TOPIC 2: FEMINIST THEORIES

 Defining Feminism
 Differentiation between Gender and Feminist Theories
 Radical Feminism
 Marxist Feminism
 Liberal Feminism
 Black Feminism/ Third World Feminism
 Socialist Feminism

What is a theory?
Henslin (1999) defines a theory as a general statement that explains how two or more facts
are related to one another. Haralambos and Holborn (1990:8) define a theory as a set of ideas
which claim to explain how something works: it provides a logical explanation for why
things happen the way they do. A theory therefore defines the causal factors of a relationship
and explains the nature of that relationship.
What is Feminism?
According to Magezis’ (1996) feminism is a broad social movement which allows different
points of view that work for women’ rights. It is the organizational movement which
promotes equality for both men and women in political, economic and social spheres of life
(Different Types of Feminist Theories, 2006). Feminists focus on why and how women are
oppressed in different spheres of life and work for their liberation. Feminism can be viewed
in the following three ways:
1. As a social and political movement that fight for the rights of women and their
equality with men in all spheres of life.
2. As an ideology or philosophy or way of thinking that questions oppressive relations of
men and women using women’s perspectives.
3. A theory that questions relations of men and women and aims at transforming them
(Mannathoko in Meena, 1992).

To Henslin (1999:292) Feminism is the view that;

Biology is not destiny and therefore stratification by Gender is

wrong and should be resisted, met with strong opposition both by
men who have privileges to lose and by women who accepted their
status as normally correct.
Rise of Feminism
It rose as a challenge to functionalism which is conservative and views sexual division of
labour and the subordinate position of women as functional for the stability of society. It was
also a reaction to the biological theories that viewed the position of women as natural.
Feminism also questioned the dominant views or philosophies that viewed women as les
human than males. Examples of these philosophies are:
 The female is female by virtue of a certain lack of qualities( Aristotle)
 A woman is an imperfect man (St Thomas Aquinas).

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  The chief distinction in the intellectual powers of the two sexes is shown by man
attaining to a higher eminence in whatever he takes up, than women can attain-
whether requiring deep thought, reason, imagination or merely the use of senses and
hands
( Charles Darwin).
(Sandi, 1997; 1)
The feminist movement gave rise to a body of theory which attempts to explain
discrimination of women. The theory is not unified but is made of a variety of theories that
focus on women though differing in causes of subordination and strategies of women’s
liberation.
Common aspects shared by Feminists
1. Gender is not natural but a social construct.
2. They take the position that women are unfairly treated in all spheres of life.
3. Strategies can be developed to make the world a better place for women.

Feminist Differences
1. Explanations of women’s oppression.
2. Areas of focus e.g. cultural stereotypes, biology, patriarchy, capitalism, class etc.
3. Direction of change or what constitute women’s liberation.

What is Gender?
Sifuniso et al (2000:2) define gender as:
The social meanings given to being either a man or a woman in a given society
and the expectations held as to the character, attitude and likely behaviour of
men and women.
Gender, unlike sex which is biological, is socially constructed. Gender influences the
different behaviours, roles, responsibilities, identities and treatment of males and females in
society. Gender depends on the culture and history of a particular society and differs from
culture to culture.
Though gender theories do not differ much from feminist theories, they focus on both males
and females, while feminist theories centre on women.
Differences between Feminist and Gender Theories
Feminist Theories Gender Theories
Are women centered Men and Women centered
Focus on experiences of women Focus on experiences of women and men
View issues from women’s social world View issues from a gender perspective
Seek to produce a better world for women Seek to produce a better world for both
Are about peaceful co-existence of males
and females not fighting back

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 Are about fighting back (revenge)
View males as enemies and to blame for Males are viewed as victims of socio-
subordinate position of women cultural institutions created by society
Reject assistance by males in their Accept assistance by gender sensitive
struggles males
The question is: What about men and
women?
Ask questions like: What about women?

