FACTORS INFLUENCING WATER SERVICE PROVISION IN GARISSA

CENTRAL DIVISION, KENYA

BY

FILSON MOHAMED SALAD

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR

THE REQUIREMENT OF THE AWARD OF DIPLOMA OF ARTS IN PUBLC

ADMINISTRATION AT GARISSA UNIVERSITY

2023
 DECLARATION

This project is my original work and has not been presented for a diploma in any
other

University

Signed …………………………………. Date………………………………

Filson Mohamed Salad

A050/747/22
This project has been submitted for examination with our approval as the University

supervisor(s)

Signed………………………………….. Date…………………………………

Dr. Adan Nur

Senior Lecturer

ii
DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to my loving family members for the support they gave me during
my study..

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Am indebted to acknowledge the sacrifices, contributions and support that I received from people

throughout the project process. First, I acknowledge my supervisors, Dr. Adan Nur for the grace,

patience, time, and support on how to complete this project work. I would also like to thank all the

other coursework lecturers for moderating my research work. I would also like to thank all my

friends and colleagues for the encouragement and support while I immersed myself in the project

process. Many thanks and appreciation for my family that provided encouragement long before this

diploma endeavour began. Much appreciation goes to my loving parents, who have always believed

in me.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION. .................................................................................................................................. ii
DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. .................................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF
CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................ v

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................ ix

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................... viii

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .............................................................................................. xi

ABSTRACT ...........................................................................................................................................
. x

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................1

1.1 Background of the study...........................................................................................................................................1

1.2 Statement Of The Problem.......................................................................................................................................4

1.3 Purpose Of The Study................................................................................................................................................5

1.4 Objectives Of The Study...........................................................................................................................................5

1.5 Research Questions.....................................................................................................................................................5

1.6 Significance Of The Study.......................................................................................................................................5

1.7 Limitations Of The Study.........................................................................................................................................6

1.8 Delimitation Of The Study.......................................................................................................................................6

1.9 Assumptions Of The Study......................................................................................................................................6

v
1.10 Definitions Of Significant Terms.........................................................................................................................7

1.11Organization Of The Study.....................................................................................................................................7

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW…..............................................................................…………….8

2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................8

2.2 Demand for water sercice porvision......................................................................................................................8

2.3 Water source and water service provision...........................................................................................................9

2.4. Water management facilities and water service provision..........................................................................12

2.5. Water infrastructure and water service provison............................................................................................16

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................ 21

3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 21

3.2 Research Design .............................................................................................................................. 21

3.3 Target Population ............................................................................................................................ 21

3.4 Sample Size ..................................................................................................................................... 22

3.4.1 Sampling Size ............................................................................................................................... 22

3.4.2 Sampling procedure..................................................................................................................... 22

3.5 Research Instruments ...................................................................................................................... 22

3.5.1 Pilot testing ................................................................................................................................... 23

3.5.2 Validity of instruments ................................................................................................................. 23

vi
3.5.3 Reliability of Instruments...................................................................................................................................24

3.6 Data collection procedures.....................................................................................................................................24

3.7.Methods of data analysis................................................................................................................……………25

3.8 Ethical considerations..............................................................................................................................................25

3.9 Operational defination of variables.....................................................................................................................26

CHAPTER FOUR:DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION........................27

4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................27

4.2 Questionnaires return rate......................................................................................................................................27

4.3 The demographic characteristics of th respondents........................................................................................28

4.4 Analysis on item on water demand and its influence on water service provision…………….…..30

4.5 Analysis on items on sources of water and its influence on water service provision..........................33

4.6 Analysis on items on water management facilities and its influence on water service provision .. 37

4.7 Analysis on items on water infrastructure and its influence........................................................................38

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION

AND RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................................................................................................40

5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................40

5.2 Summary of the findings........................................................................................................................................40

5.3 Discussions of the findings....................................................................................................................................44

vii
5.4 Conclusions.................................................................................................................................................................47

5.5 Recommendations.....................................................................................................................................................47

5.5 Recommendations for further study....................................................................................................................48

REFERENCES:................................................................................................................................................................49

APPENDICES:................................................................................................................................................................53

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Operationalization table……………………………………………………................................26

Table 4.1: Questionnaire return rate……………………………......................................................................37

Table 4.2: Distribution of responses by gender……….......................................................................................30

Table 4.3: Distribution of household response by age ……………………................................................ 30

Table 4.4: Distribution of response as per education level……...................................................……….…31

Table 4.5: Responses as to where demand affected water service provision….............................………32

Table 4.6: Responses as to whether water was sufficient to cover the existing consumers….................32

Table 4.7: Reasons as to why the demand for water is not met.........................................................................33

Table 4.8: Responses as to the sources of water................................................................................................…35

Table 4.9: Sufficiency and reliability of water in Garissa town........................................................................36

Table 4.10: Responses as to whether the water was treated..................................………………………..36

Table 4.11: Responses as to whether the sources of water were protected from contamination ……..37

Table 4.12: Water pollutants at the source...................................................................................................……..37

Table 4.13: Respondents opinion on GAWASCO....................................................................................……..38

Table 4.14: Responses as to whether infrastructure influences water service provision...............……..39

Table 4.15: Aspects of water supply that needs improvement in future.............................................……..40

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Conceptual framework…… .............................. …………………………………………… 35

x
 ABSTRACT

The study investigated the factors influencing water service provision in Garissa Central
District -Kenya. The purpose of this study was to carefully investigate the underlying factors
that influence water service provision in Garissa Central District. The objectives of the study
included: to establish whether demand for water influences water service provision in Garissa
Central District, to determine how water source influence water service provision in Garissa
Central District and lastly to investigate how water infrastructure influences water service
provision in Garissa Central District. The research design used was descriptive analysis. There
were different sampling techniques used for the study due to the nature of the population
studied and they included; cluster, random and purposive sampling. The study targeted all the
resident of Garissa Town but four Estates namely Winsor, Iftin, Township and Waberi were
chosen by use of cluster sampling technique. Each Estate provided 21 household heads chosen
randomly, to respondent to the study. To achieve the objectives, the study used primary data in
the form of questionnaires, and secondary data from literatures, articles, books and internet
sources. The data was primarily quantitative and therefore descriptive analysis was used.
The study found out that water demand exceeded the water which was supplied by the water
service provider hence the residents had to look for alternative sources of water especially from
boreholes which were managed by private providers. As for the sources the study established
that there was enough water from Tana River which if well harnessed could meet the demand
of water in the town. The water service providers were found to be doing a good job when it
came to supplying water but the infrastructure was found to be wanting. The study
recommended the following; that private companies should be encouraged to start providing
water in the Garissa Town so that the demands of the resident could be met. The government
needs to look into the water infrastructure in the town with an aim of improving it. There is
also need for the government through the water service providers to look into ways in which
water contamination can be prevented. The household waste as well as industrial ones need to
be managed in such a way that it will not drain into Tana River. Where possible, fencing
should be done on the banks of the river.

xi
 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

GAWASCO : Garissa Water and Sewerage co Ltd

GoK : Government of Kenya

IWM : Integrated Water Management

KIHBS : Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey

MDGs : Millennium Development Goals

MWI : Ministry of Water and Irrigation

NRW : Non Revenue Water

NWSB : Northern Water Services Boards

UFW : Unaccounted for water

WASREB : Water services and Regulatory Board

WatSan : Water and Sanitation

WHO : World Health Organization

WSB : Water Services Boards

WSPs : Water Services Providers

NRW : Non-revenue water

EPA : Environmental Protection Agent

ASCE : American Society of Civil Engineers

DRA : Demand driven approach

xii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study

The United Nations has declared that access to safe water and sanitation is a human right

that applies in times of peace and in emergencies but according to a report of USAID

(2009) more than one billion people do not have access to safe drinking water and over

2.5 billion people have inadequate sanitation. In Africa around 300 million people do not

have access of safe drinking water and 313 million have no access to sanitation. That

means Africa has the lowest total water supply coverage of the other continents in the

world (ADF, 2005).

