EXTENDED PROJECT

QUALIFICATION

EPQ 2024

What are the current opportunities, challenges,

and ethical implications of deep space
exploration for humanity?

Candidate Name: Mehul Bhirud

Centre Number: 51427
Candidate Number: 8181

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................. 3

LITERATURE REVIEW...........................................................................................4

INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................... 8

UNDERSTANDING THE UNIVERSE....................................................................10

OPPORTUNITIES................................................................................................ 12

Medical Innovations................................................................................................. 14
Asteroid Mining........................................................................................................ 16

CHALLENGES...................................................................................................... 18

Radiation & Microgravity.........................................................................................18

Communication and Data Transmission...................................................................20

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS....................................................................................23

Contamination Concerns..........................................................................................23
Environmental Impact.............................................................................................. 25

INTEGRATION OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI).........................................28

CONCLUSION...................................................................................................... 30

GLOSSARY........................................................................................................... 32

BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................. 34

APPENDICES....................................................................................................... 44
Abstract
Deep space exploration is the study of space beyond Earth's near vicinity, that is, beyond
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and Moon's Orbit. The opportunities of studying the universe are
numerous and diverse, including the possibility of discovering extraterrestrial life and
technological advancements that will have an impact on everyday life. Simultaneously, we
face great obstacles that necessitate research in both science and ethics, since our missions
into the unknown environment are raising issues concerning the environment, human
physiology, and communication.
This dissertation discusses about the diverse world of deep space exploration, looking at the
current presentation of opportunities, challenges, and ethical concerns that come with
humanity's ambitious journey into deep space. As space agencies and private companies
increase their attempts to investigate distant celestial bodies, this study examines the
scientific, technological, and economic prospects for deep space exploration. It investigates
the potential opportunities, such as scientific discoveries, resource utilization, medical
innovations, and advancements in technology, while also confronting the significant
challenges offered by vast distances, harsh environments, and the limitations of existing
technologies. Furthermore, this dissertation also investigates the ethical implications of
contamination and the environmental impact of deep space exploration.
The current level of deep space travel holds immense potential with opportunities for
scientific discovery, technological advancement, and economic growth. On the other hand,
overcoming the challenges posed by the vastness of space, extreme circumstances, and
financial and logistical difficulties require a concerted and collaborative effort. Furthermore,
addressing the ethical implications of our space trips is vital to ensure that our exploration is
done responsibly.
Literature Review
Source Value Limitations
University I attended a range of university Some of the lectures I attended
Events lectures and courses, which discussed ideas other than the
(Primary Source) helped me get ideas for certain focus of my project, therefore I
topics to explore. For example, a didn't obtain much material to write
meeting at Imperial College about. Furthermore, several of the
London addressed various lectures focused on contemporary
ethical problems of deep space UK conditions rather than
travel and contamination. The worldwide conditions for deep
information was quite informative, space exploration.
and I was able to ask questions Some parts of the lecture were
about portions that I didn't extremely complicated and
understand or wanted exceeded the scope of this effort.
clarification on. This was the case for a portion of
the presentation; but the
Furthermore, I attended Dr. remainder offered me with great
Jackie Bell's live lecture at insight into emerging technology,
Imperial College London. It contamination problems, and
examined the current obstacles proposals for planetary protection.
that humanity face, as well as the
future of deep-space exploration.
Furthermore, I was able to ask
questions at the end of the
lecture and watch the lecture
again on YouTube to catch up on
any content I missed. I found the
University events to be incredibly
interactive, as well as informative
about certain aspects of my
project.
PubMed: PubMed offers current citations Even though the authors are
National Centre on the effects of radiation and required to provide an unbiased
for microgravity, as well as discussion of the study’s
information on contamination limitations, they may not mention
Biotechnology problems and planetary all of the restrictions when
Information protection. It receives all of its explaining the difficulties of their
(Secondary information from Medline, which research in order to avoid having
Source) is a credible source to gather their work rejected for publication.
information from because it is Moreover, it is also aimed at
developed and maintained by the medical students; thus, the
National Centre for information is of a high scientific
Biotechnology Information (NCBI) grade, with many technical terms
and peer-reviewed. It is that I had never heard before.
extremely user-friendly, making it Furthermore, I had to conduct
simple to search through additional study into issues that I
information. The advanced needed to grasp in greater detail.
search feature makes it easier to
find exactly what you are looking
 for. This tool was really valuable,
since it allowed me to explicitly
search for results relating to the
ethics of deep space exploration,
as well as search for papers
released recently rather than
older ones, which provided me
with accurate and dependable
information.
NASA: National NASA is a respectable and However, some of NASA’s studies
Aeronautics and trustworthy source of information and publications used very
Space about space exploration, technical and specialised
astronomy, and related sciences vocabulary and data. This made
Administration making an excellent source for me conduct further research in
(Secondary my EPQ as it is based on deep order to understand them.
Source) space exploration. Furthermore, some of the complex
information presented was
Furthermore, information from unnecessary for my project as they
NASA is frequently being peer- went in deep analysis of the topic.
reviewed, and it is also reputable.
Additionally, NASA is at the
cutting edge of space research
and technology making the
information, articles, studies and
research findings up-to-date and
most recent on deep space
exploration. This helped me to
get to know more about James
Webb Telescope. Moreover, the
NASA’s Spinoff program helped
to discover the current use of
space technologies in daily use
and the innovations that came
from it. NASA’s website also
helped me discover more about
the effects of microgravity and
radiation on space missions.
Furthermore, NASA’s mission is
“For the Benefit of All” and
operates on a global basis. This
global context helped me gain a
better understanding regarding
deep space exploration and the
current situation in the whole
world.
ScienceDirect ScienceDirect is a renowned full- However, not all of the content on
articles and text scientific database that ScienceDirect is publicly available.
book chapters includes journal articles and book While some articles and journals
chapters from over 2,500 peer- are open access, others are
(Secondary reviewed publications and 11,000 protected by paywalls, making
Source) volumes. It also has an advanced them inaccessible without suitable
search and discovery features subscriptions or institutional
that helps identify relevant associations. Moreover, to access
articles and research resources. the whole content of
It searches using include filters, ScienceDirect, there was a need
 keywords, and citation, which are for subscriptions. This was
valuable for searching for specific restrictive for me because I
terms or publications written by couldn't read certain articles that
specific authors. This helped me could have helped me with my
to find a lot of articles specific to project and given me additional
a topic such as space radiation, knowledge on various aspects of
environmental impact and my project.
planetary protection.
Furthermore, ScienceDirect
offers access to a diverse
spectrum of scientific and
technological content across
multiple fields, including physical
sciences, life sciences, health
sciences, and social sciences. It
presented me with a wealth of
information regarding the
environmental influence and
impacts of microgravity on the
human body.
The majority of ScienceDirect's
content is peer-reviewed, which
made the information highly
accurate and reliable.
Articles and Articles and publications Some articles contained
Publications by authored by scientists and assumptions based on computer-
scientists and professors are typically written by run simulations. For example, after
experts in their fields. Their reading an article about the
professors expertise makes them extremely impacts of radiations, it was stated
(Secondary reliable for this project. that the study depends on model-
Source) Furthermore, many articles based estimates of crew dose and
written by scientists and dose equivalent when planning
professors are peer-reviewed interplanetary missions. The only
before publication. This made genuine measurements were
sure that the study met a high taken by Apollo lunar mission
standard of quality, accuracy, and crews. Furthermore, no crew
validity. This made the dosimetry has been carried out
information increasing beyond the Earth's
dependable and credible. magnetosphere. This could lead to
large uncertainties in the projection
Moreover, articles and of health risks and obscuring
publications written by scientists evaluation of the effectiveness of
and professors frequently include possible radiation
in-depth analysis of research countermeasures. Furthermore,
topics. This level of detail allowed due to the assumptions made, the
me to have a thorough information in the article may
understanding of the effects of become less reliable.
communication lag on the crew Some academic articles used
and its consequences. complicated technical terminology
Furthermore, these papers that only a reader with a
provided citations and references background in the field could have
to other scholarly works. This understood. It also had difficult
allowed me to trace the origins of mathematical equations that I
ideas and gain a more in-depth couldn't understand.
understanding of the topic I was Furthermore, I was unable to
 researching. access several papers that could
have been useful and contributed
to this research since they were
behind paywalls or required