Both feminist and gender theories agree on the following:

* Gender differences are socially rather than biologically constructed.
* Gender differences can be deconstructed
* Both questions and challenge oppressive gender relations
* Gender differences are embedded in socio-economic structures such as:
a) capitalism
b) sexism or patriarchy
c) racism
d) social and cultural institutions

1. RADICAL FEMINIST THEORY

Origins
Radical feminism is a movement that rose in the 1960s – 80s as a breakaway of Marxists who
were frustrated by the inability to apply social class in analyzing gender oppression. It also
emerged as a reaction to the liberal theory (Meena, 1992: Bryson, 1992). Its impetus came
from women’s experiences in the Civil Rights, anti war, new-left and student movements in
North America, Europe and Australia. The first radical group was influenced by the Maoist
ideas and the need to develop political strategies for women’s liberation. Their slogan was
the ‘Personal is political’ (Bryson, 1992) meaning that no aspect of life lacked a political
dimension (power relations). Political struggles can take many new forms. It was important
to break the silence through consciousness raising. The theory is radical in nature, that is it is
violent, fast, uncompromising and strongly oppose patriarchal systems. Some of the
proponents are Kate Millet, Shulamith Firestone and Ortner. These demand radical
transformation of oppressive gender relations. Mannathoko in Meena (1192:75) cites that
radicals:
… Launched a wholesale onslaught against male dominated society and consider
men as the enemy.

Major Expositions

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Radical Feminists have come up with the following factors as explanations of gender
inequalities:
1. Patriarchy;
2. Gender Socialisation;
3. biology (sexuality)

Patriarchy
According to Bazili (1991:9)
Patriarchy is an ideology of male supremacy that results from
social construction of gender which in turn justifies the social,
economic and political distinction between men and women.
Walby in Smelser (1994:320) defines patriarchy
As a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate oppression and
exploit women.
Patriarchy stretches back to the time of creation in Genesis, where a woman was made from
Adam’s rib. (Acker, 1987) argues that it appears as if the women came as an after thought.
Genesis 3 v16
…Thy desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall rule over thee.
(The Holy Bible; King James Version, 2007)
Genesis 3 V18
It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him a help meet for him.
(ibid.)
The word patriarchy is derived from the Greek word patriarchs meaning ‘head, of the tribe.
Patriarchy is viewed as universal, oldest and worst kind of oppression in the world. (Byrson,
1992; Different Types of Feminist Theories, 2006). It cuts across time, cultures, races,
classes and ethnicities. It is a belief in society dominated and ruled by men. It is viewed as
natural, universal, unchangeable and unquestionable.
To radicals like Kate Millet politics means power and men derive their power from the
patriarchal system that supports and favour males. Patriarchy as an ideology is sustained by
early socialization in the family, secondary socialization in schools, churches and workplaces.
It also rests upon the economic exploitation and use of threat and force (Haralambos and
Holborn, 2004). Patriarchy benefits from the oppression of women. Women as a group have
interests opposed to those of men. These interests unite them into sisterhood across classes
and cultures. Male power is not confined to the public worlds of political and paid
employment but extends into private life (sphere).
Gender Socialization
Gender inequalities are learnt through primary socialization and reinforced later by every
other institution, for example, School, media, community, church among others. In a
patriarchal society children are socialized to be different. Being male or female is
emphasized. Oakley in Haralambos and Holborn (2004) points out that this is done through

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processes like manipulation, canalization, verbal appellations and exposure to different
activities.
Biology/Sexuality