Gordon, Hays, Pollack, Sanchez, and Walsh (2011) indicate that water is essential for all

life. In addition to the water we drink, we use water to grow our food, to make concrete

and steel, and to create nearly everything else we produce, consume, buy, and sell.

Ecosystems require water in order to continue serving as the foundation of our economy

and our way of life. Yet water scarcity is an increasingly critical challenge.

The world’s population is increasing at a tremendous rate, the world’s renewable water

resources are reducing rapidly, the gap between supply and demand is widening with

urbanisation and climate change making it even wider. Safe drinking water is a necessity

for life (Environmental Protection Agent (EPA), 2009).

The achievement of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and elimination of poverty

is hinged on improved access to water supply and appropriate sanitation. Kenya is a
3
water scarce country with per capita availability of 647 m of water per annum which is

3
less than the recommended per capita availability of 1000m of water per annum. This

3
per capita availability is projected to fall to 235 m by 2025 (WHO, 1998) as the

1
population increases and could be even less if resource base continues to be degraded.

3 3
Comparatively, Uganda and Tanzania have 2,940 m and 2,696 m respectively (Nat.

conference on IWM, 2002). This means that Kenya cannot afford the luxury that its

neighbours have and must treat and manage water as a scarce resource with a social and

economic value.

Regional water shortages and drought are discussed and featured regularly in the local

media. Declining service levels can be linked with a rapidly growing and increasingly

impoverished population, under-investment in water facilities and ineffective financial

and commercial management of utilities. Inadequate water supplies have been blamed for

hampering socio-economic growth in Kenya and compromising the integrity of national

ecosystems. Provision of adequate water supply to a growing urban population is a

daunting task worldwide (Schuringa, 2006, Nallathiga, 2006).

Kenya’s new constitution (promulgated in August 4, 2010), recognizes the provision of

basic water supply and sanitation services for all as a fundamental human right. Although

the Government of Kenya (GoK) has affirmed its commitment to achievement of the UN

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for water and sanitation as an essential

investment in the country’s long-term future, access to safe, adequate and affordable

water and sanitation (WatSan) services remains an urgent and essential task. Kenya’s

WatSan coverage falls short of the required standards; where an estimated 53% of

households use water from sources considered unsafe.

In Kenya, access to water and sanitation services for urban and rural poor remains very

poor. This group has been deprived either because of lack of necessary infrastructure or

through neglect. As a natural resource, water has a key role in development and

2
sustainable livelihoods, hence equitable, sustainable and efficient distribution of basic

water and sanitation services is crucial.

Sustainable access to safe water is estimated at around 60% in urban and 40% in rural

settings though missing baseline data and sustainable information systems hinder

obtaining a clear nationwide picture and thus, coverage can only be estimated. The main

reasons for the decline in sustainable access to safe water and basic sanitation are old

infrastructure, inadequate management and maintenance of existing infrastructure,

insufficient sustainability, investments not enough, concentrating on the options of fast

tracking access and informal service provision operating outside a framework of basic

standards and regulation. The National Water Master Plan Aftercare Study (1998)

reported that there are close to 1800 water supply systems under the management of

various providers. In addition, there are other privately owned boreholes, springs and

other surface water schemes that are also part of service provision. It is estimated that

only 53 per cent of the households in Kenya walk for less than 15 minutes to fetch water.

In addition to the general national scarcity of water, there is a marked regional disparity

in access to water in Kenya as documented by Odhiambo (2004) where ‘only 0.6 per cent

of households in both North Eastern (where the study area falls) and Nyanza Provinces

have access to piped water compared to 11.8 per cent in Central Province and 33.2 per

cent in Nairobi.

Government of Kenya (GOK) (2007) indicates that Garissa District is situated within

Kenya’s North-Eastern Province. The region is mainly arid, with average annual

temperatures ranging from 25ºC to 38ºC, and mean annual rainfall ranging between

150mm and 300mm. The vegetation is characterized by grasslands, shrub land and thorny

3
thickets. The district is Located within the Arid and Semi-Arid (ASAL) region. It has

historically been prone to repeated droughts that make the communities increasingly

vulnerable to disasters. Water scarcity for both humans and livestock especially in the dry

seasons is perhaps one of the top priority problems facing communities in ASAL areas,

especially those in the pastoral livelihood zone.

Water and Sewerage Company (GAWASCO) serves Garissa town with water. The

company has made significant strides in its efforts to connect every house hold in Garissa

town and its environs with piped water (NWSB, 2007). The company had more than

6,000 metered consumers by 2007. However it had plans to connect over 10,000

consumers in the next two years.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Water service provision in Garissa Municipality suffers from a number of problems. Only

0.6 per cent of households in North Eastern province (where the study area falls) have

access to piped water as documented by Odhiambo (2004). Garissa municipality is faced

with excess demand over supply occasioned by population growth due to rural urban

migration and economic development. The municipality also has a poor access to clean

water due to dilapidated infrastructure and poor water quality. Coupled with that is a

Report by WASREB (2009) which indicated that in 2006–2007 most Kenyan WSPs

recorded good revenue collection efficiencies with an average collection rate of water

bills of approximately 86%. But the worst performing utility was Garissa with 45% of the

billed amount being collected by the WSP. It is due to the foregoing that this study

intended to investigate the factors that influence water service provision in Garissa town.

4
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to carefully investigate the underlying factors that
influence water service provision in Garissa Municipality.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

i. To establish how demand for water influenced water service provision in Garissa
Central Division.
ii. To determine water source influence water service provision in Garissa Central
Division.
iii. To establish how GAWASCO water management facilities influence water service

provision in Garissa Central Division.

iv. To assess how water infrastructure influences water service provision in Garissa

Central Division.

1.5 Research Questions

i. How does demand for water influence water service provision in Garissa Central

Division?

ii. Does water source influences water service provision in Garissa Central Division?

iii. How does GAWASCO water management influence water service provision in

Garissa Central Division?

vi. How do water infrastructure influence water service provision in Garissa Central

Division?

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study proved invaluable in combating threats on water service provision and

ensuring that the Garissa Municipality walk towards attaining Kenya Vision 2030 and

5
MDGs. This research shall be beneficial to the water actors in this area which includes

the WSPs, WSBs and WRMA. Further, it will go a long way in ensuring customer

satisfaction and a continuous improvement in their service delivery.

1.7 Limitation of the study

The study was limited in that some project management staff in GAWASCO expressed

discomfort in giving information for fear that the research was going to evaluate their

leadership and service delivery, hence open up for debate their efficiency among the top

management of the company. The researcher overcame this challenge by engaging the

staff in a verbal discussion during one of the staff’s sessions, in which he clarified the

intention of the study to the respondents.

1.8 Delimitation of the Study

Due to financial and time constraints the study only focused on Garissa town, Windsor

estate. The study was also focussed on two institutions charged with water management

and provisions in Garissa municipality that is GAWASCO and NWSB.

1.9 Assumptions of the Study

One assumption of the study was that the household heads were best suited to give

information concerning factors affecting the provision of water in Garissa town.

This study assumed that the respondents will cooperate and respond accurately and

truthfully to the questionnaire administered to them.

6
1.10 Definition of significant terms used in the study

Water Service – Any service of or incidental to the supply/provision of water or the

provision of sewerage (Water Act, 2002, Kenya)

Water quality- is a measure of how good the water is, in terms of supporting beneficial

uses or meeting its environmental values.

Safe water – This is water that meets the laid down quality standards such as by WHOs

and KEBS

Water demand – This is the amount of water required to satisfy a population.

Water supply - This is the amount of water provided to meet the populations demands.

Kenya Water act 2002 – This is a legal/institutional framework for the management and

development of Kenya’s water resources and the provision of water

services.