subscriptions.
Non-Academic Non-academic journals and However, these are non-academic
Journals and magazines frequently include journals and magazines, which
Magazines recent findings. These cover public-interest stories. Thos
magazines and journals stood could lead to bias because the
(Secondary out to me because they write may wish to exaggerate the
Source) introduced me to new concepts stories to interest readers, but also
that I would not have reducing the articles’ credibility.
encountered otherwise. For Moreover, there is also no peer
example, I discovered review procedure, however the
information about the facts can be checked. This could
opportunities provided by deep make the magazine/journal an
space exploration, including how untrustworthy source of
it promotes medical information
breakthroughs and the potential Furthermore, many of the
for asteroid mining. magazines and journals I
encountered had little or no
Furthermore, these bibliographies, reference lists or
journals/magazines proved to be citations, which further reduced
informative about the current their dependability.
state of deep space exploration. Additionally, they also contained
For example, I learned about the numerous advertisings, making
James Webb Telescope and the them difficult to read. This
Artemis Mission, which helped advertising scheme further proved
me write about the current that the magazines were tailored
opportunities these missions for reader’s interest.
provide. Furthermore, both online
journals and magazines included
a lot of images, making the
content easier to interpret.
Introduction
Beyond the boundaries of our planet and into the vast emptiness of space, humanity has set
out on a journey. In the twenty-first century, our focus has shifted beyond the Earth and
towards the vast and fascinating regions of deep space. For thousands of years, people
have looked up at the night sky with questions. As technology progressed, so did our ability
to investigate those topics. First, telescopes, then satellites, then space rovers, and finally
manned spacecraft. As humanity sets its sights on the stars, the opportunities and
challenges of deep space travel become increasingly significant.
Deep space exploration is the study of space beyond Earth's immediate vicinity, that is,
beyond Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and Moon's Orbit. This entails sending spacecraft and probes
to investigate celestial bodies such as planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and other celestial
bodies in our solar system and beyond. Deep space exploration aims to improve our
understanding of the cosmos, its origins, and the possibility of life beyond Earth.
Deep space exploration presents a lot of opportunities, major among them the possibility of
discovering the secrets of the universe. Humanity's natural curiosity drives them to push the
boundaries of our understanding and rewrite the history of our cosmos to discover the
unknown. Discoveries of far-off planets, moons, and celestial bodies offer a wealth of
scientific information that will not only expand our knowledge of the universe but also provide
insight into the foundations of our own existence.
Furthermore, deep space exploration has the potential for revolutionary technological
innovation. Space exploration has historically driven the development of cutting-edge
technology with uses far beyond the aerospace industry. The significant impact of space-
related technologies on terrestrial technology is clear, from the development of Velcro to
advancements in medical imaging systems. Humans stand to gain not only a deeper
understanding of the universe but also practical solutions to Earth's issues as they push the
frontiers of what is scientifically and technologically conceivable.
However, this technical potential is accompanied by a series of immediate and long-term
challenges. The environment of space, with its huge distances and hostile environments,
creates logistical and communicational challenges that need creative solutions. Prolonged
space travel puts the human body through physiological challenges, raising concerns about
the long-term viability of human existence beyond our planet. Furthermore, as we sent
humans and robots to distant celestial planets, problems of environmental effect and space
debris management become more critical.
The ethical implications of deep space exploration, on the other hand, have an immense
effect. Humans must confront the ethical implications of their activities as they reach out into
the universe, coping with issues of environmental impact, contamination, and the potential
consequences of discovering extraterrestrial life.
I choose this topic primarily due to my personal interest in physics, especially in the sector of
space physics, alongside my curiosity on why humans go to deep space and how difficult it
is. In the future, I aspire to study a course linking computer science and aerospace at
university ultimately aiming for a career in these fields. Furthermore, the aims and purpose
of this dissertation is to research on the current opportunities and challenges of deep space
exploration as well as the ethical concerns raised by modern society. It would answer the
questions raised by myself and the society, such as why spend such vast sums of money on
space exploration and missions to far-distant celestial bodies? Moreover, this dissertation
would help me improve my understanding on the topic of deep space, which links in with my
interest for it.
In the course of this dissertation, I will be examining the environmental and health
challenges together with the challenges of communication and data transmission. I will also
be discussing about the opportunities presented such as scientific discoveries, technological
advancements, resource utilization and medical innovations in the 21st century. Following
this, current space missions such as James Webb Telescope will be examined and analyzed
in addition to the role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in deep space exploration. Furthermore,
considering the ethical implications, this dissertation will explore every aspect of deep space
exploration then to be drawn to conclusion to answer the initial question: What are the
current opportunities, challenges, and ethical implications of deep space exploration for
humanity?
Understanding the Universe
Space exploration has fascinated people for millennia, and in recent decades, scientists and
engineers have dramatically improved our understanding of the universe. From the first
successful deployment of a satellite into orbit in 1957 to the current exploration of our solar
system's furthest reaches, space research has revealed a wealth of new information about
the cosmos.
In 1957, the Sputnik satellite was launched, marking the first major breakthrough in space
exploration. This marked the start of the space race between the United States and the
Soviet Union, which resulted in the first human spaceflight in 1961. Since then, numerous
spacecrafts have been dispatched to examine our solar system's planets and moons,
presenting us with previously undiscovered information about their composition and
structure. Exciting discoveries have also been made as we explore the furthest limits of our
solar system. In the late 1970s, Voyager probes discovered frozen moons and rings
surrounding Jupiter and Saturn, and the Hubble Space Telescope has allowed us to see
distant galaxies and star formation. Furthermore, the Cassini mission to Saturn has provided
us with precise photographs of the planet's rings and moons, while the New Horizons project
has uncovered mysteries about Pluto and its moons.
In recent years, space exploration has been utilized to look for signs of life beyond Earth.
The Kepler mission has discovered thousands of exoplanets, some of which may be able to
support life. Furthermore, the Mars rovers have found signs of past water on the planet,
implying that it was once habitable (Howell, 2020). Moreover, The Curiosity rover on Mars
has also been able to acquire photos of the Martian surface, allowing us to better
comprehend the planet's geological history.
The James Webb Space Telescope (Webb or JWST) is a pioneer in scientific discovery,
revealing astounding details about galaxies, planets, stars, and other fascinating cosmic
phenomena. The telescope is in the start of its cosmic adventure, having only been launched
in December 2021 and rated for 20 years of operation. Webb is also a successor to the
venerable Hubble Space Telescope, but it is also breaking new ground in terms of scientific
enthusiasm. Webb was designed to survey the universe's most distant galaxies, and in mid-
December, astronomers confirmed that they had done so. The telescope has officially
observed the four most distant known galaxies, which also happen to be the oldest. Webb
examined the galaxies as they were some 13.4 billion years ago, when the universe was
only 350 million years old, or roughly 2% of its present age (Sohn, 2022).
Deep space exploration has had and will continue to have a profound impact on our
knowledge of the universe and its origins.
To begin, deep space travel has helped us better understand the size and structure of the
cosmos. We can determine the size and shape of the universe by observing its stars,
galaxies, and other celestial bodies. This has given us a greater grasp of how the universe
functions and is structured (Frąckiewicz, 2023).
Second, it has helped us better comprehend the composition of the universe. By researching
the composition of stars, galaxies, and other celestial bodies, we can acquire a deeper
knowledge of the elements that comprise the universe. This has given us a greater grasp of
the universe's age and evolution through time.
Third, it has helped us better grasp the universe's origins. By researching the development
of stars, galaxies, and other celestial bodies, we can acquire a better knowledge of how the
universe was created and evolved over time. This has helped us better grasp the universe's
past and current state.
Finally, it has and will continue to provide us with a deeper grasp of the universe's future. By
examining the evolution of stars, galaxies, and other celestial phenomena, we can better
comprehend how the universe will evolve throughout time (Frąckiewicz, 2023).
Gaining a better understanding of the universe can have far-reaching effects for humans in a
variety of fields, including science, technology, philosophy, and our global perspective. Some
of the probable effects are:
1) Better understanding of the universe can lead to major scientific breakthroughs. It
can assist us in reconsidering and extending our theories in physics, astronomy, and
cosmology, potentially leading to new technologies and applications. One of the most
remarkable discoveries in recent years has been the observation of gravitational
waves, which were predicted by Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity.
Instruments such as the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory
(LIGO) and Virgo have provided scientists with a new view of the cosmos, allowing
them to monitor cataclysmic events like the merger of black holes and neutron stars
(LIGO Scientific Collaboration, 2016). These findings help us better grasp the
fundamental forces at work during the universe's birth.
2) Understanding the universe can lead innovations in energy production and resource
production. Some recent examples include ultra-light, high-efficiency solar cells.
3) Gaining a better understanding of the universe can influence our beliefs. It can raise
new concerns regarding our place in the universe, the nature of mind, and the
possibility of extraterrestrial life.
4) Scientific advancements have the potential to drive both economic growth and
employment generation. Understanding the universe can give rise to new
industries and opportunities, such as the space economy and the growth of space
tourism.