Subordination of women has origins in biology, the fact that women give birth (firestone in
Marcus and Ducklin, 1998). The core of power and female domination is male control of
female’s roles in reproduction and child rearing (Firestone in O’Donnell 1992). Women
become dependent on men for material necessities of life and protection especially in the
nuclear family. Men control women’s production, reproduction, child rearing and sexuality.
It is for this reason that other radicals like Kate Millet view the family as a central site of
women’s oppression. Ortner in Haralambos and Holborn (2004) cites that women are viewed
as closer to biology (nature) while men are closer to culture (social construct). This has led to
the belief that what relates to women cannot be changed while that, which relates to males
can be changed. Biology is seen as the inevitable form of sexual division of labour. Rape
and violence against women is used by m ales to secure and maintain power. The New York
Restocking Manifesto of 1969 Read:-
Women are an oppressed class. Our oppression is total, affecting
every facet of our lives. We are exploited as sex objects, breeder,
domestic servants and cheap labour. We are considered inferior
beings whose only purpose is to enhance men’s lives… (Bryson,
1992:183-184).
Solutions
Radicals prescribe the following solutions for the liberation of women:
 Women are to struggle on their own for their own liberation against their oppressors
(males). This is evidenced by the quotation…Radicals reject assistance by males
because men are viewed as enemies of the liberation. They are blamed for being
responsible for all the other problems of women, for example, Conflict, war,
destruction of the environment, and abuse. A war should be raged against men.
 Reject gender roles and call for child care facilities.
 Radicals are of the view that gender differences can be reduced by taking desirable
characteristics of males and females because these are socially constructed.
 However, cultural feminists (Extremists) celebrate feminine characteristics like
interdependence and sharing:
…It is better to be feminine than to be masculine. Thus women
should not try to be like men. (Tong in Haralambos and Holborn,
2004:103).
 Call for total restructuring of society. To them doing away with male
domination is a means of eliminating women’s oppression.
 Demand women’s empowerment in education, politics and sexuality.
 Focus on violence against women, for example, rape, sexual harassment, incest,
pornography and domestic violence.
 Challenge also men’s control and monopoly over the production and use of
knowledge, for example, in the mass media.

Applicability of the Radical Feminist Theory

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Unlike the liberals who fight for equal educational opportunities, radicals have challenged
both the quality and quantity of education being offered to women. Their ideas have
significantly influenced changes in the curriculum which has resulted in the eliminating of
gender stereotyping that impact negatively on women’s academic achievement. This gender
stereotyping is evident in subjects as sciences, maths, commercials and social studies that
were male dominated. These have been made available to women. Women are also
empowered health wise e.g. use of birth control measures of their choices, use of protection
(female condom), There are women’s pressure groups, for example, Women’s Action Group
(WAG), Affirmative Action Group(AAG) and Women Of Zimbabwe Arise(WOZA) fight
for rights of women and girls. Other women facilities include the Girl Child Network,
scholarships for girl children and victim friendly courts for abused children. The passing of
the sexual offences Act, HIV AIDS Act, Domestic Violence Act and stiffer penalties for rape
perpetrators are all efforts of radical feminists. Organizations like Msasa Project have
protected women experiencing gender domestic violence of any kind in Zimbabwe. A shelter
for such women was set up in Harare. Single sex schools, women’s University and women’s
Institute of Governance are all products of radical feminists. Women have been made to
access legal instruments that allow them to abort under special circumstances like rape,
incest, mental health or anything that endangers the woman’s health. Radical feminists have
also influenced the setting up of childcare institutions, and introduction of new reproductive
technologies like donation of sperms, artificial insemination, surrogate motherhood and
making choices of family planning methods. All these enable women to control their bodies.
Limitations
The following can be cited as limitations of the Radical Feminist Theory:
 It is criticized as Western, for example, in Africa, abortion is male dominated
(males decide) and it touches religious and moral issues. As a result the theory is
heavily criticized and opposed.
 It emphasizes differences between men and women making peaceful co-existence
and co-operation impossible.
 It is hostile towards the man who is also victims of socialization.
 Separatists and their rejection of marriage and relationships with males can lead to
the end of the human race.
 Views women as passive victims and assumes that all women are good and all
males are bad.
 That all males are able to oppress all women, ignoring the fact that some men are
oppressed by women or by both
 The theory fails to explain the origins of patriarchy and its power.
 It leaves out other factors like race, class and ethnicity.

2. MARXIST- FEMINIST THEORY

Origins
Marxist Feminists are a variety of scholars who were applying the Marxist theory of
economic determinism in explaining the oppression of women. These were drawing from
Karl Max and Fredrick Engels’ writings, for example: ‘The origin of the family, private
property and the State. (O’Donnell 1992). The theory rose in the 1970s owing to the Women
and Development (WAD) approach to development and as a critic of the liberal feminist
theory, modernization theory and Women in development approach.