Water infrastructure – This is the water circulatory system supplying water in Garissa

Township area.

1.11 Organization of the study

The chapter provided the general background of the study. It discussed the statement of

the problem, the purpose and objectives of the study. The chapter also discussed the

research questions, significance and limitations of the study. The chapter also provided

the delimitations of the study before finally defining key terms used in the study.

7
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter contained reviewed literature related to factors influencing water service

provision in Garissa Municipality. The factors investigated in this study included;

demand for water, water source, water quality and lastly water infrastructure.

2.2 Demand for water and water service provision.

According to Water Partnership Program (2012) water demand deals with how much

water is needed by the population. The water to be supplied should be sufficient to cover

both the existing and future consumers. It must include provisions for domestic and other

types of service connections. In addition to the projected consumptions, an allowance for

non-revenue water (NRW) that may be caused by leakages and other losses should be

included. The program Water Partnership Program (2012) shows that Water demands are

influenced by the following factors: Service levels to be implemented; Size of the

community; Standard of living of the populace; Quantity and quality of water available in

the area; Water tariffs that need to be shouldered by the consumers; Climatological

conditions; Habits and manners of water usage by the people.

Asingwire and Muhangi (2005) opine that one of the key policy requirements in the

provision of safe water and sanitation services is the demand driven approach (DRA).

However adherence to the principles of DRA means that communities that fail to express

effective demand are left un-served. These are usually the low income groups. The

approach requires that communities are mobilized en-masse hence political influence

tends to interfere with the allocation process, some mobilization activities have focused

8
heavily on construction and less on operation and maintenance of water points hence

obscure coverage figures and obscure the actual situation and complicate attempts

ensuring equitable distribution of water supply services, the success of the DRA requires

that communities receive Information and education, DRA is not practical with a private

sector approach which is governed by the contract terms and is also sometimes hampered

by late release of funds and the pressure to spend funds in time.

2. 3 Water source and water service provision.

In the United States, freshwater resources are drawn from surface sources and

groundwater sources. However, surface waters account for about three-quarters of

withdrawals; in the arid West. Groundwater sources supply a larger percentage of

withdrawals than in the East. In Kenya, the main water sources include; rain water,

boreholes, wells, springs, rivers (mostly seasonal) and streams. Water can be abstracted

from these sources after determining the safe yield (Water design Manual, 2005).

In the selection of a source or sources of water supply, adequacy and reliability of the

available supply could be considered the overriding criteria. Without these, the water

supply system cannot be considered viable. Adequacy of supply requires that the source

be large enough to meet the water demand Water Partnership Program, 2012). An

adequate source is one that ensures supply of drinking water in sufficient quantity and

quality, both from the viewpoint of the user community and the responsible water agency

or government department (Lee and Bastemeijer, 1991).

Sphere Project (2000) recommends that the first priority is to provide an adequate

quantity of water, even if its quality is poor, and to protect water sources from

contamination. A minimum of 15 litres per person per day should be provided.

9
Frequently, total dependence on a single source is undesirable, and in some cases,

diversification is essential for reliability (Water Partnership Program, 2012). Many

people use multiple sources of water. Some will prefer certain sources for drinking water

and others for laundry, bathing, watering animals and irrigation. There should be local

contingency plans for rapidly ensuring the safety of such reserve sources of drinking-

water. These will usually involve stockpiling a limited amount of chemicals to disinfect

the source (taking into consideration the shelf-life of these chemicals), plus fencing to

exclude animals. Depending on the economic base of the community or neighbourhood

concerned, the discussion may go on to consider the provision of alternative or reserve

water for livestock, small-scale industry, or irrigation; however, the first priority should

always be water for drinking, cooking and personal hygiene (Meeks, 2012).

KIWASCO (2007) shows that sources, which require little or no treatment of the water,

should be chosen in first instance provided the required quantity of water can be

obtained. Hence springs and ground water resources should always be exploited in the

first hand. For household and small-scale community supplies rainwater harvesting may

serve well in most medium and high potential areas in Kenya. Surface water from river

streams and lakes will almost always require some treatment to render it safe for human

consumption. However, for large supplies surface water will often still be the most

economical alternative. Rivers, which have the bulk of their catchment in forest areas,

should be preferred. Sub-surface water drawn from a riverbed or riverbank can

sometimes be a viable alternative in dry areas with only seasonal flow in the river, or in

rivers with a high silt load.

10
It should be studied whether a combination of sources may give a more economical and

reliable water supply than a system based on only one source. Mixing can also be used to

reduce the content of certain constituents, e.g. Fluoride, to acceptable levels. Sources

from which water can be supplied by a gravitational system are particularly favorable

(KIWASCO, 2007).

Permanent water-supply arrangements will depend on the length of time that the

settlement is to be in use and the size of the population to be served. When existing water

sources have been destroyed, new sources may also need to be selected. In the longer

term, it should be possible to improve and protect existing sources and to develop new

ones, such as springs and borehole (KIWASCO, 2007).

The predominant sources of water in the pastoral livelihood where Garissa town lies,

include boreholes/taps or underground tank, and hand/motor pumped well. In the

Riverine, over half of the households’ primary source of water is river. In Urban for the

overwhelming majority of households is from piped tap water (Garissa Integrated

Nutrition Survey, 2008).

Environmental factors affecting small water sources such as springs and local aquifers

most seriously are pollution by source users, contamination from on-site sanitation,

regular supply-site malfunctioning, competing demand for a limited water supply and the

effects of local land-use changes. Larger water sources such as major rivers or regional

aquifers are mainly affected by discharge of industrial pollutants, growing and

widespread use of pesticides and fertilizers, discharge of sewage waste water, over-

extraction of groundwater and effects of large-scale land-use change (Lee and

Bastemeijer, 1991).

11
2.4 Water management facilities and water service provision

Water supply policies and regulation are usually defined by one or several Ministries, in

consultation with the legislative branch. In the United States the United States

Environmental Protection Agency, whose administrator reports directly to the President,

is responsible for water and sanitation policy and standard setting within the executive

branch. In other countries responsibility for sector policy is entrusted to a Ministry of

Environment (such as in Mexico and Colombia), to a Ministry of Health (such as in

Panama, Honduras and Uruguay), a Ministry of Public Works (such as in Ecuador and

Haiti), a Ministry of Economy (such as in German states) or a Ministry of Energy (such

as in Iran). A few countries, such as Jordan and Bolivia, even have a Ministry of Water.

Often several Ministries share responsibilities for water supply. Policy and regulatory

functions include the setting of tariff rules and the approval of tariff increases; setting,

monitoring and enforcing norms for quality of service and environmental protection;

benchmarking the performance of service providers; and reforms in the structure of

institutions responsible for service provision. The distinction between policy functions

and regulatory functions is not always clear-cut. In some countries they are both entrusted

to Ministries, but in others regulatory functions are entrusted to agencies that are separate

from Ministries.

Water governance in Africa has been identified as the key issue in water resource

management as well as water services delivery, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa

(Krhoda, 2008). In Kenya, Moraa, Atieno and Salim (2012) show that all water resources

in Kenya remain vested in the state. The Ministry of Water and Irrigation is tasked with

the responsibility of creating institutions to manage water resources and provide water

12
services. Water use is subject to approval and a water permit, typically defining water

use, the volumes authorized for abstraction, and the duration of the permit.

