COLREGs perspective
Rule 4: Application / Rule 5: Look-out

Application (Rule 4) - Rules in this section

apply in Any condition of visibility.

Look-out (Rule 5)

Every vessel shall at all times maintain a

proper look-out by sight and hearing as well
as by all available means appropriate in the
prevailing circumstances and conditions so as
to make a full appraisal of the situation and of
the risk of collision.

*Also required at anchor

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MODULE 5:
ARPA & AIS: COLREGs perspective
Rule 4: Application / Rule 5: Look-out
The requirement to ‘maintain a proper look-out’ also includes:

✓ Using ECDIS – the prime function of ECDIS is to help you be sure that your ship is not moving into
danger. Its other functions are useful but you must not get distracted by them.

✓ Using ARPA – you must be aware of the effects of clutter, of small targets and the range and limitations of the
set.

✓ Using a radio – you must listen to what is going on around you but you must always think carefully before
calling other ships on VHF. It always takes more time than you think and it may cause delay and confusion.

✓ Monitoring sound signals – ensure you can hear what is going on outside the wheelhouse. Be aware of the effect
of keeping a closed wheelhouse and of distracting noises inside it.

✓ Using a depth indicator – frequently and systematically monitor the depth of water beneath your keel. The
seabed is often the nearest point of danger.

✓ !!! Avoid distractions such as wheelhouse and deck lights, other people, navigational records and routine
paperwork, including chart corrections.

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Rule 4: Application / Rule 5: Look-out

How close is the target?

1.6 nm 10 nm

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True bearing or relative bearing?

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RADAR/ARPA features:
✓ needs time to estimate CPA &
TCPA accurate enough;
✓ “inertial”: does not display the
vessel maneuver immediately;
✓ may be useless in heavy
sea/rain, especially with
regard to small vessels;
✓ may give incorrect information
on target course & speed if
ship sensors have errors.

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AIS features:
✓ gives information on target parameters,
name & call sign immediately;
✓ gives CPA & TCPA immediately;
✓ can be overlaid both on ARPA & ECS
screens.
✓ AIS almost immediately displays new
target’s course and speed in case of
maneuver.
✓ AIS information is not affected by rain
and sea state

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Type of ship General reporting interval
Ship at anchor 3 min
Ship 0-14 knots 12 sec
Ship 0-14 knots and
changing course 4 sec
Ship 14-23 knots 6 sec
Ship 14-23 knots and
changing course 2 sec
Ship >23 knots 3 sec
Ship >23 knots and changing course 2 sec

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BUT (AIS): BUT (ARPA):

✓ The accuracy of AIS information mainly ✓ ARPA gives stable information on CPA & TCPA
depends on other vessel, as its VHF
if target does not change course and speed;
transmitted. The errors of other vessel’s
navigational equipment may be
✓ From other hand AIS gives immediate
unknown.
information, and in case of rough seas, when
✓ Vessel’s name on the ARPA/ECS screen target is rolling and yawing the CPA may vary
may be mistakenly confused with other up to 0.5 nm.
one, thus leading to wrong VHF
agreement and to disaster at the end.

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Conclusion, COLREGS Rule 5 says:

Every vessel shall at all times maintain a proper look-out by sight and
hearing as well as by all available means appropriate in the prevailing
circumstances and conditions…

ARPA information shall be preferred to AIS as it gives stable information

on CPA & TCPA.

Rule 7: …If there is any doubt such risk shall be deemed to exist….

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Rule 19: Conduct of vessels in restricted visibility

Vessel on my PORT
side turn to STBD,
keep clear of me!!!

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Rule 19: Conduct of vessels in restricted visibility

This Rule applies to vessels not in sight of one another

when navigating in or near an area of restricted visibility.

!Rules 11-18 must not be applied in restricted

visibility!

Every vessel shall proceed at a safe speed adapted to the

prevailing circumstances and conditions of restricted
visibility. A power-driven vessel shall have her engines
ready for immediate manoeuvre.

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Rule 19: Conduct of vessels in restricted visibility
A vessel which detects by radar alone the presence of another
vessel shall determine if a close-quarters situation is developing
and/or risk of collision exists.
If so, she shall take avoiding action in ample time, provided that
when such action consists of an alteration in course, so far as possible
the following shall be avoided:

✓ An alteration of course to port for a vessel forward of the

beam, other than for a vessel being overtaken;

✓ An alteration of course toward a vessel abeam or abaft the

beam.

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Rule 19: Conduct of vessels in restricted visibility

Except where it has been determined that a risk of collision does not exist,
every vessel which hears apparently forward of her beam the fog signal of
another vessel, or which cannot avoid a close-quarters situation with
another vessel forward of her beam, shall reduce her speed to be the
minimum at which she can be kept on her course.

She shall if necessary take all her way off and in any event navigate
with extreme caution until danger of collision is over.

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