CONTROL SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY

Vietnam National University - HCM

Ho Chi Minh City University of Technolog
Faculty of Mechanical Engineerin

SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND SENSORS

Augie Widyotriatmo, Ph.D.

Head of Autonomous Systems Laboratory
Instrumentation and Control Research Group
Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia
https://www.itb.ac.id/staf/profil/augie-widyotriatmo
SECTION OBJECTIVES
• Design inverting amplifier, non inverting amplifier, summing amplifier, differential
amplifier using opamp.
• Illustrate concepts of isolation and impedance changes.
• Apply the Wheatstone bridge circuit in the signal processing.
• Calculate sampling rate and sampling period.
• Determine quantization error of an A/D converter.
• Calculate the number of pulses required for an encoder in a certain application.
• Present basic characteristics and usage of a certain sensor applied in motion systems or
industrial processes.
• Look up basic specifications of a certain relay.
• Present working principle of stepping motors in terms of speed and direction.
• Compare four types of actuator: mechanical system, electrical system, electronic system
and microcontroller system

Control Systems Technology: Augie Widyotriatmo, Ph.D. 2

CONTROL SYSTEM EQUIPMENT
• Sensors
• Actuators
• Controllers
• Signal Conditioning/Processing

Control Systems Technology: Augie Widyotriatmo, Ph.D. 3

SIGNAL CONDITIONING -
PROCESSING

Control Systems Technology: Augie Widyotriatmo, Ph.D. 4

SIGNAL CONDITIONING ELEMENT - AMPLIFIER
• Amplifier
• Operational Amplifier
• Instrument Amplifier

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER Contoh : IC op-amp 741

◼ Primary op-amp terminal

 Inverting input
 Non-inverting input
 Output
 Power supply

Dual op-amp 1458

AMPLIFIER : OP - AMP
Ideal Op-Amp Charactristics • Zero noise contribution
• Infinite open loop voltage gain • Zero DC output offset
• Open loop gain is gain of op-amp • Output offset is output voltage when
without feedback both of inputs are zero (ground)
• Ideal open loop gain : infinity
• Infinite impedance input
• Current input is ZERO
• Some low grade op-amp have
current input in mA
• Zero impedance output
• Some op-amps have impedance
output about 100 – 200 W
◼ Infinite bandwidth
◼ Differential inputs that stick
together
AMPLIFIER : OP – AMP CIRCUITS
• Voltage comparator • Voltage follower
AMPLIFIER : OP – AMP CIRCUITS
• Non-inverting amplifier ◼ Summing amplifier

• Inverting amplifier ◼ Differential amplifier

AMPLIFIER : OP – AMP CIRCUITS
• Integrating amplifier ◼ Current to Voltage converter

◼ Voltage to Current converter

• Differentiating amplifier
AMPLIFIER : INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
• Differential Amplifier • Tegangan COMMON MODE &
DIFFERENCE MODE
AMPLIFIER : INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
▪ If R input 1 & 2 are not similar, then gain for those inputs are different

▪ Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

 CMRR is a function of frequency and inversely to its frequency

▪ INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER or Differential

Amplifier :
▪ High Gain
▪ Single ended Output
▪ High input impedance
▪ High CMRR
SIGNAL CONDITIONING ELEMENT - FILTER
▪ Filter classification ▪ Filter classification
(applications) (frequency response)
▪ Active Filter ▪ Low pass filter
▪ RLC Circuit with Op-amp ▪ High pass filter
▪ Pasive Filter ▪ Bandpass filter
▪ RLC circuit ▪ Band Stop (notch)
▪ Digital Filter
SIGNAL CONDITIONING ELEMENT - FILTER
• Low pass filter • High pass filter
SIGNAL CONDITIONING ELEMENT - FILTER
▪ Bandpass filer
▪ Serial HPF & LPF
▪ HPF has lower corner frequency than LPF
▪ Use a buffer between HPF and LPF

▪ Band stop filter (notch)

▪ Parallel of HPF & LPF
▪ HPF has higher corner
frequency than LPF
SIGNAL PROCESSING ELEMENT : MULTIPLEXING
• The circuit for selection of the signal input under the
digital signal control
AD/DA CONVERTER