In 2002, the water sector reforms in Kenya culminated in the passing of the Water Act,

gazetted in October 2002. The Water Act introduced new water management institutions

to govern water and sanitation. The water reforms saw the introduction of the

commercialization of water resources as part of the decentralization process and the

participation of stakeholders in the management of national water resources. Policy and

regulation responsibilities were separated. The devolution of responsibilities for water

resources management and water services provision to local level functions has been the

principal mechanism for improving accountability and transparency in the water and

sanitation sector,

2.5 Water infrastructure and water service provision.

Water infrastructure is the circulatory system of a country. Too much of the water

infrastructure is outdated, overused and underserviced. Water and wastewater

infrastructure in the U.S. is in crisis. Much of the infrastructure is a relic of post-World

War II investment (Gordon, Hays, Pollack, Sanchez, and Walsh, 2011). Deferred

Maintenance & delayed pipe replacement are having a real impact. The decaying water

infrastructure pollutes waters, sickens the children, and wastes natural resources. The

U.S. Geologic Survey estimates that the U.S. wastes six billion gallons of clean drinking

water each day or 14 percent of total use through leaky pipes in need of repairs. This is

enough water to supply the ten largest cities with drinking water daily (Najjar, 2011).

13
Water is one of our most essential commodities, yet the infrastructure supporting its

delivery is in serious need of repair (White Paper, 2013). In developing countries,

households without water infrastructure spend billions of hours collecting water for

domestic use every year (Meeks, 2012). Lack of water infrastructure can drive up the

time intensity of home production, thereby diverting time from potentially income-

generating activities, such as formal work, agricultural labor, and small businesses

(Blackden and Wodon, 2006). When lacking water at their home, household members

must bring water from other sources, either improved (wells, protected springs, shared

standpipes and taps) or unprotected (streams, rivers, unprotected springs, lakes, irrigation

canals)

The average time required per round-trip to collect drinking water in rural areas is 36

minutes in Sub-Saharan Africa and 23 minutes in Asia (United Nations, 2010). Papers on

the labor impacts of water infrastructure have found that access to water infrastructure

results in less time spent collecting water; however, from there the results diverge. In

urban Morocco, a randomized study found that shifting households from free public taps

to individual household connections did result in time gains, however, such time was re-

allocated towards leisure and social activities (Devoto, Duo, Dupas and Pariente, 2011).

14
The benefits of any water intervention will depend on the location, technology, and

circumstances of implementation (Whittington, Hanemann, Sado and Jeuland (2008).

Meek (2012) indicate that households in a village that is allocated a water supply system

are more likely to use shared piped water and less likely to use unprotected sources for

their main water supply. Importantly, these households are also 12 to 15% more likely to

have their water source less than 200 meters from the household. Results from Meeks

(2012) study indicate that the infrastructure brought water supplies closer to households,

decreasing the time required for water collection, increasing the time spent working on

household small farms, and increasing farm production.

Both gravity flow and pumps are normally used for transmitting and distributing water.

Gravity flow is preferable as it avoids dependence on pumps and power supplies, so

reducing costs, workload, and the risk of supply cuts as a result of breakdowns or fuel

shortage.

If natural slopes are not available, storage tanks can be built on raised mounds of

compacted earth, an adequate margin of earth being provided around the tank to avoid

collapse due to erosion. If pumps are used for distribution, a back-up pump should always

be available together with a fuel reserve in case fuel supply to the settlement is cut off.

Polyethylene pipe and PVC pipe are usually used to distribute mains water. Care should

be taken to protect plastic pipes from being crushed by vehicles before they are buried.

Gullies and areas where the pipe could be washed away or broken by a landslide should

be avoided if possible. If they are unavoidable, these obstacles should be crossed by

sections of steel pipe, suitably supported by cables or structures to protect them (Meeks,

2012).

15
Failures in drinking water infrastructure can result in water disruptions, impediments to

emergency response, and damage to other types of infrastructure (ASCE 2009).

In extreme situations, water shortages, whether caused by failing infrastructure or by

drought, may result in unsanitary conditions, leading to public health concerns. Broken

water mains can damage roadways and structures and hinder fire-control efforts.

Unscheduled repair work to address emergency pipe failures may cause additional

disruptions to transportation and commerce.

16
2. 6 Conceptual framework

Independent variable Dependent variable

Water demand

Quality, quantity,2.2

service level, tariffs

Political,
Water source cultural and
Rivers, boreholes, religious factor
rainwater, wells,
springs and shared
taps Water service provision in

Water management Garissa County

facilities

Power, generators,

experienced staff,

storage tanks,

boozers

Water

infrastructure

Pipes, technology,

pumps, circulation

systems, power,

tanks

Fig 1. Conceptual Framework

17
This diagram shows the relationship between the independent and dependent variable.

Water demand, water source, water management facilities and water infrastructure

influences water service provision positively or negatively. There are intervening factors

that also influence the provision of water, chief among them are the political, cultural as

well as the religious factor.

18
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with the specific methodology of the study. It starts by stating the

design of the data and the target population. The chapter then describes the sampling

procedure and the research instruments that were used in the study, including their validly

and reliability. Finally, the chapter explains how data was analysed and presented.

3.2 Research Design

The study design used is descriptive analysis. Ng’ang’a, Kosgey and Gathuthi (2009)

describe descriptive analysis as a method that involves measuring a variable or a set of

variable as they exist naturally. It is suited for this study because it is not concerned with

the relationship between variables but rather a description of individual variables. The

aim is to describe a single variable or obtain a separate description for each variable when

several are involved. The respondents will be asked questions about a particular issue.

The study will employ descriptive analysis to establish opinions and knowledge about the

factors influencing water service provision in Garissa Municipality.

3.3 Target Population

The target population for this study was the residence of Central Division in Garissa.

Four areas namely; Windsor, Iftin, Township and Waberi were selected to participate. A

total population of 840 households (Kenya Census, 2009) were targeted for this study.

The household heads were the ones who participated in the study.

19
3.4 Sample size

3.4.1 Sampling size

In order to get a proportional representation of the targeted respondents, the study used a

combination of cluster, purposive and random sampling techniques. According to Orodho

(2009) 10 to 20 percent sample of the population was representative enough to be used as

a sample. Mugenda and Mugenda (1999 recommends that 10% of the population as

enough samples. Garissa Central Division was divided into four areas namely, Windsor,

Iftin, Township and Waberi through cluster sampling. A sample of 84 households were

chosen for this study

3.4.2 Sampling procedure

Purposive sampling which allows the researcher to use cases that have the required

information with respect to the objectives of study was applied to choose Central

Division because it is the one provided with water due to urbanization. After, cluster

sampling, random sampling was used to select the 84 (21 households from each of the

four areas) household heads who participated in this study. Proportionate technique could

not be used due to lack of household statistics from each estate.

3.5 Research Instrument

In this study the primary data was collected with the help of a questionnaire, which were

administered to the sampled population of the residence of Garissa Central Division. The

questionnaire was divided into sections, in line with the study objectives, and contained

both open and closed ended question. The questions were both multiple-choice and open

ended. Most questions in the questionnaire employed a Likert type -points scale. The

20
questionnaire contained four main sections. The first section dealt with the general

information. Section two consisted of questions on demand for water supplied. The third

section consisted of questions on the source of water supplied. The fourth section was

about the water management facilities in Garissa, while the last was questions on the

water infrastructure in the Municipality. In the development of the questionnaire two

techniques were used; closed ended and open ended technique

 Closed ended items were developed for they allow easier and accurate analysis of the

data. They also make numerical comparison relatively easy while allowing a high

degree of respondents’ objectivity. They also reduce the problem of falsification.

 Open ended questions were considered feasible in order to give the respondents a

chance to deliver rich information and not to feel the constraints imposed by a fixed

choice question

3.5.1 Pilot testing

Piloting was conducted to assist in determining accuracy, clarity and suitability of the

research instrument. According to Borg and Gall (1989), one can carry pilot study on two

or three cases. The purpose of the piloting was to assist the researcher to identity the

items which may be inappropriate so as to make necessary corrections, examine

responses to determine the level of ambiguity of the questions and determine the

percentage of responses.

3.5.2 Validity of instruments

The questionnaires were given to three lectures from the department of Extra Murals for

validation. The responses were also checked to verify whether the questions answered
21
what they were intended to answer in order to ensure instruments validity. Based on the

analysis of the lecturers, the researcher was able to make corrections, adjustments and

additions to the research instruments.