Deep space scientific missions help us comprehend the origins of our planet, solar system,
galaxy, and even the entire cosmos. We've been able to map the solar system and beyond,
understand more about the universe's composition, research star and galaxy formation, and
investigate the possibility of life in the universe. Furthermore, as demonstrated by each
previous space programme, the technological development required to conduct ambitious
scientific and manned missions leads directly to advances in science and technology for the
rest of society. However, most importantly, ongoing space exploration has a distinct impact
on the human species, increasing aspirations and sparking dreams in hearts and minds of all
ages. As we continue exploring the universe, we can only expect to make many more
discoveries in the next years.
Opportunities
As technology breakthroughs carry our capabilities deeper into space, new opportunities
emerge with the potential to revolutionize our understanding of the universe and result in
ground-breaking advances in a variety of sectors. The problems posed by deep space
exploration motivate the development of cutting-edge technologies with far-reaching
implications beyond space missions. The necessity for robust communication networks,
autonomous navigation, and efficient resource utilization in space encourages the
development of novel technologies (Lee, 2023).
Furthermore, developing sustainable technologies for long-duration space missions has the
potential to significantly alter Earth's environmental concerns. The pursuit of efficient life
support systems, renewable energy sources, and closed-loop biological systems for space
habitats might encourage environmentally friendly practices and technological
advancements that benefit our planet.
One advantage offered is that space provides a unique environment of stressors (e.g.,
weightlessness and intense radiation) that organisms have never encountered on Earth.
Cells in outer space reorganize and produce or trigger a variety of chemical reactions that
result in alterations in cellular characteristics. Cell exposure to outer space will result in more
efficient creation of new variations than on Earth. Natural crop varieties, for example, can be
created with increased nutritional value and yield, as well as improved characteristics such
as resilience to high and low temperatures, salt stress, and microbial and insect attacks
(Prasad, Richter and Vadakedath, 2020).
Furthermore, there are many serious issues that humanity is dealing with today that space
systems could help to solve, at least partially. These include the ability to communicate
quickly and widely, survey resources and the climate, and maintain global information
networks (Levchenko et al., 2020). Not unexpectedly, growing efforts are being made to
develop a robust near-Earth satellite infrastructure, with aspirations to expand the sphere of
active life to orbital space and, eventually, to the Moon and Mars, if not further. Realizing
these goals necessitates the development of new and more efficient propulsion systems.
Similar to other transportation systems where the usage of electrical platforms has grown
quickly, space propulsion technologies are shifting towards electric thrusters that do not have
the various constraints inherent in thermodynamic systems (Levchenko et al., 2020).

Most crucially, electric and plasma thrusters have the potential ability to deliver almost any
impulse, with the latter eventually restricted by the speed of light. Rapid progress in the
sector, driven by collaborative efforts from industry and academics, has pushed all-electric
space systems closer to reality. These thrusters could assist launch satellites swiftly and
efficiently, allowing for the establishment of extremely efficient communication systems,
among other things (Levchenko et al., 2020).

Over the last few decades, there has been a paradigm shift in how we develop and
manufacture equipment for use on Earth and in space. The nanotech revolution has resulted
in electronics with extraordinary miniaturisation and robots with incredible capabilities. It has
also given material systems and device components that are lighter, stronger, and more
robust than ever before, considerably lowering the cost of their production and assembly and
thus significantly expanding the range of space assets. These considerations have resulted
in the commercial sector adopting space technology for communication, monitoring, and
more efficient exploitation of Earth's resources The latter's extent is mirrored in forthcoming
large-scale endeavors, like the Iridium NEXT communication project, the OneWeb satellite
constellation, and NASA's Lunar Orbital Platform (LOP-G) (Levchenko et al., 2018).
Furthermore, development of more affordable novel satellites supported by evermore
functional electronics has led to a significant increase in the demand for satellite
technologies for applications that until recently had been entirely supported by terrestrial
infrastructure, emerging as a lucrative on-orbit economy. Indeed, on Earth, we have
benefited tremendously from these advances, with more efficient systems for
communication, environmental monitoring, management of water resources, pollution
surveillance, weather forecasting, and many others (Levchenko et al., 2018).
Moreover, even more ambitious projects are planned, including Boeing all-electric propulsion
Commsats, small satellites (CubeSats, etc.), and active satellite constellations like
transformable, adaptive "Afternoon Constellation" or NASA's Cyclone Global Navigation
Satellite System (CYGNSS), which recently started the Public Data Release, and 12 000
satellites to be launched by SpaceX over five years to build the largest ever Starlink satellite
constellation for global Internet. Additionally, consumer products including as wireless
headsets, LED lights, portable cordless vacuums, freeze-dried foods, memory foam, scratch-
resistant eyeglass lenses, and many other recognisable items have profited from space
technology research and development. Modern laptop computers are direct descendants of
the Shuttle Portable Onboard Computer (SPOC), which was created in the early 1980s for
the Space Shuttle programme. (Levchenko et al., 2018).
Space exploration has resulted in several advancements, ranging from metals and alloys to
biology and medicine. Some uses, such as ceramic coatings in our kitchens, air purification
systems, smoke detectors, and scratch-resistant glass, have already become commonplace.
Furthermore, the NASA Spinoff Programme demonstrates the various applications of space
technologies in terrestrial environments, such as plans to explore Venus, which will result in
new computer chips for high-heat conditions on Earth, grow towers for crops and seafood,
which will soon drive self-sustaining shelter and Electrical Body Signals to Restore
Movement, and the need to generate oxygen and grow food in space, which prompted
NASA to test indoor agriculture techniques (NASA, 2018). Deep space exploration drives
growth and innovation through scientific discoveries, technical improvements, international
collaboration, and the inspiration of future generations.
Medical Innovations

Aerospace research has a long history of developing technology with industry-changing