Control Systems Technology: Augie Widyotriatmo, Ph.D. 16

SIGNAL PROCESSING ELEMENT : ANALOG – DIGITAL CONVERTER
• Single Slope atau Ramp
ADC
• Elements
• Counter biner
• DAC
• Analog Comparator
• Operation
• Reset counter
• Sampling the Analog Input
• If VA > VB counter increase
• If VA = VB counter stop and
binary code as the output
• Characteristics
• Relatively slow, since the
conversion time about 2N,
where N is ADC resolution
SIGNAL PROCESSING ELEMENT : ANALOG – DIGITAL CONVERTER
Successive approximation ADC
• Elements
• DAC
• Analog Comparator
• Control Logic Module
• Successive Approx Register

• Operation
• Initial condition : all bit are
ZERO then start from MSB is
equal 1 (10000…..0)
SIGNAL PROCESSING ELEMENT : DIGITAL – ANALOG CONVERTER
• Binary weighted ladder
• Each iput is weighted by the resistors
LOADING EFFECTS

TF - 3102 : Measurement Error & Loading Effects 20

INTRODUCTION
Loading Effect (measuring instrument – medium)
• A measuring instrument may affect or overload the medium or system being
measured
Inter-element loading
• An element in the system may modify the characteristics of the previous element
(for ex., by drawing current).
• In turn, the characteristics of this element may be modified by the following
element in the system.

TF - 3102 : Measurement Error & Loading Effects 21

LOADING EFFECT ON THE MEDIUM
• The measuring instrument may overload the medium or process to be measured,
• The loading effect may induce the error of measurement

• Ex. :
• Thermometer overloads the medium
• Voltmeter or Ammeter oveloads the electric circuit to be measured

TF - 3102 : Measurement Error & Loading Effects 22

LOADING EFFECT ON VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT

• Voltmeter is connected, in • The voltmeter indicates that

parallel, to the measured the measurement result is
voltage terminal lower than the true value
• Then, the current is not only
flowing via the resistor but
also the voltmeter
LOADING EFFECT

TF - 3102 : Measurement Error & Loading Effects 23

LOADING EFFECT ON VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT
Example :
• Two voltmeters, voltmeter 1 with sensitivity of 1000 W/V and voltmeter 2 with
20.000 W/V
• Both of voltmeter applied in range of 0 – 50 volt

• Find :
• Voltmeter reading
• Measurement (reading) error

TF - 3102 : Measurement Error & Loading Effects 24

LOADING EFFECT ON CURRENT MEASUREMENT

• Ammeter is connected, in • The Ammeter indicates that

serial, to the measured the measurement result is
current path lower than the true value
• Then, there is the voltage
drop in the Ammeter
LOADING EFFECT

TF - 3102 : Measurement Error & Loading Effects 25

LOADING EFFECT ON CURRENT MEASUREMENT
Example :
• Two Ammeters, Ammeter 1 with internal resistance of 1000 W and Ammeter 2
with 50 W
• Both of Ammeters applied in range of 0 – 10 mA

• Find :
• Ammeter reading
• Measurement (reading) error

TF - 3102 : Measurement Error & Loading Effects 26

INTER ELEMENT OF SYSTEM
LOADING

TF - 3102 : Measurement Error & Loading Effects 27

INTER ELEMENT LOADING
• Loading effect in Measurement System
• Process loading
• Inter element loading
• Effect of loading in measurement
• Decreasing in accuracy

Loading Analysis
(electric circuit equivalent)

THEVENIN equivalent circuit

NORTON equivalent circuit
TF - 3102 : Measurement Error & Loading Effects 28
LOADING ANALYSIS
◼ THEVENIN equivalent circuit
Loading Analysis
◼ NORTON equivalent circuit

▪ THEVENIN equivalent circuit

ETH
Current : i=
Z TH + Z L
ZL
Voltage : VL = i Z L = ETH  ETH
ZTH + Z L
Where : Z L  ZTH
TF - 3102 : Measurement Error & Loading Effects 29
THEVENIN EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
▪ Ex : Temperature Measurement System

−6 2 106 10 4
Vin = 40 10 T VL = 1000Vin 4
2 106 + 20 10 + 75
 2 106  10 4 
TM =   4 T
 2 10 + 20  10 + 75 
6

= 0.9925T
“loading error” ?

TF - 3102 : Measurement Error & Loading Effects 30

THEVENIN EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
▪ pH Measurement System

Find the measured pH ?