3.5. 3 Reliability of instrument

In the study, reliability was assessed through the results of piloting, which was done

using test-retest technique. The research instrument was administered to the same group

of subjects twice in the pilot study. A two week lapse between the first and the second

test was allowed.

The scores from both tests were correlated to get the coefficient of reliability using

Pearson’s product moment formulae as follows: Pearson’s coefficient of correlation

Nxy - X Y 

rrxy = N  X 2  X N Y
2 2   Y 
2

Where

N number of respondents

Xscores from the first test

Yscores from the second test

The value of r lies between + 1, the closer the value will be to +1 the stronger the

congruence.

3.6 Data collection procedures

After approval of the research by the University supervisor, a research permit which

authorized the researcher to carry out the study was obtained from the National Council

22
of Science and Research at Utalii House, Nairobi. The questionnaires were drop and pick

type, so the respondents were given one week to fill them. After one week the

questionnaires’ were collected. Due to the vastness of the study area sampled the

researcher was assisted by research assistants whose duty was mainly to follow up the

questionnaires.

3.7 Methods of data analysis.

The data collected from questionnaires was analyzed by the use of descriptive statistics

(frequencies and percentages). The descriptive analysis was appropriate for this study

because it involved the description, analysis and interpretation of circumstances

prevailing at the time of study. Descriptive statistical techniques were used to analyze

various items of the questionnaire. These included averages, percentages, frequencies and

totals. This study used frequencies and percentages because they easily communicate the

research findings to majority of readers (Gay, 1992). Frequencies easily show the number

of subjects in a given category.

A number of Tables were used to present data findings. Coding was done where the

response were transferred into summary sheets by tabulating. They were tallied to

establish frequencies. The frequencies were determined by converting similar responses

into percentages to illustrate related levels of opinion. The questionnaires were analysed

separately in four categories; from household heads, government officers and from the

NGO representatives.

3.8 Ethical consideration

Consent of the participants was sought whereby they agreed to participate in the study

through voluntary informed consent without threat or undue inducement. In addition the

23
respondents were assured that the information they gave was to be kept confidential and

used only for the purpose of research. For anonymity the respondents were requested not

to write their identities in the questionnaire section while the appropriate chain of

command was followed before the commencement of the data collection process.

3.9 Operational definition of variables

Table 1: Operationalization table

Objective Variable Indicators Measureme Types of
nt scale analysis
To establish how Demand % of people Nominal Descriptive
demand for water with water
influenced water
service provision Litres of
in Garissa. water used Ordinal
To determine Sources of Rivers, Nominal Descriptive
whether water water
source influence Boreholes.
water service
provision in Taps,
Garissa central Ordinal
Division. Springs

To explore how Equipment Backup Nominal Descriptive

GAWASCO’s Generators
water
management
facilities for Ordinal
water related Water
emergencies Bowsers
influences water
service provision
in Garissa central
Division.
To investigate Infrastructu Storage Nominal
how water re tanks Descriptive
infrastructure
influences water Pipes
service provision Ordinal
in Garissa. Billing
systems

24
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter provides the findings of the study, analyses the results and presents the

results of the analysis. The findings are presented according to the specific objectives of

the study. The analysis is done by considering each of the objective, analysing each of the

questionnaire and interview schedule item relating to that objective and giving the

findings on that particular objective and then discusses the results. A thematic analysis of

the data is also performed i.e. the main themes found in the study objectives and

questions are discussed, then the contents within the themes analyzed and presented.

Finally, the various responses given by the various respondents on identical research

objectives are compared to find if the respondents concur on various issues or not. The

common responses are then considered to be representing the actual situation. An attempt

is made to find possible reasons for the difference in the response from various

respondents as they arise. Where possible, the results are presented in the form of Tables.

4.2 Questionnaire Return Rate

One questionnaire was used as an instrument for collection of data from household heads

and it was administered to 84 household heads.

25
Table 4.1: Questionnaire return-rate

Area Total Returned (f) %

Windsor 21 21 25.00

Iftin 21 18 21.42

Township 21 20 23.80

Waberi 21 16 19.04

Total 84 75 89.26

Out of the 84 questionnaires for the household 9 (11.91%) were not returned. Windsor

Estate’s 21 questionnaires were all returned forming 25% of the total number collected,

followed by Garissa Township whose 20 questionnaire were returned forming 23.8%. In

Iftin estate 18 questionnaires were collected (21.42%) and Waberi produced the least

respondents 16, with a 19.04%. So the household heads who participated in the study

were 75 (89.26 %).

4.3 The demographic characteristics of the respondents

The demographic information in this sub-section was obtained by use of 4 multiple

choice questions for household heads in order to establish the respondents gender, age,

academic qualifications and the their area of residence. The results are shown on Table

4.2

26
Table 4.2: Distribution of response by gender

Gender of household heads f %

Male 60 80.0

Female 15 20.0

Total 75 100.0

From Table 4.2 majority of the household heads who responded to this study were men

80.0%. Garissa being an urban centre in an arid area does not attract women. The Al

Shaabab threat which was rife at the time of the study was another threat that made the

men to be more than women. Women feared to live and work in Garissa for fear of being

attacked.

Table 4.3: Distribution of household response by age

Age of respondents (yrs) f %

21- 30 5 6.66
31– 40 9 12.0
41–50 45 60.0
51– 60 16 21.33
Total 75 100

According to Table 4.3 most of the respondent 60% who participated in this study were

in the age bracket of 41-50. This is the prime age whereby majority of the respondents

have families. Age 21-30 recorded 6.66 % and this is because at that age majority of

27
people are still in colleges and very few have families of their own for them to be referred

to as house hold heads. Those above 51 years of age were a mere 21.33%.

Table 4.4: Distribution of response as per education level

Level of education f %

Never went to school 4 5.3

Primary 9 12.0

Secondary 33 44.0

Diploma 18 24.0

Degree 11 14.67

TOTAL 75 100

From Table 4.4 shows that many of the household head respondent’s educational level

was secondary education 44.0%. Followed by those who had attained diploma 24% and

degree level 14.7% and there are those who have never been to school at all 5.33%. This

means that majority of the respondents can understand the national as well as the official

languages of the nation hence easy to understand and answer questions related to factors

influencing water service provision in Garissa.

4.4 Analysis on item on water demand and its influence on water service provision

The first question of this study sought to determine whether water demands influenced

water service provision. This subsection was measured by use of 4 questions, 3 multiple

choice and 1 open ended.

28
The first question sought to elicit answers on whether water demand affected its

provision and the findings were presented in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5. Responses as to where demand affected water service provision

Responses f %

Yes 59 78.67

No 9 12.0

I don’t know 7 9.33

Total 75 100.0

Table 4.5 shows that 78.67% of the respondents agreed that demand affected water

service provision in Garissa Central division. 12% did not agree and there was 9.33%

who did not know whether demand influences water service provision. That percentage

could be attributed to be from the respondents who had no formal education who may be

did not understand the question.

Table 4.6 Responses as to whether water supplied was sufficient to cover the existing

consumers

Responses f %

Yes 4 5.33
No 71 94.67

Total 75 100.0

29
Almost all the respondents agreed that the water supplied was not sufficient to covers the

existing consumers with 94.67% response. Only a mere 5.33% of the respondents agreed

that the water supplied was sufficient. This means that Garissa town water demand was

not met. This was attributed to the ever growing population in Garisssa. The unmet

demand influenced provision of the water because though the source of water was

available (Tana River), the existing water infrastructure was stressed beyond its capacity.

As such some of the estates were not connected to tap water system.

As concerns reasons as to why the demand was not met the respondents were given some

statement to respond to and the results were presented on Table 4.7.

Table 4.7 Reasons as to why the demand for water is not met.