applications, and the recent past is no exception. The expansion of commercial spaceflight,
as well as forthcoming exploration-class trips to the Moon and Mars, are likely to expedite
this trend even further. The resulting portable, wearable, contactless, and regenerable
medical technology represent not only the future of healthcare in deep space, but also the
future of healthcare on Earth. These multidimensional and integrative technologies are non-
invasive, deployable, low-footprint devices capable of facilitating rapid detection, diagnosis,
monitoring, and treatment of a wide range of diseases, as well as providing decision-making
and performance support. These properties make them ideal for use in low-resource and
distant locations, allowing for the extension of quality care delivery to all patients in all
communities and encouraging non-specialists to intervene to treat the patient as soon as
feasible (Scarpa, Parazynski and Strangman, 2023). Furthermore, these technologies have
the potential to improve care transitions at tertiary care centers, provide comprehensive
patient data, and promote professional wellbeing and performance.
Many situations such as the Spaceflight-associated neuro-ocular syndrome (SANS) has
catalyzed extensive medical technology development for both research and medical care
provision during spaceflight due to their complex, incompletely-characterized nature
(Scarpa, Parazynski and Strangman, 2023).
Furthermore, NASA-developed infrared ear thermometers detect the amount of energy
emitted by the eardrum using infrared astronomy technology, similar to how the temperature
of stars and planets is measured. Artificial limbs have greatly improved because to superior
shock-absorbing materials and robotics developed for the space programme. Deep
exploration missions rely on superior digital image processing technologies created by the
Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). JPL used this technique to develop contemporary CAT
scanners and radiography (Spadoni, 2020).
Moreover, the demand to convey astronaut health information from orbit to ground control
during Project Mercury sparked the development of telemetric monitoring, which has
subsequently become ubiquitous in terrestrial applications, including routine intensive care
unit (ICU) monitoring. Other recent examples include improved LASIK® eye surgery
precision thanks to innovative optics developed for the Webb telescope, materials
engineering advances for Martian sample collection that resulted in biocompatible surgical
suture materials, and an endoscopic robotic surgery arm inspired by robotic repair arms on
the International Space Station (ISS) (Scarpa, Parazynski and Strangman, 2023).
Intensive Care Unit (ICU) treatment could be improved using space-adapted devices.
Patients, for example, could be non-invasively and continuously monitored for muscle
degradation (due to bed rest) or improvement (due to physical therapy), drug metabolites
(particularly of sedatives or narcotics), and cancer progression (if treatment is paused for
ICU admission), all without having to undergo multiple painful, costly blood draws. Stroke
could be detected via retinal imaging without the requirement for urgent and tedious
transportation to the CT scanner. NIRS-based metabolic rate assessments could help guide
nutritional supplementation decisions. Stroke volume and hematocrit could also be
measured with NIRS (Scarpa, Parazynski and Strangman, 2023).
 The list of the application and integration of space technologies goes on and on. Below table
lists a few more of the applications of space technologies in terrestrial environment.

Table 1: Health risks, their terrestrial counterparts, and technological countermeasures.

Medical Concern Health risk in deep Comparable scenarios Technological

space on Earth Countermeasures

  Bone fractures  Improved  Crystalloid

 Cardiac arrest prehospital regeneration
 Hemorrhage diagnosis and  Shelf-stable
Treatment of medical
 Intra- treatment blood products
emergencies  Natural and
abdominal  Integrated care
pathology humanitarian documentation
 Respiratory disasters and delivery
compromise  Rural, remote, modules
 Sepsis and developing  Mixed-reality
 Trauma areas software and AI-
 Improved CDS
transfers of care

  Circadian  High-stress  Wearable

disturbances, environments polysomnography
Health decrements high stress, requiring  Wearable
and performance close quarters, heightened detection of
errors from fatigue, and decreased vigilance (e.g., stress biomarkers
stress, and sleep loss sleep while in ED, OR, PACU,  Contactless
space ICU, disaster stress detection
 Small and care) to allow for early
highly  Medical trainees
intervention
interdependent  Providers on 24+
 Non-
crew hour shifts or
pharmacological
overnight
sleep
coverage
enhancement

  CMO cannot  Pandemics  AI- Clinical

be trained in  Natural and Decision
Medical care delivery all relevant humanitarian Support (CDS)
by non-experts medical disasters  Autonomous and
subspecialties  Rural, remote, semi-
 Care of the and developing autonomous
CMO by other areas systems
crew-members  Tele-mentoring
and consultancy
medicine
Asteroid Mining

The extraction of Earth's resources is critical to the development of modern infrastructure

and technology. However, the Earth's resources are limited, and their continual usage for
human development and progress has led to their depletion. Mining is sometimes
destructive, we have little influence over the global distribution of economically viable rare
material sources, and access to significant deposits may be limited due to geopolitical and
environmental concerns. Space Resource Utilisation (SRU) provides an innovative
solution to these challenges by allowing access to important resources and reserves on
extraterrestrial planets such as asteroids in deep space or the Moon. Since their discovery in
1848, asteroids have been regarded as precious resources. While not yet economically
viable, asteroid mining is becoming more technologically possible. Previous missions,
including Lucy, Psyche 16, Hayabusa-2, and OSIRIS-REx, produced by students, scientists,
space agencies, and private enterprises, have helped to advance the space mining
industry's technical and cost readiness (Joy and Harvey, 2023). The increased threat of an
asteroid impact, along with the rapid depletion of natural resources on Earth, makes asteroid
mining an increasingly urgent subject.

The utilisation of space resources is important to the future of long-term and deep-space
exploration. Living and working in deep space for months or years may result in crew
members having less quick access to life-sustaining components and crucial supplies than
they would have on Earth. NASA will deliver cargo, experiments, and other supplies to the
Gateway in lunar orbit to aid exploration on and around the Moon. However, when people
travel deeper into space, it becomes increasingly vital to produce items from local resources,
a method known as in-situ resource utilisation (ISRU) (NASA, 2023).

As human space exploration progresses to lengthier journeys away from the Earth, ISRU will
become increasingly crucial. Resupply flights are expensive, and as astronaut crews gain
independence from Earth, long-term exploration becomes more feasible. We need practical
and inexpensive ways to use resources along the way for space travel. Space resource
utilization (SRU) or ISRU, when used at its full potential using current and innovating
technologies, will enable future astronauts to be able to collect and convert space-based
resources into breathing air, water for drinking, sanitation, and plant growth, rocket
propellants, building materials, and other items (NASA, 2023). When extraterrestrial
resources can be used to make usable products, mission capability and net value will
increase.

Furthermore, utilising space resources opens up tremendous economic prospects. The

extraction and utilisation of resources in space can result in the establishment of new
enterprises and markets. For example, mining operations on asteroids could produce rich
resources such as rare metals or precious minerals, which could be employed in a variety of
sectors on Earth or in space-based manufacturing. This has the potential to generate new
jobs, boost economic growth, and promote technical innovation (TechnologyGovCapital,
2023). Moreover, utilising resources in space can help to promote sustainability and
environmental benefits. Extracting resources from space reduces the need for resource-
intensive activities on Earth, such as mining or drilling. This can help preserve our planet's
natural resources while reducing the environmental effect of resource exploitation.
Furthermore, using space resources can reduce the amount of waste produced during space
missions because resources can be recycled and reused, resulting in more sustainable
space exploration.
Space resource utilisation can also benefit scientific research and knowledge. Scientists can
learn more about the composition and history of celestial bodies by researching and
analysing space resources. This can help us understand how our solar system formed and
whether there is life beyond Earth. Furthermore, technology and techniques created for
space resource utilisation can be applied to other scientific domains such as mining,
materials science, and environmental sustainability (TechnologyGovCapital, 2023).
Space resource utilisation provides several benefits, including advances in space
exploration, economic potential, sustainability and environmental benefits, as well as
scientific research and knowledge. By utilising space resources, we can open up new
avenues for human discovery and scientific advancement.
Challenges
Radiation & Microgravity

Outside of the Earth’s protective magnetosphere is a universe full of radiation – it is all