▪ without the amplifier
▪ applying the amplifier

TF - 3102 : Measurement Error & Loading Effects 31

NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

▪ NORTON Equivalent Circuit

ZN  ZL
VoltageV
:L = iN  iN  Z N
ZN + ZL

Where : Z L  Z N

TF - 3102 : Measurement Error & Loading Effects 32

NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
▪ Ex. : Differential Pressure Transmitter

The voltage across the total load of recorder and cable :

RN (RC + RR ) The recorder voltage :

VL = iN
RN + RC + RR VR = iN RR
RN
RN + RC + RR

VR = 0,9995 iN RR “loading error” = 0,05% ?

TF - 3102 : Measurement Error & Loading Effects 33
SENSORS

Control Systems Technology: Augie Widyotriatmo, Ph.D. 34

 Mechatronics

Hall effect Sensors

Variable Reluctance Sensor
Ultrasonic Sensors (Sonic Distance Sensors)
Photo Interrupt
Pressure Sensors
Accelerometers
Motion Sensors (Including Load Cell)
HALL EFFECT SENSORS

• Developed by Edwin
Hall Effect Sensor Sensing a Shaft Speed
Hall in 1879; and
hence the name Hall
effect

• Used to:
• provide noncontact
means to detect and
measure magnetic
field
http://farm1.static.flickr.com/62/227729006_fab88c1668.jpg?v=0
HOW THEY WORK

• Presence of magnetic field Depiction principle of the Hall

deflects electrons flowing through Effect
conductive material

• As electrons move to one end of

conductive material:
• Potential is developed in direction
perpendicular to gross current flow
• Potential indicates strength of
magnetic field

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Hall_eff
ect_A.png
APPLICATIONS

• IC Engine Electronic Ignition Systems

• Used to determine position of cam shaft
• Brushless DC Motor Control
• Sensors determine position of permanent magnet rotor
• Assembly Lines
• To determine shaft position and velocity
• As contactless limit switches
• Current Sensing ICs
• Electrically isolated alternative to shunt resistors
HALL EFFECT SENSOR TYPES
• Linear Hall Effect Sensors
• Output is proportional to magnetic field strength
• Hall Effect Digital Switches
• Presence of magnetic field above threshold turns switch on
• Presence of magnetic field below threshold turns switch off
• Hall Effect Digital Latches
• North field turns latch on
• South field turns latch off
PACKAGING AND MANUFACTURERS

• ICs
• Analog Devices:
• AD22151G from Analog Devices SOT23
• Allegro MicroSystems, Inc.
• Wide range of linear, latching and SIP
http://www.allegromicro.com/en/Products/Part_
switching sensors Numbers/1120/pinout.gif

• Great sampling policy

• Many, many more
• Packaged units
• Honeywell
• Many, many more Hall Effect
Sensor Module
http://sensing.honeywell.com/client_asset/docu
ment/1/5/4/0/3/5/document_C3697B35-C930-
CB7C-FE090DFFCE61FB22.jpg
IMPLEMENTATION AND WORDS OF WARNING

• Sensors may be affected by temperature variation.

• Some sensors incorporate circuitry to reduce this error.
• Sensors may be directional:
• Care must be taken with respect to orientations of sensor
and magnet
• Some Hall Effect sensors detect presence of
ferromagnetic materials, not magnetic fields
VARIABLE RELUCTANCE SENSORS

• Used to measure speed and/or

position of moving metallic Industrial Variable
Reluctance Sensor
object
• Sense change of magnetic
reluctance (analogous to
electrical resistance) near
sensing element
• Require conditioning circuitry to http://www.motionsensors.com/railwithoring2.jpg

yield a useful signal (e.g.

LM1815 from National Semi.)
HOW VARIABLE RELUCTANCE SENSORS WORK

• Magnet in sensor creates magnetic field

• As ferrous object moves by sensor
• Resulting change in magnetic flux induces emf in pickup
coil

Variable Reluctance Sensor Construction Typical Configuration

http://www.instronics.com/images/sensoronix/image.ds.drawing.vr.jpg
TYPICAL APPLICATION

• Shaft velocity sensor for ABS/traction control

• Crank and cam shaft position sensors

Sensor Schematic Installed on CV axle

http://www.me.gatech.edu/mechatronics_lab/Projects/Spring07/Group1/dorthy6.JPG
INTERFACING CONCERNS

• Emf is proportional to rate of change of

magnetic flux.
• Dictates ferrous material must be moving for sensor to
generate signal.
• Output voltage is dependent on velocity of toothed
wheel
• Performance may be reduced at slow speeds
 Ultrasonic Transducer