Responses SA A NO D SD Total

% % % % %

Service levels of water is low 9.0 13.0 13.6 28.3 36.0 100

Quantity of water available 0 0 0 0 100 100

Quality of water available 40 33.3 13.3 9.4 4.0 100

Climatic conditions 100 0 0 0 0 100

Habits and manners of water usage. 81.3 13.3 5.34 0 0 100

Size of the community 4.0 12 21.33 28.0 34.67 100

Water tariffs are high 53.34 33.3 9.33 4.0 0 100

Political influence 12.0 32.0 25.3 10.6 8.0 100

Lack of education among the people 81.3 2.67 5.33 10.6 0 100

30
It is clear from Table 4.7 that respondents in Garissa Central Division 100% strongly

disagreed that quantity of water available caused water demand not to be met. This means

that the quantity available is enough to supply water to the town. This could be attributed

to the fact that Tana river, the largest river in Kenya, passes through the town and has big

volumes of water. However another 100% of the respondent strongly agree that climatic

conditions could be a reason for the unmet demand. Coupled with that is 81.3% who also

strongly agree that habits and manners of water usage by the people and lack of education

among the people also form part of the reasons for the unmet demands. As concerns

quality of the water, many of the respondents (40%) strongly agreed and (33.3%) agreed

that the quality was wanting and as such leads to the unmet demands for water. Other

reasons given include the water tariffs being high 53.3% (strongly agreed) and size of

community 34.67% (strongly disagreeing). This means that the tariffs are high hence

residents can not afford but to the resident the community was not so large to be a reason

for their water demands not to be met. Political interference was also found to be a reason

for water demands not to be met.

4.5 Analysis on items on sources of water and its influence on water service

provision

The researcher sought to determine the water sources and whether the identified water

sources were sufficient and reliable for the populace of the Town.

31
Table 4.8. Responses as to the sources of water

Responses f %

Rain water 75 100

Boreholes 21 28

Wells 11 14.7

Indoor tap water 54 72.0

Shared tap 60 80

Springs 0 0

It should be noted that Table 4.8 indicates that the respondents had multiple source of

their water. All of them (100%) had access to water from rivers and this as said earlier

could be attributed to the proximity of Tana River to the town.80% indicated that they

used shared taps meaning that even though there was 72% who indicated that they had

indoor tapped a water, at times they were forced to use the shared taps. Boreholes were

another source of water in the town with 28% of the respondents indicating that. Wells

formed a mere 14.7% of all the respondents. None of the respondents indicated that

springs were a source of water in the regions.

32
Table 4.9 Sufficiency and reliability of water in Garissa Town

Responses f %

Sufficient 36 48%

Not reliable 28 37.3

No response 11 14.6

Total 75 100.0

From Table 4.9 48% of the responded said that the available water sources were

sufficient, but not reliable, 37.3% said that the water sources were neither sufficient nor

reliable. 14.7% did not respond to the question. It can be inferred therefore that one of the

major factor influencing water service provision is the unreliable water sources though

available.

Table 4.10 Responses as to whether the water was treated

Response f %

Yes 63 84

No 4 5.33

I don’t know 8 10.67

Total 75 100

35
Majority 84% of the respondents are aware that the water was treated a factor that

contributes much to water service provision. This means that that the residents trust the

water they are provided with.

Table 4.11 Responses as to whether the source of water was protected from

contamination

Response f %

Yes 0 0

No 75 100

Total 75 100

In Table 4.11 all the respondents 100% showed that the sources of their water were not

protected from contamination. This may be the reason why in Table 4.10 majority of

them indicated that the water is treated before it is used by households.

The researcher wanted to establish the water pollutants at the source and the results are

presented in Table 4.12.

33
Table 4.12: Water pollutants at the source

Response f %

Industrial pollutant 23 30.67

Use of pesticides and fertilizers 7 9.33

Discharge of sewage waste water 68 90.67

Land use changes 13 16.0

Majority 90.67% of the respondent indicated that discharge of sewage waste water was

the main pollutant of water in Garissa Town. It was followed by industrial pollutant with

30.67%. Use of pesticides and fertilizers scored 9.33% may be because, though livestock

was a mojar livelihood of the people, agricultural activities were minimal.

4.6 Analysis on items on water management facilities and water service provision

The respondents were asked to indicate whether GAWASCO had the necessary water

management facilities to manage and handle water related emergencies and the

respondent were presented in Table 4.13

Table 4.13: Respondents’ opinion on whether GAWASCO have the necessary water

management facilities to manage and handle water related emergencies

Response f %

Yes 48 64

No 27 36

Total 75 100

34
From Table 4.13 it is clear that 64% of the respondents agreed while 36% disagreed to

GAWASCO having the necessary water management facilities to manage and handle

water related emergencies. Among the explanations given by those who agreed were that

GAWASCO has back up power generators in case normal power went off, GAWASCO

has adequate experienced staff who offer 24 hour response to leakages and burst pipes,

GAWASCO has big storage tanks and water boozer from the NWSB used to supply

water in the town in case of emergency shortage, motorbikes for rapid response and

improved technical department which handles emergencies adequately. Those who

disagreed cited the many instances where there are pipe bursts which take more than 24

hrs to be repaired.

4.7 Analysis on items on water infrastructure and its influence on water service

provision.

The fourth research question for this study was to establish whether water infrastructure

had influence on water service provision and the findings are shown in Table 4.14.

Table 4.14: Responses as to whether infrastructure development influences water

service provision

Response f %

Very highly 75 100

Highly 0 0

Averagely 0 0

Very little 0 0

Total 75 100

35
All the respondent 100% were in agreement that infrastructure development influenced

water service provision. Among the reasons given for this are that this would translate to

more consumers hence increased revenue leading to better services, planning will be

enhanced, few customer complaints hence enhanced service delivery, reduced cost of

operations, provision of reliable supply and services to customers, it would translate to

reduction in costs through leakages and pipe bursts and improved infrastructure brings

forth effectiveness among company employees to the public.

The researcher sought to find out which aspects of water supply needed improvement in

the future and the results are indicated on Table 4.15.

Table 4.15 Aspects of water supply that needs improvement in the future

Response f %

Quality 75 100

Pressure 61 81.3

Rate Reliability 75 100

Billing system 57 76

Maintenance 43 57.3

This Table communicates the fact that all the above given areas needed to be improved

especially the quality 100% and the water reliability with also 100% response. The

pressure of the water needed to be improved also as shown by the 81.3% response,

followed by billing systems with 76%.

36
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF THE FINDING, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter provides the summary of the research findings. The study was an analysis

into the factors influencing water service provision in Garissa Central Division. This

chapter aims at analyzing, presenting and discussing the results.

5.2 Summary of the findings

The questionnaire return rate was 89.26 % of all the household heads who participated in

the study. This means that only 10.74 of the questionnaires were not returned. Windsor

Estate had all its 25 distributed questionnaires returned. Majority of the household heads

who responded to this study were men forming 80.0%. This could be attributed to Garissa

being in the ASAL area a climatic condition that does not favour women coupled with

the Al Shaabab terror group which has affected the security situation in the region. Most

of the respondents (60%) were in the age bracket of 41-50. This is the middle class age

where majority of people have families. Many of the household heads educational level

was secondary with 44.0% score, followed by those who had attained diploma with a

24% score. However, a few of them had no formal education (5.33%).

As to whether demand has any influence on water service provision, 78.67% of the

respondents agreed that demand affected water service provision in Garissa Central

division. 12% did not agree and there was 9.33% who did not know whether demand

37
influences water service provision. That percentage could be attributed to be from the

respondents who had no formal education who may be did not understand the question.