around us. Space radiation is one of the most difficult challenges that modern space
organizations confront while considering interplanetary missions. The space radiation
environment is a complex field comprised primarily of charged particles spanning energies
over many orders of magnitude and travelling at nearly the speed of light. There are three
main environmental sources of radiation in space flight: solar phenomena, Galactic Cosmic
Rays (protons and heavy ions from outside our solar system), and Radiation Belts (such as
the Van Allen belts) (Nasa, 2017). All these types of space radiation are ionizing radiation.
Ionizing radiation is composed of particles with sufficient energy to completely remove one
electron from its orbit, resulting in a more positively charged atom. Solar Particle Events (or
solar phenomena), or simply gigantic explosions on the Sun's surface, release immense
amounts of energy into space in the form of gamma rays, x-rays, and protons and electron
surges. These surges of particles contain energies from 30 MeV to 1 GeV (Nelson, 2016).
Galactic Cosmic Radiation (GCR) is a dominant source of radiation which comes from
outside the solar system, but primarily from within our Milky Way galaxy. GCR are heavy,
high-energy ions of elements that have had all their electrons stripped away as they
journeyed through the galaxy at nearly the speed of light, probably due to magnetic fields of
supernova remnants (Nasa, 2017). They may almost completely penetrate through the skin
of an astronaut or a typical spacecraft. The energies of GCR particles range from several
tens up to 1012 MeV / nucleon (Tsvetan Dachev, 2013). The GCR spectrum consists of
approximately 87% hydrogen ions and 12% helium ions, with the remaining 1%–2% of
particles being HZE nuclei. Radiation belts are areas of high concentration of energetic
electrons and protons trapped within the Earth's magnetosphere with energies of particles
around 10 MeV to ~700 MeV (Chancellor, Scott and Sutton, 2014). These cosmic rays
approaching the Earth interact with its magnetic field and atmosphere. The Magnetosphere
rejects vast majority of the particles (99%) while the remaining lose most of its energy going
through the atmosphere before reaching the surface. This is completely different in space
where cosmic rays interacting with human body release energy and can be dangerous for
health (Bartoloni et al., 2023).
Exposure to space radiation affects multiple organs and physiological systems in complex
ways. NASA categorizes the biomedical consequences into four risk areas; 1. Degenerative
Tissue Effects from Radiation Exposure (cardiovascular disease, cataract formation and
genetic mutations); 2. Radiation Carcinogenesis; 3. Acute and Late CNS Effects from
Radiation Exposure and 4. Radiation Syndromes (Chancellor, Scott and Sutton, 2014).
Radiation exposure induces various biological effects with the main effect being damage to
DNA. If a large amount of damage occurs or the damage is not repaired correctly, cell death,
cellular senescence, and tumorigenesis may be induced. A high frequency of DNA damage
can potentially also create genomic instability because DNA damage can trigger erroneous
translesion synthesis past the damages or mistakes in repair, resulting in mutation within
hours or days following irradiation. Radiation exposure also induces carcinogenesis, if
untreated could result to death. Moreover, HZE particles (from GCR) have been
demonstrated to inhibit neuronal connectivity, neuronal proliferation, and neuronal
differentiation and to change glial characterization (Chancellor, Scott and Sutton, 2014).
Furthermore, experiments conducted by Acharya et al. suggested that chronic, low-dose-rate
radiation exposure from deep space may pose considerable risks for cognitive performance
and health (Furukawa et al., 2020). Modern Spacecraft Shields can only block 30 to 35% of
the radiation, leaving the 70% of the radiation passing through the shields being exposed to
the astronauts (Rask, 2009). Thicker shields would be required to stop these radiated
particles. This causes limitations as extremely high cost of transporting heavy structures into
space and their incapability to provide adequate shielding against heavy ions at an
appropriate thickness (Mortazavi and Mozdarani, 2013). Currently developed radioprotective
drugs are unsuitable in outer space because they do not protect against high LET radiation
(from GCR). Drugs suitable for astronauts in space must treat both unexpected high-dose
radiation exposure due to solar flares and the suppression of DNA damage by space
radiation that occurs constantly.
Microgravity is another environmental component that could affect spaceflight. It is the most
significant influence on the human being in space. Long-term spaceflight causes detrimental
changes to the human body under microgravity. It affects several biological systems,
including the neuro-vestibular, cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, bone metabolism, and
immuno-haematological systems. On a Mars trip, astronauts will encounter three different
gravity fields and will have to dwell in microgravity for up to 300 days, or up to three years in
the worst-case scenario (Wolfe and Rummel, 1992).
Transitioning from one gravity environment to another is more challenging than it appears. It
has an impact on spatial orientation, head-eye and hand-eye coordination, balance, and
mobility, and some crew members experience space motion sickness as a result.
Without the continuous load of Earth’s gravity, weight-bearing bones lose on average 1% to
1.5% of mineral density per month during spaceflight (Cranford and Turner, 2021). Even
after returning to Earth, bone loss might not be completely corrected by rehabilitation. This
increases the risk of fractures and osteoporosis. Without the proper diet and exercise
routine, astronauts also lose muscle mass in microgravity faster than they would on Earth.
Moreover, under microgravity, fluids in the body migrate upward to the head, potentially
increasing cranial pressure and causing vision problems and neurological impairments. Fluid
redistribution can also cause alterations in the cardiovascular system (Man et al., 2022). It
would influence blood volume and pressure resulting in orthostatic intolerance upon return to
Earth, which can cause light-headedness and fainting. If preventive or countermeasures are
not implemented, crews may experience an increased risk of developing kidney stones due
to dehydration and increased excretion of calcium from their bones (Cranford and Turner,
2021).
Although NASA and the ROSCOSMOS have undertaken studies that suggest that various
exercise countermeasures appear to be adequate for exposures of up to a year in space, it
is debatable whether astronauts could or should have to maintain such regimes for
extremely prolonged missions (Wolfe and Rummel, 1992).
Communication and Data Transmission

Communication has been critical since the dawn of space travel, whether it is a near-Earth
satellite or a deep-space planetary probe. Space missions rely heavily on communication for
operations, maintenance, and research data transmission. The communication is both
human-centric, such as voice calls between the spacecraft crew and the ground station, and
machine-centric, such as when sending telemetry data from the spacecraft, downloading
photos from objects in space, or sending telecommands from Earth to the spacecraft via the
uplink (Könsgen and Förster, 2021).
Deep space satellite communication is a significant issue for scientists and engineers due to
the large distances involved and the intricacies of transmitting and receiving data. Missions
ranging from interplanetary probes to space telescopes require safe, dependable, and
efficient communication. Current communication lines are based on radio frequency signals
sent from Earth to faraway planets and satellites. These signals could be relayed using a
relay satellite and transmitted across large distances (Frąckiewicz, 2023).
As humanity expands beyond the boundaries of our home planet, the huge distances,
transmission delays, and harsh space environment present challenges that necessitate
innovative approaches.
One of the most significant challenges in deep space communication for any deep space
mission, whether manned or robotic, is the delay in transmitting signals between spacecraft
and ground-based stations when operating across vast distances in our solar system.
Current manned space missions have maintained nearly continuous communication
between the space crew and mission control. However, as the spacecraft travels further
away from Earth, the latency difficulties get more severe. This will happen primarily because
of the finite speed of light (approximately 186,000 miles or 299,792,458 metres per second),
which places a fundamental limit on the rate at which information can travel
(SpaceAcademy, 2017). As a result, even at the incredible speed of light, communication
delays become obvious when the distances involved are on the order of astronomical units
(AU), the average distance between the Earth and the Sun. This time delay would have a
significant influence on missions further away.
For example, the closest approach to Mars is around 35 million miles from Earth, resulting in
a time delay of nearly four minutes. Planets further away can experience time delays of up to
24 minutes, depending on their relative positions in their orbit (Schauer, 2020). Therefore, if
you were communicating from a deep space mission, you would have to wait for this amount
of time for your message to reach mission control. You would then have to wait until the
same time to obtain a response.
 Circuit Distance Delay Time
HF link (UK-NZ) ~20,000 km 0.07 s (67 ms)
Submarine cable (UK-NZ) ~20,000 km 0.07 s (67 ms)
Geosat Link (US-Aus) ~80,000 km 0.25 s
Earth-Moon 384,000 km 1.3 s
Earth-Mars 55 - 378 million km 3 - 21 minutes
Earth-Jupiter 590 - 970 million km 33 - 53 minutes
Earth-Pluto ~5800 million km 5 hours
Earth-Nearest Star ~40 million-million km 4 years
Table 2: Distance and delay time in one-way transmissions