• Ultrasonic transducer (piezoelectric transducer) is

device that converts electrical energy into ultrasound

• Upon receiving sound echo (pressure wave) back

from surface, ultrasound transducer will turn sound
waves into electrical energy which can be measured
and displayed

• Ultrasound are sound waves above normal range of

human hearing (greater than 20K hertz).
▪Since piezoelectric crystal generates voltage when force is
applied to it, same crystal can be used as an ultrasonic
generator and detector
▪ Some systems use separate transmitter and receiver
components while others combine both in single
piezoelectric transceiver
▪Alternative methods for creating and detecting ultrasound
include magnetostriction and capacitive actuation.

Pulse echo
sensor

Transmit-Receive
sensor
• Sound is transmitted through propagation of pressure
in air
• Speed of sound in air is normally 331 m/sec at 0oC
and 343 m/sec at 20oC for dry air
• Digital signal processor embedded in sensor
calculates distance between sensor and object
▪ X = vsound . t
▪ Where:
▪ Vsound is known
▪ t = 0.5 (time of flight)
▪ X is distance between sensor head and object
▪ Range of sensor varies between 5 cm to 20 m
▪ Sensor is not appropriate for very short distance
measurements
▪ Frequency response (distance measurement update
rate) varies with distance measured
• In general, it is about 100 Hz
• Piezoelectric crystals have property of changing size
when voltage is applied
• Applying alternating current (AC) across them causes
them to oscillate at very high frequencies
• Producing very high frequency sound waves
• Ultrasonic sensors work on principle similar to radar or
sonar
•Radar and Sonar evaluate attributes of target
•Interpreting echoes from radio or sound waves respectively
 Applications
Medical:
▪ Medical ultrasonic transducers (probes):
▪ Come in variety of different shapes and sizes for
use in making pictures of different parts of body
▪ Transducer may be:
▪ Passed over surface of body or
▪ Inserted into body opening such as rectum or
woman’s reproductive organ
▪ Clinicians who perform ultrasound-guided procedures
often use probe positioning system to hold the
ultrasonic transducer.
▪ Technology can be used for measuring:
• wind speed and direction (anemometer),
• speed through air or water
• fullness of tank
• amount of liquid in tank
• sensor measures distance to surface of fluid.
• Other applications include:
• in robots for obstacle avoidance
• burglar alarms
• non-destructive testing, and etc
LASER ULTRASOUND SYSTEM

• Nd:YAG pulsed laser:

▪ Repetition rate: 20 Hz
▪ Pulse Width: 10 ns
▪ Pulse Energy: 45-450 mJ/pulse Control
▪ Beam Diameter: 6 mm Box
Nd:YAG
❑Positioning Stage: Laser
▪ Resolution: 50 μm
❑Electro-Magnetic Acoustic Transducer
(EMAT):
▪ Bandwidth: 200 kHz-2.5 MHz
❑Data Acquisition Card:
EMAT and
▪ Resolution: 14 bit
Positioning Preamp
▪ Sampling Rate: 125 MHz Data Acquisition
Axis-lead screw
and User Interface
AUTOMATED WELD INSPECTION SYSTEM
❑System consists of laser, beam delivery subsystem, stepper motor driven linear screw,
electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT), data acquisition card, computer
software, and control unit
❑Generated ultrasounds traveling through weld seams are received by EMAT
❑System resolution not yet determined, but has been used to detect 0.4 mm void
❑Used system to inspect 180 mm long weld bead at 1 mm increment in 26 secs
❑Type of defects: Lack of penetration; Blow hole; and Short leg

Lens Mirror 3
Mirror 2 Beam Delivery

Sample

Incident Laser Beam

Mirror 1 EMAT

Preamp Laser Linear Screw EMAT

IDENTIFICATIONS OF SOLDER BUMP DEFECTS IN CHIP
PACKAGES
Examples of Emerging Microelectronic Packages:

3-D Packaging: Stacked Die

Chip Scale Package Quad Flat Package (QFP)

Total Bumps: 560

Flip Chip

Ball Grid Array (BGA) Amkor Super BGA

OPTICAL MICROGRAPHS OF GOOD AND BAD SOLDER
BUMP CROSS SECTIONS

Good Solder Bump Head-in-Pillow defects

Two medium size voids near the interface Poor wetting, an intermittent connection
Optical micrographs of Good and Bad Solder
Bump Cross Sections