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Women and Development (WAD) approach had been influenced by the critics of the
modernization theory, which were dependency theorists and Under-development scholars of
the Third World especially Latin America. These were the likes of Walter Rodney, Dos
Antos and Gunder Frank. The proponents of the Marxist Feminists are Sue Sharpe, Juliet
Mitchel and Marynard among others.
Marxist Terms
Economic Base- I t consists of the means of production including land, capital, labour
and time.
Forces of production - which include tools/implements or technology.
Relations of production-which define who owns, controls, dominates, profits as well as who
has power.
The ownership of the means of production and productive forces determine the relations of
production.
Superstructure-Is made of ideologies that monitor, maintain, reproduce and legitimize the
status quo (Relations of production at the base). The ideologies are;

- patriarchy
- capitalism
- cultural beliefs
- religion
- State institutions e.g. schools, legislation and repressive state apparatus.

Economic determinism – states that ownership of the economy greatly determines how the
two classes (owners and non-owners of the means of production) relate in a capitalist system.
Subordinate and dominant class-Those who own the means of production are the dominant
class while those who do not own them constitute the subordinate class.

Exploitation and Oppression-Those who do not own the means of production are exploited of
their labour by being given low wages. The powerful owning class oppresses the subordinate
class.
Marxist –Feminist Expositions
 Gender inequalities are rooted in capitalism and its ownership of private property
(Bryson, 1992).
 They challenge attempt to isolate gender from social class.
 Men are powerful because they own the means of production (dominant class)
 Women do not own the means of production hence are a subordinate class that is
oppressed, exploited just like the proletariats.
 The base determines relations between men and women.
 Women’s position in a capitalist society is economically determined
 Capitalism divides work into private (home) and public sphere (workplace).
 Capitalism values men’s labour and devalue that of women by giving low wages.
 Women enter wage labour from a subordinate position.

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  Women are a reserve army of labour, that is, they can be recruited any time to replace
males at a low cost.

Sharpe in O’Donnell (1992; 172) argues that;
Employers …. Frequently regard women as mere temporary
labour, and consider that they should be thought lucky to have the
opportunity to earn some money for themselves. They can be used
as surplus labour force, to be employed or laid off at will.
 Men are viewed as bread winners’ hence higher wages while women are viewed as
appendages of men (Bryson, 1992).
 Women suffer double exploitation, for example, they produce in factories and
produce future labourers at no cost.
 Domestic work in the private sphere is not remunerated.
 Women are alienated (separated) from their production, reproduction and sexuality.
This means women do not own and control what they produce in the public sphere, at
home and even that which relates to their sexuality (children and their bodies).
 Mitchel in O’ Donnell ( ibid.) argues that oppression in the family produces:
…A tendency to small-mindedness, petty, jealousy, irrational
emotionally and random violence, dependency competitive
selfishness, possessiveness, passivity, a lack of vision and
conservativism….
 These characteristics are embedded in women’s objective conditions and a sexist
society.
 Women serve the interest of capitalism through the management of the family. They
provide productive, psychological and social needs.

Solutions
Marxist-Feminists propose the following as some of the solutions to women’s problems;
 Marxist Feminists stress the need to overthrow capitalist economic system. They call
for a socialist Revolution that would change the structure and ownership of the means
of production.
 There must be an ideological change first in the consciousness of both sexes. (Pilcher
and Whelehan,2004)
 Females should free themselves from dependence and traditional gender roles that
confine them to the private sphere.
 Participation of women in the public sphere is the key to their liberation.
 Men and women should struggle against capitalist oppressors.
 Class and gender struggles should take place at the same time.
 Abolition of private property and setting up of a communally owned means of
production in a communist society.
 Household work should be paid for.

Applicability of the Marxist-Feminist Theory.

In SADC countries as patriarchal societies, men own private property more than women e.g.
land, capital, houses, machinery and labour. Most of the productive forces are registered on