According to Table 1, a signal from Earth would take more than 5 hours to reach Pluto's orbit
in the outer solar system. This delay will complicate real-time control and decision-making,
necessitating autonomous systems on spacecraft to manage unexpected events. As a result,
it may place difficult constraints on the link between the LDSF (Long Duration Space Flight)
crew and ground control (Keebler, Dietz and Baker, 2015).
Furthermore, it will take longer for teams to communicate problem solutions. Significant
delays in the communication loop may have a negative impact on the quality of
communication events. This drop in communication quality inside the LDSF and MTS (Multi-
Team System) will result in a fundamental shift in decision-making processes from what is
now in place. Furthermore, this issue will necessitate effective collaboration or dynamic
changes to mission parameters as the crew gains autonomy in the later phases of an
approach to faraway worlds (Keebler, Dietz and Baker, 2015). This would be a significant
departure from shuttle missions, which had a complete work schedule with crew activities
monitored from the ground.
The communication lag will have an equal impact on the coordination between LDSF and
Ground Control as it will on their communication. Because of the space crew's autonomy
and the inability to update the plan at an efficient rate, circumstances may readily arise
where the space crew solves some problem, e.g. problem X, that was initially conveyed to
mission control. During lag-time, the space crew solves X but discovers new difficulties Y
and Z. During this time, mission control has also solved X and begins communicating it to
the space crew, while the space crew communicates that they have solved that problem and
discovered two other problems (Keebler, Dietz and Baker, 2015). This variance between the
current state of the problem and MTS coordination could have disastrous consequences in
off nominal events.
Furthermore, if we ever establish colonies on planets orbiting other stars, we can effectively
forget about communicating with them. This is not to imply that we couldn't monitor progress
reports; however, by the time we responded, our advice would be completely irrelevant.
Unless, of course, we manage to overcome the light barrier, which physics currently views
as impossible (SpaceAcademy, 2017). Despite the obstacles caused by communication
delays, space organisations and mission planners have developed techniques to handle and
work around them. These tactics include meticulous mission planning, sophisticated
command scheduling, and the use of autonomous systems for routine operations.
Another issue with communicating over extended distances in deep space is signal
degradation and the necessity for reliable data transmission.
Because of the large distances involved in deep space networks, providing a reliable
communication link is difficult. Even having high transmitter power on the sender side,
signals at the receiving side are extremely faint. This is due to the signal being exposed to a
variety of barriers, such as interstellar dust, gas, and celestial bodies. This causes signal
attenuation, or weakening, which impairs the integrity and quality of transmitted data (Anais,
2021).
Furthermore, signals transmitted through deep space can be easily disrupted by sources
such as solar flares, cosmic rays, and electromagnetic radiation. This interference can
generate noise and distortion in the signal, causing substantial disruption to the
communication and data transfer processes and perhaps resulting in data corruption.
Another result of long distances is that signals weaken to the point that data rate (bandwidth)
becomes a concern. Buffer sizes on relays are restricted, therefore data should be offloaded
at least as quickly as the vessel's instruments acquire it. Additionally, spacecrafts often have
limited power resources, and transmitting signals across vast distances consumes a
significant amount of electricity (Könsgen and Förster, 2021). Because the spacecrafts are
so far away from the Sun, they cannot generate as much power from solar panels as Earth
satellites. Spacecrafts, with their limited power resources, face the challenge of balancing
signal strength with power consumption. Efficient power management becomes crucial for
maintaining communication over long distances while fulfilling the energy requirements of
other critical systems. This would also necessitate the employment of advanced coding
techniques and effective modulation systems to maximise the amount of data that can be
transmitted in a given length of time while minimising power usage.
Overall, the challenges of communication and data transmission in deep space highlight the
complexities of exploring the universe. Overcoming these obstacles necessitates the
seamless integration of new technology, creative communication protocols, and precise
mission planning. As mankind embarks on future deep space missions, the lessons learnt by
overcoming these hurdles will not only pave the road for scientific discovery, but will also
help to develop technologies that push the frontiers of our understanding of the cosmos.
Ethical Implications
Contamination Concerns

Space exploration is a fascinating and constantly growing field. People from all areas of life
generally support exploration of our solar system and beyond, which feeds our basic human
curiosity about places other than our own. While the majority of our efforts are directed
towards allowing both objects and humans to thrive safely on other planets and moons, it is
becoming increasingly vital to consider the ethical consequences of our activities, both for
our own species and for other potential life forms in the universe (Miller, 2017).
One of the most important factors is the potential contamination and destruction of other
worlds and other life, which is both a practical and an ethical problem. Contamination is
typically classified as forward or backward (Rummel, 2001). Backward contamination is the
contamination of Earth by compounds that have previously been on other bodies in the solar
system; however, it is normally of little concern. Few objects launched to other planets or
moons ever return to Earth, subsequently no other life or transferable risks have been
discovered. Forward contamination, on the other hand, has been a source of concern since
the Viking spacecraft's first mission to Mars in 1976 (Rummel, 2001). Forward contamination
occurs when Earth contaminates distant worlds and any potential indigenous life. It is not
known how Earth-based life will affect extraterrestrial life, but the legacy of invasive species
and viruses wreaking havoc on native species on Earth shows that contamination could do
significant harm. Policies and guidelines must be in place to avoid contamination.
Contamination could compromise the search for indigenous extraterrestrial life and
destabilize ecosystems. It raises concerns about humanity's obligation to protect the distinct
habitats of other celestial bodies (Miller, 2017).
There are several organizations working to develop guidelines and rules for preventing
forward contamination, including NASA's Office of Planetary Protection and COSPAR, the
International Council of Science's Committee on Space Research. Since the 1960s, these
organizations have established a variety of guidelines for the sterilization of spacecraft and
tools transported to other planets, with a special emphasis on Mars and Europa, two of the
most promising and accessible locations for potential extraterrestrial life (Miller, 2017).
Unfortunately, spaceships that leave Earth cannot be entirely sterilized. When humans
travel in those spacecrafts, contamination is nearly guaranteed (McKay, 2009). However,
there is a possibility that practices and contamination-control solutions being developed for
the bioengineering world could be adaptable to spaceflight missions, helping in
decontamination of complex electronics, machinery and possibly human bodies.
One of the practices regarding biological contamination in solar-system exploration is known
as “planetary quarantine,” or more recently, “planetary protection.”
Planetary protection involves preventing cross-contamination between celestial bodies. This
is critical for maintaining the integrity of scientific inquiries and protecting potential
extraterrestrial life forms (Bishop, 2023). Space missions must be planned and conducted
carefully to reduce the risk of transmitting Earth-based contaminants to other planets or
returning extraterrestrial creatures that could harm our ecosystem. It is also a practice of
preventing solar system bodies from being contaminated by Earth life while also protecting
Earth from potential life forms that may return from other solar system worlds. Current
planetary protection policies, such as the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)
principles that expand on the 'harmful contamination' concept in the Outer Space Treaty, can
be said to present ethical dilemmas involving the prioritisation of immediate human interests
(e.g., minimising the burden of exploration) over long-term environmental protection
(Rummel, Race and Horneck, 2012). Furthermore, NASA's Office of Planetary Protection
encourages responsible solar system exploration by implementing and developing initiatives
to protect the science, explored environments, and the Earth. Their planetary protection
standards and requirements ensure safe and reliable scientific research into extraterrestrial
life (Bishop, 2023). The primary goals defined are to:

 Carefully control forward contamination of other worlds by terrestrial organisms and

organic materials transported by spacecraft in order to guarantee the integrity of the
search and study of extraterrestrial life, if it exists (Bishop, 2023).
 Rigorously preclude backward contamination of Earth by extraterrestrial life or
bioactive molecules in returned samples from habitable worlds in order to prevent
potentially harmful consequences for humans and the Earth’s biosphere (Bishop,
2023).

However, the issue of planetary protection goes far beyond simply preventing cross-
contamination. As deep space exploration allows us to travel farther from Earth and explore
new planets, we will require regulations and norms to guide us and allow us to learn more
about the universe in an ethical way. One possible way to protect other environments is to
only send robots rather than humans. However, robotic exploration has several concerns
and limitations that human exploration does not, but the effectiveness of sterilization is so
much greater for robots that this may be the only ethical way to continue exploration. It is
essential that there are discussions around this topic, and that people from all walks of life
and around the world have a voice in designing guidelines for space exploration. Between
the extremes of exploring without care for contamination or other harm, and stopping space
exploration altogether, there might be a set of protocols which minimize destruction and
allow us to continue to satisfy our curiosity and drive for discovery.
Environmental Impact