Pad crater with crack initiating at the trace Crack initiates at the edge of the pad

Inspection of solder bumps is crucial process in

microelectronics manufacturing industry.
 Intelligent Laser Ultrasound Inspection System
Laser Beam Delivery: Fiber-coupled sensor head DVT SmartImage Sensor Model: New Wave Research Polaris II
•High-quality fiber face polish with fiber •16 mm aperture •PC programmable stand-alone image processing Wavelength: 1064 nm or 532nm with SHG
injection optics •3 μm minimum spot diameter sensor Repetition Rate:1~20 Hz variable
•Stable laser injection optical mount •Variable standoff distance via •Fiducial coordinates sent to PC through serial port Pulse Width: 4-5 ns
•Rugged, rubber/metal fiber jacketing autofocus system •640 x 480 pixel resolution, 8–bit grayscale CCD Pulse Energy: 45mJ/pulse, optical attenuator
•Variable excitation spot (0.6-8.0 mm2) •1/10 th pixel software resolution, 5 mm viewing adjustable
•Excitation standoff distance > 50 mm B window
A •Possible sub-micron resolution C D
Typical Data Acquisition Parameters
•Sampling rate: 25 MHz @ 12-Bit res.
•Trigger source: Laser output
•Sample depth: 2048 samples (~ 82 μsec @
25 MHz)
•Voltage Range: ±100 mV (~ ±5 nm)
•Signal Averaging: 4–128 avgs. E
•High stiffness, preloaded bearings
•Integral X/Y table designed with wide base
to increase stiffness
•Higher bidirectional repeatability (< ±6 μm,)
•Larger mounting surface (326 x 326 mm)
•Larger travel (200 x 200 mm) F
•Stiff, pre-loaded linear motion components
•Linear encoder measurement (1μm res.)
•High precision (±10 μm)
G
Polytec Laser Doppler Vibrometer
•Heterodyne interferometer capable of
displacement measurements
•50 nm/Volt analog output
•150 nm full scale output (peak to peak)
•Operating Frequency Range: 50 kHz to 25
MHz
•Lower cutoff frequency: 25 kHz (-3 dB),H
rolloff 40 dB/dec

Vibrometer Autofocus System

•Hands free autofocus system to increase
repeatability and throughput
•Customizable focusing algorithms for
different kinds of chip package
•Remote operable
•Serial interface with MATLAB for fully
automated testing
•Average refocus time: 3 sec I
LASER ULTRASOUND INSPECTION (LUI)
SYSTEM3 US Patents Have Been Issued & 2 Pending
PHOTO INTERRUPT

• Uses emitter and detector

photo diode pair
• With no obstruction detector
is high
• When an object blocks the
light the detector is low

• Advantages
• Simple to interface
• Inexpensive
• Reliable
PHOTO INTERRUPT
TYPES

• Wide variety of packages and

orientations
• Types
• Logic (digital ±5 volts)
• Transistor/diode (analog)
• Manufacturers
• Fairchild
• Honeywell
PHOTO INTERRUPT
APPLICATIONS

• Encoder wheel for angular

measurements.
• Computer mouse with a ball
PHOTO INTERRUPT
APPLICATIONS

• Detect holes or slots for positioning

of liner slides
• Elevators
• Detect the location of products on
and assembly line
PRESSURE SENSORS

• Used to detect pressure of fluids

or gasses.
• Technologies (many)
• Strain gage
• Piezoresistive
• Microelectromechanical systems
(MEMS)
• Each sensor has a pressure range
that it works in.
• Most have analog outputs that
need amplification
• Some have built-in amplifiers for
direct connection into
microcontroller
PRESSURE SENSORS
TYPES

• Differential Pressure
• Difference between two or more
pressures introduced as inputs to
the sensing unit
• 2 input
• Absolute/Gage Pressure
• The pressure relative to perfect
vacuum pressure or set pressure
(like pressure at sea level)
• 1 input
PRESSURE SENSORS
APPLICATIONS

• Measure pressure of gas or fluids

• Measure altitude
• For plains or weather balloons
• Measure flow
• pressure sensors in conjunction with
the venturi effect to measure flow
• Measure depth of water
• When measuring liquids, most sensors
are not rated to have unclean liquids
contact the sensor components. A
small amount of air in the tube right
before the sensor will create a barrier
from the liquid.
ACCELEROMETERS