8
male names. As a result men become powerful, oppress and dominate women. The one who
owns decides and has final judgement over resources. Domestic work in the home is either
not paid for or low wages are given to maids. Women employed in the public sphere mostly
do domestic work which has been transferred from the private sphere to the public sphere for
example nursing (caring), teaching (socializing), and catering (servicing) and being
secretaries for bosses who are mostly males. Women are employed in large numbers in
export processing as well as textile industries for low wages. These careers are characterized
by low wages. The children produced belong to the father in a traditional family and what
the woman produces from her labour is controlled by the husband. Patriarchy, culture and
religion are ideologies that legitimate inequalities making them appear normal, natural and
unchangeable. State institutions e.g. education, reproduces patriarchal values. Ownership of
the means of production does determine one’s (women’s) position and power in a capitalist
society. Schools in a capitalist society re-enforce social inequalities by producing a workforce
divided by class. Schools in Zimbabwe, for example, can be classified into private, former
group A, former group B, mission schools and what used to be called upper-tops. Products
from these schools still exhibit glaring class and gender differences.
Limitations
Marxist-Feminist criticism is based on the following:
 Society has changed from the classes and conditions observed by Karl Marx and
Fredrick Engels. Some women these days own private property.
 Some SADC countries have come up with national gender policies and legal
instruments that enable women to access property, capital, loans and land.
 Entry into wage labour by women from the 18 th Century to today does not prove to be
key to their liberation. It has instead increased women’s labour burdens.
 Experiences in Socialist countries, for example, Soviet Union, Cuba, China and the
former Eastern Block, did not show that women’s positions in these societies were
any better. These societies are still male dominated with powerful posts in male
hands.
 In countries like Zimbabwe, most women find themselves in the informal sector with
low unreliable income. They are not part of the proletariat working in public places.
The majority of women are in rural areas. The theory did not look at majority of
women in Third World countries.
 Marxist- feminists are gender blind. They failed to focus on power relations of males
and females as independent from social class. They did not explain why men exploit
and oppress women even in socialist societies.
 They also fail to explain subordinate position of women before the advent of
Capitalism.
 Marxist-Feminists ignore patriarchy and male control of women’s sexuality, culture,
violence, race and ethnicity.
 The economic factor is not enough to explain gender inequalities; other sources of
inequalities are ignored.

3. LIBERAL FEMINIST THEORY

Origins
It is the first documented form of feminism. According to Gaidzanwa in Meena (1992),
liberal feminism dates back to the 18th Century Britain. The proponent, Mary Wollerstone

9
Craft questioned views about women which were damaging and discriminatory. The theory
rose as a result of the following;

 Industrial Revolution in Europe especially Britain that created structural changes in

the methods of production and social relations. For example, women joined wage
labour but were not treated as their male counter parts;
 Democratic political ideas in capitalist USA that emphasized ‘Equality, Liberty and
Fraternity’;
 Ideas of Scholars of Enlightment for example, Rousseau,Aristotle among others;
 Influence of the modernization theory and Women in Development (WID) approach
to Development which emphasized borrowing of Western ideas and did not revamp
economic and social structures of society;
 Philosophy of liberalism with the belief in individual rights e.g. Right to freedom and
autonomy.
The second wave of feminism was widespread in the 1950s. The 1960s ushered in new rights
in many countries that were gaining independence, especially third world countries (Tandon,
1996). These included rights to independence, vote, work, protection, dignity and freedom.
Liberal feminism was based on the belief that women possess reason and as such are entitled
to full human rights and are free to choose their role in life, explore their potential and
compete with men.

Major Expositions
Giddens (2001:692) defines liberal theory as a:
Feminist theory that believes gender inequality is produced by reduced access for
women and girls to civil rights and allocation of social resources such as education
and employment.
Liberal feminists believe:-
 In individual rights for women.
 That women’s discrimination is based on prejudice, sexism and socialization
(Magezis, 1996).
 Those women have mental capacities as their male counterparts and should be given
the same opportunities in political, economic and social spheres.
 Those women are constrained by social legal and cultural institutions.
 That there should be fairness, justice, equal opportunities and equal participation in
the management of society.
 That attitudes, stereotypes and biases against females constrain women
 Confinement of women to the private sphere and dependency on men .
Disadvantage women

Solutions
Liberals propose the following as solutions to women’s problems:
 Give women equal rights, opportunities to jobs, education to challenge directly the
ideology of patriarchy.

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  Proportional representation and equal access of males and females in education,
employment, health, resources, political organs, training etc.
 Sought women’s liberation through legal reforms.
 Advocate for gender mainstreaming in education and training.
 Education is viewed as a liberating force hence both boys and girls should be
educated.
 Focus on changing attitudes, stereotypes and biases in language, textbooks and the
media.
 Call for diversification of the curriculum.
 Call for catering for special needs of girls to improve their social status, self-esteem
and confidence.
 Advocate for women’s participation in the public sphere.
 Reorient women into crucial decision making positions of executives, directors,
ministers, presidency and so on.
 Empower women through education, training, workshops and projects.
 End discrimination of build positive role models for women and girls.