The water supplied IN Garissa was not sufficient to covers the existing consumers with

94.67% response. Only a mere 5.33% of the respondents agreed that the water supplied

was sufficient. The study established that 100% of the respondents strongly disagreed

that quantity of water available caused water demand not to be met. This means that the

quantity available is enough to supply water to the town. This could be attributed to the

fact that Tana river, the largest river in Kenya, passes through the town and has big

volumes of water. However another 100% of the respondent strongly agree that climatic

conditions could be a reason for the unmet demand. Coupled with that is 81.3% who also

strongly agree that habits and manners of water usage by the people and lack of education

among the people also form part of the reasons for the unmet demands. As concerns

quality of the water, many of the respondents (40%) strongly agreed and (33.3%) agreed

that the quality was wanting and as such leads to the unmet demands for water. Other

reasons given include the water tariffs being high 53.3% (strongly agreed) and size of

community 34.67% (strongly disagreeing). This means that the tariffs are high hence

residents can not afford but to the resident the community was not so large to be a reason

for their water demands not to be met. Political interference was given as another reason

as to why water demands was met.

The study established that the respondents had multiple source of their water. All of them

(100%) had access to water from rivers and this as said earlier could be attributed to the

proximity of Tana River to the town. 80% indicated that they used shared taps meaning

that even though there was 72% who indicated that they had indoor tapped water, at times

38
they were forced to use the shared taps. Boreholes were another source of water in the

town with 28% of the respondents indicating that. Wells formed a mere 14.7% of all the

respondents. None of the respondents indicated that springs were a source of water in the

regions. This influenced water service provision in that the residents could get water from

alternative source some of which were private like the boreholes.

48% of the respondents said that the available water sources were sufficient, but not

reliable, 37.3% were of contrary opinion that the water sources were neither sufficient

nor reliable. 14.7% did not respond to the question. It can be inferred therefore that one

of the major factor influencing water service provision is the unreliable water sources

though available. The unreliability of the water could be attributed to the fact that 100%

showed that the sources of their water were not protected from contamination

Majority 84% of the respondents are aware that the water was treated a factor that

contributes much to water service provision. This means that that the residents trust the

water they were provided with translating to more people using the water. It can also be

translated to mean that the water service provider spent more on water treatment, money

which would have otherwise been used to expand the infrastructure for provision of more

water to the growing demand as seen earlier.

Majority 90.67% of the respondent indicated that discharge of sewage waste was the

main pollutant of water in Garissa Town. It was followed by industrial pollutant with

30.67%. Use of pesticides and fertilizers scored 9.33% may be because, though livestock

was a major livelihood of the people, agricultural activities were minimal.

39
As for the water policies 64% of the respondents agreed that GAWASCO had the

necessary water management facilities to manage and handle water related emergencies

only while 36% disagreed to that. Among the explanations given by those who agreed

were that GAWASCO has back up power generators in case normal power went off,

GAWASCO has adequate experienced staff who offer 24 hour response to leakages and

burst pipes, GAWASCO has big storage tanks and water boozer from the NWSB used to

supply water in the town in case of emergency shortage, motorbikes for rapid response

and improved technical department which handles emergencies adequately. Those who

disagreed cited the many instances where there are pipe bursts which take more than 24

hrs to be repaired.

All the respondent 100% were in agreement that infrastructure development influenced

water service provision. Among the reasons given for this are that this would translate to

more consumers hence increased revenue leading to better services, planning will be

enhanced, few customer complaints hence enhanced service delivery, reduced cost of

operations, provision of reliable supply and services to customers, it would translate to

reduction in costs through leakages and pipe bursts and improved infrastructure brings

forth effectiveness among company employees to the public.

Lastly the study inquired on the areas which needed to be improved .The major areas

were the quality 100% and the water reliability with also 100% response. The pressure of

the water needed to be improved also as shown by the 81.3% response, followed by

billing systems with 76%.

40
5.3 Discussions of the study

This subsection discusses the findings of the study in comparison to the literature

reviewed. It is arranged as per the objectives of the study

Demand for water was found to have influence on water service provision. The water

supplied in Garissa was not sufficient to cover the existing consumers. Though the study

found that the water was insufficient, respondents strongly disagreed that quantity of

water available caused water demand not to be met. This means that the quantity

available is enough to supply water to the town. This could be attributed to the fact that

Tana river, the largest river in Kenya, passes through the town and has big volumes of

water. Climatic conditions of Garissa area was also given as another reason for the unmet

demand. Coupled with that are the habits and manners of water usage by the people and

lack of education among the people which formed part of the reasons for the unmet water

demands. This agrees, though not fully with Water Partnership Program (2012) which

gave some of the reasons as to why water provided may not meet the demands to include;

service levels to be implemented; size of the community; standard of living of the

populace; quantity and quality of water available in the area; water tariffs that need to be

shouldered by the consumers; climatical conditions and habits and manners of water

usage by the people.

The study established that the respondents in Garissa had multiple source of their water.

All of them had access to water from rivers and this as said earlier could be attributed to

the proximity of Tana River to the town. Majority indicated that they used shared taps

meaning that even though there was many who indicated that they had indoor tapped

water, at times they were forced to use the shared taps. Boreholes and wells were other

41
source of water in the town, though only few respondents were using them. None of the

respondents indicated that springs were a source of water in the regions. This influenced

water service provision in that the residents could get water from alternative source some

of which were owned privately like the boreholes. In terms of water service provision

having multiple sources is seen to be positive as Water Partnership Program (2012)

indicates that total dependence on a single source is undesirable, and in some cases,

diversification is essential for reliability.

This study also established that though water sources were sufficient, they were not

reliable, while others were of contrary opinion that the water sources were neither

sufficient nor reliable. It can be inferred therefore that one of the major factor influencing

water service provision in Garissa is the availability of the water though considered by

many to be unreliable because the sources were not protected from contamination. This

influenced water service provision in that the water service provider spent more on water

treatment, money which would have otherwise been used to expand the infrastructure for

provision of more water to the growing demand as seen earlier. KIWASCO (2007) which

supplies Garissa town with water shows that sources, which require little or no treatment

of the water, should be chosen in first instance provided the required quantity of water

can be obtained hence it needs to prevent it source of water from contamination.

According to the respondents GAWASCO which provides water in Garissa had the

necessary water management facilities to manage and handle water related emergencies

only. Among the explanations given by those who agreed were that GAWASCO has back

up power generators in case normal power went off, it has adequate experienced staff

who offer 24 hour response to leakages and burst pipes, it has big storage tanks and water

42
boozer from the NWSB used to supply water in the town in case of emergency shortage,

motorbikes for rapid response and improved technical department which handles

emergencies adequately. There were however a few who disagreed and cited the many

instances where there are pipe bursts which take more than 24 hrs to be repaired.

Respondent were in agreement that infrastructure development influenced water service

provision because it would translate to more consumers hence increased revenue leading

to better services, enhanced planning, few customer complaints hence enhanced service

delivery, reduced cost of operations, provision of reliable supply and services to

customers, it would translate to reduction in costs through leakages and pipe bursts and

improved infrastructure brings forth effectiveness among company employees to the

public.

Devoto, Duo, Dupas and Pariente, (2011) Papers on the labor impacts of water

infrastructure have found that access to water infrastructure results in less time spent

collecting water an aspect that was not noted by the respondents to this study. In urban

Morocco, a randomized study found that shifting households from free public taps to

individual household connections did result in time gains. Such time was re-allocated

towards leisure and social activities.

Lastly the study inquired on the areas which needed to be improved .The major areas

were the quality 100% and the water reliability with also 100% response. The pressure of

the water needed to be improved also as shown by the 81.3% response, followed by

billing systems with 76%.

43
5.4 Conclusion

From the finding discussed in the previous sub section of this study, it is clear that the

water provided to the residents of Garissa was not sufficient for use by all the residents.

The sources of water were found to be available especially Tana River but as a result of

undeveloped water infrastructure, coupled with the high demand due to the expanding

population it was hard for the water to be sufficient. The water source was also not

protected from contamination hence the water service providers were forced to treat the

water before supplying it to the residents. This was considered to be inefficient due to the

large amount of finances involved. However the water service providers were appraised

by the respondent as being able to provide water in the town. It was therefore important

for the water service providers to look into the water service provision and come up with

solutions that can assist the local people demand for water to be met.