Space exploration (by robotic and manned missions) is a natural extension of mankind’s
desire to explore our own universe. Likewise, the development of the space environment—
for industry, commerce and tourism—is a natural extension of our current corporate and
domestic agendas. Unfortunately, this comes with it the potential to pollute, degrade and
even destroy aspects of the space environment. Currently, scientists are concerned that the
increasing numbers of rocket flights, deep space missions to Mars and beyond, and space
commercialisation and tourism could harm Earth’s atmosphere and contribute to climate
change (Pultarova, 2021).
Space exploration has historically received little environmental concern, for a variety of
reasons. For one thing, the industry is small, with just a few launches per year, thus any
environmental repercussions are insignificant in comparison to other industries. Second, the
space industry has a long history of being perceived as government-focused, much like
national security and defence. However, the space industry has seen significant changes.
The number of launches per year has increased. The space launch report states that there
were 104 successful launches in 2020 and 133 successful launches in 2021 (Twiss, 2022).
Furthermore, the ultimate aims of the private space sector greatly outnumber these figures.
For example, SpaceX intends to launch their Starship up to three times each day, resulting in
around 1000 trips per year, while Virgin Galactic aims to offer over 400 flights per year per
launch site. Furthermore, various space agencies, including NASA and ISRO, are planning
robotic and manned missions to Mars and beyond. As the number of rockets launches per
year increases, so does their environmental impact (Twiss, 2022).
The impact of increased rocket launches is from launch exhaust. Exhaust can contain
greenhouse gases including CO2 and H2O, as well as particles of alumina and black
carbon, also known as soot (Twiss, 2022). The main problem is that rockets pollute the
upper layers of the atmosphere, which begin at a height of around 6.2 miles and rise to 31
miles (Kluger, 2023). This is where the protective ozone layer is also found. Black carbon,
which is produced by burning fossil fuels or biomass, absorbs ultraviolet light, which means it
has the potential to heat the stratosphere and have a direct impact on the ozone layer. When
the stratosphere begins to warm, it may have an impact on what is going on at ground level.
Furthermore, at lower altitudes, black carbon falls quickly from the sky and remains in the
atmosphere for only a few days or weeks (Twiss, 2022). However, once rockets launch into
space, they exhaust black carbon into the stratosphere, where it can linger for up to four
years before coming back to Earth. Several studies have found that black carbon discharged
into the stratosphere is almost 500 times more harmful to the climate than similar emissions
on or near the earth's surface (McKenna, 2022). This would have a huge impact on the
ozone layer, depleting it and causing global warming, climate change, and exposure to
ultraviolet radiation (UV rays).
Another environmental issue is space debris. Over the last decade, the worldwide space
community has become more concerned about space debris. Space debris—defunct rocket
stages, old satellites, objects discharged during space missions, and thousands of
microscopic particles produced by their collision—has gained widespread recognition
outside of the space sector (Clormann and Klimburg-Witjes, 2021). It isn’t only detrimental
to the scientific community, but also the rest of humanity and all living things on Earth. This is
because space debris has a direct, harmful influence on the environment, as items left in
space emit numerous chemicals into the atmosphere, contributing to the loss of the ozone
layer (Safdie, 2023). Moreover, space debris can also prevent future launches from
succeeding, which means that all of the fuel used to carry the spacecraft into space may
wind up polluting the environment even more than originally intended.
Space agencies and private companies involved in space exploration have an ethical
obligation to prioritise the development and deployment of sustainable technologies.
Balancing scientific discoveries with a commitment to reducing carbon footprint is critical to
ensuring the long-term viability of space exploration. Furthermore, ethical stewardship of the
Earth's orbital environment necessitates that space-faring countries and organisations
actively address space debris issues. Responsible spacecraft design techniques, careful
mission planning, and international cooperation are required to reduce environmental effect
and maintain the integrity of Earth's orbital region. Gradually, however, protection of the
space environment is beginning to appear on the space community's agenda, as increasing
numbers of space professionals begin to consider mankind's collective attitude towards the
space environment.
Currently, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) governs most environmental
regulations for launches. Furthermore, organisations like Quad have made significant efforts
to address the issue of space debris. The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is a
strategic forum created in 2007 by four democratic nations: the United States, Australia,
Japan, and India (Singh, 2023). The initiative promotes a free, open, and inclusive Indo-
Pacific region by addressing common concerns and strengthening collaboration in areas
including maritime security, infrastructure development, and disaster assistance. In recent
years, the Quad's focus has broadened to include emergent areas of collaboration, such as
cybersecurity, climate change, and space exploration. Space debris management has
emerged as a critical component of the Quad's coordinated space activities (Singh, 2023).
The picture below depicts the organization's many initiatives to alleviate the issue of space
debris.
 Figure1. Individual initiatives by Quad nations for space debris management
While rocket launches appear to have a negligible impact in comparison to other industries,
with the rise of space tourism and the continued privatisation of space, as well as missions
to deep space (Mars and beyond), the environmental impacts of these explorations will
become more and more significant.
Clearly, such impacts raise concerns not just about the sustainability of such activities, but
also about the moral and ethical implications of such travel, which is limited to the extremely
wealthy, but the expenses are carried by everybody, with few gains to show for the effort.
Moreover, being the stewards of Earth, it is our responsibility to safeguard it and prevent the
destruction of it as the environmental pollution rises and the possible depletion of ozone
layer. Finally, space ethics is an interdisciplinary field that studies the moral and ethical
implications of human actions in outer space. As we continue to investigate and expand our
presence beyond Earth, we must address these problems and guarantee that our actions
are governed by ethical values that benefit mankind and the cosmos as a whole (New
Space Economy, 2023). As space becomes more accessible, with conventional and new
organizations launching complex and innovative initiatives including robotics (including
sample return) and human exploration, we bear responsibility for protecting the pristine
habitats we explore, as well as our own biosphere.
Integration of Artificial
Intelligence (AI)
Exploration and Robotics is a sector of the space industry that is primarily reliant on
technology and confronts significant hurdles in achieving mission science objectives. It also
has good potential for spin-along activities, allowing terrestrial innovations from other sectors
to be gathered and innovated, yielding in technological improvements helping both terrestrial
and extraterrestrial environments. In deep space, astronauts will be more interdependent,
and because to communication delays, they will be forced to run the operation without
assistance from ground staff. This would demand the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to
efficiently automate tasks.

The exponential increase in space data collected by satellites, telescopes, and interplanetary
probes need AI's analytical capabilities. Modern space equipment generate terabytes of data
per day, considerably more than scientists can manually study (Ali, 2023). AI automation
helps to classify and process streams of pictures, sensor readings, and spectral data. NASA,
for example, uses AI in the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, which filters and prioritises data at
speeds of up to six megabits per second. Scientists trained their artificial intelligence (AI)
algorithms to recognise important elements in billions of photos of the Martian terrain.
Furthermore, astronomers use AI to search astronomical databases. Scientists trained
neural networks to detect exoplanets from dips in light curves. These AI techniques can also
identify and categorise galaxy types and cluster stars based on their mutual motion (Ali,
2023).

For example, NASA collaborated with Google to train its extensive AI algorithms to efficiently
sift through data from the Kepler exoplanet mission in search of signals from an exoplanet
crossing in front of its parent star. This excellent teamwork immediately resulted in the
discovery of two new exoplanets that had previously been overlooked by human
astronomers. Following its success, AI has been applied to data from NASA's TESS
spacecraft to detect potential exoplanets. AI supports robotic rovers on planetary surfaces
such as Mars by offering advanced autonomy for tasks such as vision-based navigation,
path planning, object identification, and adaptive mission prioritisation, allowing them to
navigate rough and unfamiliar terrain utilising onboard maps and sensors (ESA, 2022).

Another example is NASA's Curiosity and Perseverance rovers, which uses AEGIS, a
powerful AI system, to create autonomous 3D landscape maps while identifying rock
characteristics and soil composition. It can also recommend day-long activities based on
topographical complexity, energy consumption, and scientific value (Ali, 2023).

Such intelligent characteristics will become increasingly important when future rover
missions target more remote locations with greater delays in communication from Earth,
such as gas planets and their icy moons. Furthermore, AI enables autonomous navigation
and adaptable science, allowing rovers to respond to discoveries quickly rather than waiting
for delayed instructions (Ali, 2023).
Increasing robotic autonomy allows humans to connect with or use robots more effectively—
as assistants/peers in mixed human-robot teams or goal-oriented completely autonomous
explorers. Planning, scheduling, and resource management allow robotic agents to manage
their own actions while working within limited resources. Navigation, mode and state
estimation, and situational awareness capabilities, also known as integrated vehicle health
management and prognostics, allow autonomous robots to track their own status as well as
the state of their local and immediate environment in order to function properly. By
combining multi-modal data streams - from sensors tracking heart rate and skin temperature
to exercise and sleep patterns - predictive health analytics powered by AI can enable
personalised interventions for each astronaut. Combining real-time vital signs, behavioural
indications, and environmental factors in a holistic manner enables sophisticated
diagnostics, early risk warnings, and personalised treatment plans (Ali, 2023).