Applicability of the Liberal Theory

Achievements
In SADC countries, liberal feminists are responsible for many important Acts of legislation
that have greatly improved the situation of women. In Zimbabwe, these include reform in
welfare, education and health.
Education
In Zimbabwe, the 1980 Education act declared Education for all despite class, gender
religion, and ethnicity. The liberals have fought for a gender sensitive curriculum and
removal of stereotypes in texts, and any teaching material. This has seen subjects and sports
in the school curriculum being open for both boys and girls. There have been changes in
stereotypical language in the school e.g:
Headmaster - School Head
Choirmaster - Choir Director
Sportsmaster - Sports Director
Senior Master/mistress – Senior Teachers.
Liberals have called for gender sensitive teaching methods to afford pupils equal treatment.
There has been proportional representation in enrolments of males and females at primary,
secondary and tertiary institutions. Proportional representative has also been applied in
promotion of women to positions of authority eg. School heads, Education officers etc.
There has also been equal access to bursaries and scholarships.

Workplaces
In Britain equal pay and sex discrimination acts came into being in the 1970s. In Zimbabwe
the 1985 Labour Relations Act was introduced. It had the following provisions:-
 Equal pay for males and females;

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  Minimum wages for everyone
 Equal treatment and access to male dominated occupations.
 Maternity leave benefits and recently paternity leave
 No discrimination on the grounds of sex, not even on adverts in the media.
 Access to top positions of executives, directors and ministers.

Politics
The SADC declaration on gender led to the consideration of women participation in politics.
This led to the introduction of the quota system where one third of parliamentarians have to
be women. Women now have access to top positions and participate in electoral and legal
reform processes.

Legal sphere
Internationally equal rights for men and women were included in the United Nations (UN)
Charter of 1947. Trafficking in human beings who were mostly females was stopped in
1948. In Zimbabwe Acts were passed to protect and improve the social status of women, for
example:
 Legal Age of majority Act (1982) which lifted women from a state of being perpetual
minors. Women above 18years are now viewed as adults who can consent on their
own, make contracts and own property like land, cattle, bank accounts houses among
others.;
 Matrimonial causes Act which allows sharing of property at death or divorce.
 Sexual offences Act that protects both males and females from sexual harassment.
 There has also been conscientisation of women on marriage Acts and their provisions.
Pension’s Acts have been amended also. These and many unmentioned Acts
including the recent domestic Act are all in a bid to bring gender equality.

Limitations of the Theory.

The liberal Theory is mainly criticized by socialist and radical feminists who argue that
liberals:
 Do not addresses underlying causes of women’s oppression (Bryson, 1992).
 Ignore power relations (structural inequalities) prevailing in society
 Do not goes deeper into explaining causes of women’s subordination hence cannot
offer solutions for an unknown cause.
 Do not offer strategy to counter traditional norms and values that constrain women.
 Is reformist in nature moving in a gradual process to influence the government to pass
laws (Magezis, 1996). No major structural changes are made in the socio-economic
arrangement of the society.
 View women as a homogeneous category ignoring class, race and ethnicity.
 Its calls for access to education, health, employment, legal instruments leave out
lower class women.
 It’s blending well with the WID approach to development; its welfare and anti-
poverty approaches compromise women rights, access and control of resources.

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13
4.THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES POLITICAL ECONOMY APPROACH (POST
MODERNISM)

Origins
It is important for us to note that the traditional feminist theories (liberal, Marxist, radical and
socialist feminist) focused on the concerns of middle class women. They also viewed women
as a homogeneous group. Gaidzanwa in Meena (1992) refer to these theories as ‘bourgeoisie
theories’. Women’s concerns did not transcend class and race. Wollenstone craft’s liberal
feminism belonged to the bourgeoisie class concerned with bourgeoisie women. Women of
the other creeds, religion, age, class and ethnicity were excluded.
The proponents of third world economy approach are third world feminists who offer a
critique of the (traditional dominant) feminist theories. Third world political approach is part
of postmodernist theories. Post modernism is a reaction to modernist theories’ failure to
account for different changes in society. Post modernists argue that:
1. It is not possible to study society and develop unified conclusions.
2. Human behavior is characterized by heterogeneity rather than homogeneity
3. Positivism and generalizations are not accurate in human behavior
The Third World Political approach looks at the following factors as explanations for the
subordinate position of women especially in Third World Countries:
 Location on the Globe (first, second and third world)
 International/ Global economy
 History of colonization
 Race
 Class
 Patriarchy
 Ethnicity
 Religion
 Age
 Gender among others.