5.4 Recommendations

Private companies should be encouraged to start providing water in the Garissa Town so

that the demands of the resident could be met. The government needs to look into the

water infrastructure in the town with an aim of improving it. There is also need for the

government through the water service providers to look into ways in which water

contamination can be prevented. The household waste as well as industrial ones need to

be managed in such a way that it will not drain into Tana River. Where possible, fencing

should done on the banks of the river.

44
5.6 Recommendations for further study

The study covered only the Central Division area in Garissa town. A study needs to be

done in the outskirt of Garissa town to establish whether the same factors affecting water

service provision in the Central Division applied to the outskirts.

A study also needs to be done to establish the effects of the water to human healthy

bearing in mind that this study has found out that the source is contaminated.

45
 REFERENCES

ADF. (African Development Fund). (2005).Rural Water Supply and Sanitation.

American Society of Civil Engineers. (ASCE). (2009). Infrastructure fact sheet, water

and environment, facts about wastewater. Accessed on 22 Oct

at http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/fact sheet/wastewater

Asingwire, N. and Muhangi, D. (2005).Study of factors influencing equitable distribution

of water supply and sanitation services in Uganda 31st WEDC International

Conference, Kampala, Uganda.

Devoto, F. E. Du o P. Dupas, W. Pariente, V. P. (2011). Happiness on Tap: Piped Water

Adoption in Urban Morocco." Working Paper.

Eberts, S. M., Thomas, M. A. and Jagucki, M. L. (2013). Factors Affecting Public-

Supply-Well Vulnerability to Contamination: Understanding Observed Water

Quality and Anticipating Future Water Quality. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston,

Virginia.

EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) (2009). 2009. Drinking water

infrastructure needs survey and assessment: Fourth report to Congress (2007).

Office of Water. EPA-816-R-09-001.

GOK. (2007).Arid Lands Resource Management Project II: Annual Progress Report

2007-2008 Garissa. Office of the President (available at:

http://www.aridland.go.ke/arid_annual_reports/arid_annual_07-08/garissa_07-

08.pdf)

Gordon, E.; Hays, J.; Pollack, E.; Sanchez, D. and Walsh, J. (2011).Water Works.

Rebuilding Infrastructure, Creating Jobs and Greening the Environment. The

49
 Rockfeller Foundation. Accessed on 22 Oct 2013 at http://www.pacinst.org/wp-

content/uploads/2013/02/water_works3.

th
Kenya Law review. (2002).Water Act. Chapter 372. Accessed on 13 Oct. 2013 at

http://www.kenyalaw.org

KIWASCO (2008), Kisumu Water and Sewerage Company Limited Strategic Plan 2007-

2012 Kisumu: KIWASCO.

Lee, M. D. and Bastemeijer, T. F. (1991).Drinking Water Source Protection. Occasional

Paper 15.

Meeks, R. (2012). Water Works: The Economic Impact of Water Infrastructure. Harvard

Environmental Economics Program Discussion Paper 12-35. Accessed on 22 Oct

2013 at www.hks.harvard.edu/m-rcbg/.

Moraa, H.,Atieno, J. and Salim. A. (2012). Water governance in Kenya: Ensuring

th
Accessibility, Service delivery and Citizen Participation.Accessed on 12 Oct

2013 at http://research.ihub.co.ke/

Mugenda & Mugenda (2003), Research Methods, Quantitative and Qualitative

approaches,African for technology studies (ACTS),Nairobi, Kenya

Mumma, A. (2005), Kenya’s new water law: An analysis of the implications for the rural

poor. Paper presented at the international workshop on “African water laws:

Plural legislative frameworks for rural water management in Africa”,

Johannesburg, January 26-28, 2005.

50
 APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: LETTER TO RESPONDENTS

Dear Respondent,

I am a Post-graduate student of Garissa University. I am conducting a study the factors

that influence provision of water in Garissa Municipality. This is in fulfilment of the

diploma in Public Administration. You have been selected to participate in this study. I

would very much appreciate if you would kindly assist me by responding to all the items

attached in the questionnaire. Your name and that of your organization need not to appear

anywhere in the questionnaire unless you wish. The information you provide is

anonymous and will be used for academic research purposes only.

Your cooperation will be greatly appreciated.

The completed questionnaire will be picked from you two weeks after delivery.

Thank you in advance.

Yours faithfully,

FILSON MOHAMED SALAD.

POST GRADUATE STUDENT

51
Appendix B: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HOUSEHOLD HEADS

Section A: Demographics

1. Indicate your Gender.

Male () Female ()

2. Age ------------------------ (years)

3. Indicate your age (in years) in the appropriately box

(a) 21- 30 () (b) 31 – 40 ( )

(c) 41 –50 ( ) (d) 51 – 60 ( )

4. What is your highest Academic qualification?

(a) Primary () (b) Diploma ( )

(c) Degree ( )

(d) Others (specify)----------------------

5. Respondents area of residence

Section B: Items on water demand

6. Does demand for water influence water service provision in your area?

Yes () No ( )

7. If Yes in question 6 please explain --------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------

52
8. Is the water supplied sufficient to covers the existing consumers

Yes () No ()

9. Below are reasons as to why the demand for water is not met. Please tick to show the
most common factor in Garissa town.
Using the scale in given:
Strongly Agree (SA)
Disagree (A)
No Response (NO)
Disagree (D)
Strongly Disagree (SD)
Please indicate by ticking the statements that you agree or disagree are applicable in your

area

Reasons as to why demand for water is not met

Service levels is low

Quantity of water available

Quality of water available

Climatic conditions

Habits and manners of water usage by the people

Size of the community

Water tariffs are high

Political influence

Lack of education among the people

53
 Section C: Items on water sources

10. Please tick all relevant.

a).Rain water ( ) b) Boreholes ( ) c) Wells

()

d) Indoor tap water ( ) e) Shared tap ( ) f) Springs

()

g) Rivers and streams. ( )

11. Is the source you have mentioned in question (7) sufficient and reliability?

No () Y es ()

12. Is the water you use treated?

a) Yes () b) No ()

13. How severe are problems with water service in your community?

a) low ( ) b) fair ( ) c) strong ( ) d) very strong ( ) e) No problem ( )

14. Is the source of your water protected from contamination?

Yes () Now ()

15. Which of the following pollutes the water sources in Garissa?

a. Industrial pollutant ()

b. Use of pesticides and fertilizers ( )

54
c. Discharge of sewage waste water ( )

d. Land use changes ()

Section D: Water management facilities

16. Does GAWASCO have the necessary water management facilities to manage and

handle water related emergencies?

17. Please explain your answer----------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------

Section E: Items on infrastructure

18. Does water infrastructure development influence water service provision?

Very highly ( ) highly ( ) averagely () Very little ( )

19. The water distribution network for water in your area is mainly operated as;

Continuous (24hrs) () Intermittent ()

20. How would you rate the existing water supply infrastructure in Garissa?

a) Excellent () b) Very good ( ) c) Good ( ) d) Bad ( )

21. Below are obstacles to fighting water losses. Which one applies in your area? Please

tick

a) Political situation ()

55
b) Lack of financial means ( )

c) Lack of appropriate technologies ( )

d) Maintenance system ( )

e) Personnel capacities ( )

f) Personnel awareness ()

g) Public acceptance / awareness ( )

22. What do you consider to be the best solution to improve your water infrastructure

supply situation?

a) Development & exploitation of new resources ()

b) Water loss reduction ()

c) Rehabilitation ()

d) Reducing wastage of water ( customer awareness) ()

23. Which of the following aspects of your water supply needs improvement in the

future?

Quality ( ) Pressure () Rate Reliability ()

Billing system Service quality ( ) Maintenance Others ()

56