• Used to measure acceleration

• Common SI units meters/second2
(m/s2) or popularly in terms of g-
force (1 g is earth’s gravity)
• At rest an acceleration will
measure 1 g in the vertical
direction
• They can come in 1, 2 or 3 axis
configurations
• With 3 axis it gives a vector of the
accelerations direction (after
accounting for gravity)
ACCELEROMETERS

• Because of earth’s gravity, the

sensor will read 1 to 0 g as the
sensor is rotated from being
vertical to horizontal.
• This can be used to measure angle
the of tilt
• Each sensor has a range that it
works in.
• Most have analog outputs that
need amplification
• Some have built-in amplifiers for
direct connection into
microcontroller
ACCELEROMETERS
HOW THEY WORK

• Mechanically the accelerometer behaves as

a mass-damper-spring system
• Many use Microelectromechanical systems
(MEMS). Which use very small cantilever
beams with masses on them
• Under the influence of gravity or
acceleration, the proof mass deflects from
its neutral position.
• This deflection is measured in an analog or
digital manner
• Commonly the capacitance between a set of
fixed beams and a set of beams attached to
the proof mass is measured.
• Integrating piezoresistors in the springs to
detect spring deformation is another
method
ACCELEROMETERS
APPLICATIONS

• Can be used to sense orientation,

vibration and shocks.
• Used in electronics like the Wii
and iPhone for user input.
• Acceleration integrated once gives
velocity, integrated a second time
gives position.
• The integration process is not
precise and introduces error into the
velocity and position.
• Motions :
• Translational motion
▪ The motion of an object along a straight line from one point to relative
another point
• Rotational motion
• The motion of an object which rotates relative to a fixed axis.

• Motion Transducers
▪ Converting the motion to the electrical parameters such as :
resistance, capacitance, inductance
• Converting the motion to the fluid pressure : nozzle flapper
• Converting the motion to the electrical currents : piezoelectric
MOTION TO RESISTANCE
• Type of Sensor
• Potensiometer
• Strain gage
• Potensiometer:
• Translational
• Rotational
• Double Rotational
STRAIN GAGE RESISTANCE

Strain definition

Resistance of a wire :

L
R=
A

A(dL + Ld ) − LdA

dR =
A2
STRAIN GAGE RESISTANCE
• Wire volume
V = LA
dV = L dA + A dL
dV = L’A’ – LA
dV = L(1+e)A(1-2ne) – LA
= LA e(1-2n) → e = dL/L

Ex. : bonded metallic strain gage

dV = A dL(1- 2n)=LdA+ AdL - 2n A dL = L dA

A(dL + Ld ) + 2n AdL dL(1 + 2n ) Ld

dR = 2
= + 2
A A A
STRAIN GAGE RESISTANCE
◼ Change of wire resistance :

d
dR dL
= (1 + 2n ) +
R L 

◼ Define : GF = gage factor

dR R d 
GF = = 1 + 2n +
dL L dL L

Relatively small
for metal wire GF  1 + 2n
TYPES OF STRAIN GAGE

• Unbonded metal wire gage

• Bonded metal wire gage
• Bonded metal foil gage
• Vacum disposited thin
metal film gage Foil Strain Gage :
• Sputter-disposited thin
metal film gage
• Bonded Semiconductor
gage Rossete Gage :
• Diffused Semiconductor
gage
STRAIN GAUGE LOADCELL
• strain gauge load cell, which is a mechanical element
of which the force is being sensed by the
deformation of a (or several) strain gauge(s) on the
element.
BAR STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELLS
• In bar strain gauge load cells, the cell is set up in a “Z” formations so that torque
is applied to the bar and the four strain gauges on the cell will measure the
bending distortion, two measuring compression and two tension. When these
four strain gauges are set up in a Wheatstone bridge formation, it is easy to
accurately measure the small changes in resistance from the strain gauges.
•
STRAIN GAGE MEASUREMENT
• Using a Wheatstone bridge

 R3 R2 
V0 =  − VEX
 R3 + R4 R1 + R2 

R4 = strain gage

Quarter bridge circuit

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS .

◼ Strain-gage is sensitive to change of

temperature. RT R
KT =
◼ It is expressed by using the coefficient of T
temperature of strain gage :
Setting up all the strain gages on all
arm bridge circuit, it will cancel out
dummy gage the effect of temperature

R1 + R 3 − R 2 − R 4
eo = eeks
4R
IMPROVING THE SENSITIVITY

Half bridge circuit

Full bridge circuit

EX: SIGNAL CONDITIONING SYSTEM
PROBLEM
• A strain gage with GF = 2.4 and R = 120 W is used in a load cell with the modulus
of elasticity E = 2x106 kg/cm2. The resistance of strain gage is change to 120.2 W
when the load cell is under stress
• Find the stress in the load cell
• Design a wheatstone bridge and amplifier, if the output voltage from 0 to 5 volt is desired
HYDRAULIC LOAD CELLS
• Hydraulic load cells use a conventional piston and
cylinder arrangement to convey a change in pressure
by the movement of the piston and a diaphragm
arrangement which produces a change in the
pressure on a Bourdon tube connected with the load
cells.
PNEUMATIC LOAD CELLS
• Pneumatic load cells use air pressure applied to one end of a diaphragm, and it
escapes through the nozzle placed at the bottom of the load cell, which has a
pressure gauge inside of the cell.
DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER
Inductive Sensing Element

LVDT
Linear Variable Differential Transformer

Motion Measurement
EX. : LVDT
LVDT CIRCUIT
◼ LVDT open loop

dI p
Primary I p Rp + Lp − eeks = 0
dt
dI p
Secondary 1 eo1 = M 1 ( xi )
dt
dI p
Output open loop Secondary 2 eo 2 = M 2 ( xi )
es = eo1 − eo 2 = M 1 (xi ) − M 2 ( xi )
dI p dt
dt

eo = es = M 1 ( xi ) − M 2 ( xi )
D
eeks
Lp D + Rp
(M 1 (xi ) − M 2 (xi ))D R p Lp
eo
(D ) = p =
eeks  pD +1 Rp
LVDT CIRCUIT
◼ Closed loop of LVDT with internal resistance Rm

Circuit Equation : Second order - type one

i p R p + L p Di p − (M 1 − M 2 )Dis − eeks = 0
system,
input frequency can be
(M1 − M 2 )Di p + (Rs + Rm )is + Ls Dis = 0 detected around natural
frequency (wn)

Transfer Function :
Rm (M 2 − M 1 )D
eo
(D ) =
eeks    
(M 1 − M 2 )2 + L p Ls D 2 + L p (Rs + Rm ) + Ls R p D + (Rs + Rm )R p
LVDT CIRCUIT
Natural Frequency of LVDT
(Rs + Rm )R p
wn =
(M 1 − M 2 )2 + Lp Ls

Sensitivity in w ~ wn
Rm M 2 (xi ) − M 1 (xi ')Rm 
K=
L p (Rs + Rm ) + Ls L p

Damping ratio L p (Rs + Rm ) + Ls L p

=

2 R p (Rs + Rm )(M 1 − M 2 ) − L p Ls
2

CORE MOVEMENT & OUTPUT VOLTAGE

• A circuit which sensitive to the phase change is required

PHASE SENSITIVE DEMODULATOR
PHASE SENSITIVE DEMODULATOR
• PSD circuit rectifies the output signal, so that the excitation frequency
becomes weks + wi
• Using the PSD circuit, (+) or (-) of core movement can be distinguished
FILTERING IN LVDT

Low Pass Filter

FILTERING IN LVDT
• To reduce the ripple ➔ the 2nd order filter is applied
LVDT : PROBLEMS
▪ An LVDT produces the voltage output of 2 Vrms for core movement of 50x10-6
cm.
▪ Find the sensitivitt of LVDT in mV/mm.
▪ If the output of 2 V is read in a voltmeter with range 0 – 5 V, 100 division
of scale and the scale can be read until 0.2 division. Calculate the
resolution of instrument in mm

▪ An LVDT is applied for measurement of motion of -20 to 20 mm, with the

sensitivity of 2.5 mV/mm. The output is connected to a computer through a
ADC
▪ Find the range of voltage output
▪ If the resolution of 0.5 mm is desired, determine the bit of ADC
▪ Design an analog signal conditioning element if the ADC with 5 volt
bipolar input is applied