For example, Airbus, IBM, and the German Aerospace Centre developed the Crew
Interactive Mobile Companion (CIMON), a voice-controlled AI robot that flew to the
International Space Station (ISS) in 2018. CIMON can see, hear, understand, and
communicate via speech and facial recognition, allowing it to navigate the space station,
locate and retrieve goods, document experiments, and display instructions. This could be
later used in missions in deep space, to help support astronauts in their daily tasks (Ali,
2023).

Additionally, early findings have suggested that current breakthroughs in Research

& Development (R&D) initiatives related to AI and space robotics could have substantial
knock-on effects in numerous areas, including the following:

1) Nuclear facility decommissioning includes post-operational clearance, initial

decommissioning, interim decommissioning, and final demolition.
2) Health and care include robotic surgery, diagnostics, independent living, nursing
systems, prostheses, and analysis and therapy.
3) Emergency services: to improve responsiveness, eliminate life-threatening risks, and
increase deployment efficiency.
4) Deep mining: for exploration, excavation, and refinement in wind energy for turbine
inspection and maintenance.
5) Seabed robotics: for the discovery and extraction of oil, gas, and mineral resources
on the ocean floor.
6) The water industry for asset inspection, maintenance, and health condition
monitoring.
7) Agriculture industry: for crop inspection and precision farming.

(Space Robotics & Autonomous Systems: Widening the horizon of space exploration UK-
RAS White papers, 2016)

The industries connected with each of these areas are predicted to undergo massive
expansion in the future years, and the adoption and integration of robotics-based products
and services into these applications are expected to yield economic advantages of at least
$1.9 trillion by 2025. (Space Robotics & Autonomous Systems: Widening the horizon of
space exploration UK-RAS White papers, 2016)

Lastly, Artificial Intelligence (AI) plays a revolutionary role in space travel by

processing massive amounts of data from celestial bodies and identifying threats such as
solar storms and space debris. It increases spaceship autonomy, decreases human reliance,
and helps astronauts with operations, navigation, and satellite monitoring. Furthermore, the
development of AI for space robotics will also have a tremendous impact on the growth of
several sectors and the economy in the next years.

Conclusion
Deep space exploration presents tremendous opportunities, formidable challenges, and
significant ethical implications. As we prepare to venture beyond our planet's bounds, the
prospect of scientific discovery, technological innovation, and the expansion of human
presence in the universe is both exciting and scary. This dissertation has demonstrated
some of these benefits and how they have sparked scientific and technological
advancements that help people all around the world every day while also addressing global
concerns. Sending humans and robots into space presents challenges that can only be
overcome with extreme inventiveness; this results in new knowledge and innovations in
technology that are applied on Earth in spectacular and unanticipated ways. Without space
programmes, we would not have GPS, reliable weather forecasting, solar cells, immediate
worldwide communication, or ultraviolet filters in sunglasses and cameras. Furthermore, the
necessities of deep space travel have resulted in a variety of paradigm-shifting medical
innovations that can improve our standard of care on Earth across all populations and
delivery methods.
Deep space exploration provides a cultural and inspiring purpose by meeting a deep urge to
understand the universe, answering questions about the beginnings of life and the nature of
the Universe. Deep space exploration offers unique opportunities to address some of
society's current global challenges because it stimulates significant global investment and
international partnerships, and because the extremely difficult nature necessitates the
development of cutting-edge technical capabilities. When governments collaborate on
ambitious space missions, international collaboration expands the ability to reach deep
space. It aligns interests and forms ties to promote global peace and stability. Economically,
the extraction of resources from celestial bodies and asteroids has the potential to power a
new era of industry, providing up options for long-term resource utilization beyond Earth.
However, these opportunities come with enormous challenges. The vast distances required
in deep space travel necessitate advancements in communication technologies. The harsh
conditions of space, such as radiation and microgravity, pose threats to both human health
and the functionality of spacecraft. Additionally, the financial commitments and logistical
complexities of deep space missions require sustained international cooperation, strategic
planning, and public support to overcome.
Ethical concerns are paramount in this context. As we expand our reach into space,
planetary protection becomes increasingly important. Ensuring that our activities do not
inadvertently contaminate celestial bodies with Earth-based microorganisms, potentially
compromising the search for extraterrestrial life, requires careful planning and adherence to
ethical guidelines. Furthermore, the prospect of sending rockets into space raises concerns
about the environmental impact and ozone layer depletion, which must be addressed.
In conclusion, the current state of deep space exploration provides enormous opportunities
for humanity, providing prospects for scientific discovery, technical improvement, and
economic development. However, overcoming the challenges given by the vastness of
space, severe circumstances, and financial and logistical barriers necessitates a concerted
and collective effort. Furthermore, addressing the ethical implications of our journeys into
deep space is critical to ensuring that our exploration is carried out responsibly, with respect
for the sanctity of celestial habitats and the well-being of both humans and potential
extraterrestrial life.
As mankind starts on this cosmic journey, we must approach deep space exploration with
awe, humility, and ethical responsibility. Furthermore, given the opportunities created by the
previous fifty years of space activity, I believe that spending money on space programs is
worth it, considering the renewed investments in deep space exploration will have similar
positive impacts for future generations, as humanity will develop cutting-edge technologies
to overcome the challenges and ethical issues associated with deep space exploration, and
these technologies will be beneficial on Earth for the development of the human race.
Glossary
1. AI: Artificial intelligence, the ability of a digital computer or computer-
controlled robot to perform tasks commonly associated with intelligent beings.
2. CIMON: Crew Interactive Mobile Companion, a free-floating, sphere-shaped
interactive companion that can assist the astronauts in their daily work.
3. COSPAR: The Committee on Space Research, an international committee of the
International Council for Science, provides scientific advice and serves as a
consultative body to the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space
(COPUOS).
4. CO2: The chemical symbol for carbon dioxide.
5. CT-Scan: Computed tomography is commonly referred to as a CT scan. A CT scan is
a diagnostic imaging procedure that uses a combination of X-rays and computer
technology to produce images of the inside of the body.
6. Ethics: moral principles that govern a person's behaviour or the conducting of an
activity.
7. GCR: Galactic Cosmic Rays are the slowly varying, highly energetic background
source of energetic particles that constantly bombard Earth.
8. Haemorrhage: an acute loss of blood from a damaged blood vessel.
9. H20: The chemical symbol for water.
10. IBM: IBM (International Business Machines Corporation) is a multinational
technology company.
11. ICU: intensive care unit, a unit in a hospital providing intensive care for critically ill or
injured patients that is staffed by specially trained medical personnel and has
equipment that allows for continuous monitoring and life support.
12. ISRO: Indian Space Research Organisation
13. ISS: International Space Station
14. LASIK: LASIK eye surgery is the best known and most commonly performed laser
refractive surgery to correct vision problems.
15. Multi-Team Systems (MTSs): complex organizational forms comprising
interdependent teams that work towards their own proximal goals within and across
teams to also accomplish a shared superordinate goal.
16. NASA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration
17. Outer Space Treaty: Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the
Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.
18. Peer Review: The peer-review process subjects an author's scholarly work,
research, or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are experts in the same field (peers)
and is considered necessary to ensure academic scientific quality.
19. Planetary Protection: the practice of protecting solar system bodies from
contamination by Earth life and protecting Earth from possible life forms that may be
returned from other solar system bodies.
20. Polysomnography: Polysomnography, known as a sleep study, is a test used to
diagnose sleep disorders.
21. QUAD: The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is a strategic forum established
in 2007, comprising four democratic nations: the United States, Australia, Japan, and
India. The initiative aims to promote a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific region by
addressing shared regional challenges and fostering cooperation in various areas,
such as maritime security, infrastructure development, and disaster relief.
22. Radiation: a form of energy that comes from a nuclear reaction and that can be
very dangerous to health.
23. SANS: Spaceflight associated Neuro-Ocular Syndrome (SANS)—formerly called
visual impairment and intracranial pressure (VIIP) syndrome.
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Appendices
Appendix A: Gantt Chart showing the planning of the EPQ into sections and when
these sections were completed.