▪ Design a LVDT system for measurement of liquid level from 0 to 1 m. The LVDT
core movement is 3 cm. If the output of LVDT system is introduced to the 10
bit of ADC, find the resolution of teh instrument
CAPACITANCE SENSOR
Principle :
xi ▪ the movement of one of
A capacitor plates causes change
C= the capacitance
xi ▪ If the capacitor is integrated in a
electrical circuit, the output
▪ Motion to be measured
represents a movement
▪ Translational
▪ Advantages :
▪ rotational
▪ simple mechanism
▪ The capacitance between
▪ mechanical loading effect is
two parallel conductor plates
relatively small
with the medium of air :
▪ high sensitivity
C=
0,225 A
(pF)
xi
CAPACITANCE SENSOR
EX. :CAPACITANCE SENSOR
EX. : MEASUREMENT OF GRANULAR FLOW WITHIN A PIPE
CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENT CIRCUIT
• 3 circuits for capacitance • Op-Amp Circuit
measurement :
• Op-Amp Circuit
• Bridge Circuit
• Microphone Circuit
CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENT CIRCUIT
Ex. : Op-Amp circuit :
Stray Immune Capacitance The sinusoidal input with frequency w
Frequency domain (Laplace) :
sC x R f w
Vout (s ) = −
sC f R f + 1 s 2 + w 2
Time domain :
Cx R f w    
Vout (t ) =  sin(wt +  )
t
− exp − 
1 + (C f R f w ) 2   C f Rf  
where,  = cot −1 (C f R f w )
jwC x R f
Vout = − Vin time constant = C f R f
jwC f R f + 1
Resistive feedback :
Capacitive feedback : 1
R f  → Vout = − jwC x R f Vin
1 C wC f
 R f → Vout = − x Vin
wC f Cf • Stable frequency required
• Independent on frequency, good for spectroscopy • Small  = RfCf << 1/ω → short
• Large  = RfCf >> 1/ω → long transient process transient process
CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENT CIRCUIT
Bridge Circuit
• Differensial pressure with C pick-up, using a membran
CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENT CIRCUIT
• Microphone Circuit • It is used for measuring the high
frequency w > 3

KD
eo
(D ) =
xi D + 1

K=
Eb
(Volt in )
xo

 = 0,225 10 −12 AR

(detik )
xo
EX. : CAPACITANCE SENSOR
• The level of ethyl alcohol is to be measured from 0 to 5 m using a concentric
cylindrical capacitive system. The following specification define the system
• Ethyl alcohol : K = 26 (for air K = 1)
• Cylindrical separation : d = 0.5 cm
• Plate Area : A = RL; R = 5.75 cm ; L = distance along cylindrical axis
• Find the range capacity variation as the alcohol level varies from 0 to 5 m

Solution

C = K 0 ( A / d )
A = 2RL = 2 (0.0575 m)(5 m) = 1.806 m2

Udara : C = (1)(8.85 pF/M)(1.806 m2 / 0.005 m)  3196 pF

Ethyl alcoholC
:  0.0832 μF
PIEZOELECTRIC
• Jika bahan piezoelektrik berubah
dimensinya, terjadi perubahan
muatan yang tersimpan. Maka
• piezoelectric characteristics : bahan tersebut seakan menjadi
• muatan listrik yang dapat di simpan dalam sumber arus listrik.
bahan tergantung pada dimensi (ukuran) • Hal sebaliknya adalah jika di
bahan
dalam bahan dialiri arus listrik
• Sifat sebaliknya: jika muatan listrik yang maka dimensi bahan akan
tersimpan dalam bahan berubah secara
berubah, bahan tersebut akan
dinamik maka ukuran bahan juga berubah,
bergetar.
• Arus listrik (i) adalah perubahan muatan listrik
persatuan waktu

qcr = Kcr xi dxi

icr = K cr
dt
PIEZOELECTRIC
• Jika bahan piezoelectric yang bergetar dirangkai
dalam rangkaian tertutup, maka pada rangkaian
akan timbul arus listrik.

iCR = iC + iR
◼ Tegangan output
1
eo =
Ct  iC dt = iR R

dxi eo de
iC = icr − iR = K cr − = Ct o
dt Rt dt
deo dx
Rt Ct + eo = K cr Rt i
dt dt
de dx
 o + eo = K i
dt dt
PIEZOELECTRIC
• Persamaan fungsi transfer • Resistor serie untuk menaikkan
piezoelektrik: sistem orde I tipe satu konstanta waktu

eo
(D ) = KD
xi D + 1
 = Rt Ct
K cr
K=
Ct

◼ Daerah frekuensi pengukuran: wi >

3/
◼ Supaya dapat mengukur frekuensi
yang lebih rendah konstanta waktu 
diperkecil
PIEZOELECTRIC
PIEZOELECTRIC
PIEZOELECTRIC