Major Tenants
 The theory focuses on the 3rd world minorities of women previously ignored.
These are unrepresented black, rural, disabled, and younger and lower class
women among others.
 Women are viewed as fragmented or heterogeneous because of ethnicity, race,
religion, age, disability, class, nationality, marital status, history and multiple
identities.
 As a result women do not have shared experiences as suggested by traditional
feminist theories. Marcus and Duckling (1998:59) argues that social theory
can not offer general and inclusive views of the social world.
 A feminist theory is not possible especially in 3 rd world countries like Africa
where women are divided by a lot of factors listed above.
 Subordination of 3rd world women should be situated in their histories and
their location within neo-colonial nations.

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  It looks at multicultural or global feminism where all other differences are
recognized not just gender.
 It also looks at intersection of gender with race, class and issues of
colonization and exploitation of women in the developing world
 According to the 3rd world feminist writers, women in the 3 rd world countries
are subordinated in many ways: they are subordinated and oppressed as:

1. Third World women

The relationship that exists between the first world (developed industrial nations) and
the 3rd world (underdeveloped nations) is in such away that the first world exploits
third world resources and labour. The periphery (satellites that is third world countries
supply the metropolis (core), the first world with resources and labour (Gunder Frank
and Dos Santos in Anderson (1995). Zimbabwe is a third world country and women
are subordinated as third world women.
2. Globalization of Economy
Third world economies, Zimbabwe included are incorporated into capitalist
economies of the developed world. Transnational capitalists who are mostly the
patriarchs control world economy through trade. A system of dependency of 3 rd world
countries on the economies of the first world has been created. There is dependency
‘….when the first society (economy is organized by persons in the foreign society so
as to benefit primarily the foreign economy (Sanderson, 1995:217). Developed
nations extracted raw materials from third world countries, exported them to be
manufactured in Europe and brought back as finished goods expensive to the
Africans. The third world people become depended on the west for manufactured
goods, technology and technological know how. New dependency arose after the
Second World War that is financial dependency with multinational corporations that
invested in 3 rd world countries. Only a third is reinvested. The profits are repatriated.
Peripheral market conditions of the developed nations dictate the terms of trade (Dos
Santos in Sanderson 1995). Zimbabwean women are part of this dependency and
exploitation by the first world’s multinational companies and trade.

3. Class
Women in a capitalist global economy like men are part of the proletariats. Their
labour is exploited for low wages. In this global oppression, peasants farmers and
urban workers are the most exploited. Women are the producers of raw materials in
the periphery but are alienated from what they produce. They are exploited by both
global capitalists and capitalist elites in their nations. In Zimbabwe women belong to
a lower class that has no power or control of the means of production.

4. Race
Women especially in third world Africa Zimbabwe included are further subordinated
as a black race. White w omen in the first world are the capitalists and consumers of
what the black race produces. The voices of the black women are not heard. The
concerns of the traditional (modernist) feminist theories did not take into account
issues of race. White women and black women do not have same experiences hence
cannot speak with one voice. Black women are subordinated by both white males and

15
females of the first and 3rd world. The situation of women during the colonial and post
colonial has not changed much in relation to racial issues in most African countries.

5. Gender
Women in third world countries are also subordinated and exploited as women by
males. In patriarchal societies where males dominate, ownership of property, movable
and immovable is largely in the hands of males. Such resources are land, livestock,
cars, tractors, capital, and homesteads among others. Studies conducted by Women
and Law in Zimbabwe (2000) reveal that women have access to the resources but do
not have control over them. Women are exploited as labourers and child bearers. Most
African cultures legitimize this male dominance.
6. By other women
Women are further subordinated by other women depending on age, position of
power and relationships (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2003)
Generally, elderly women subordinate younger women. They dictate to them and
subject them to initiation ceremonies and cultural norms and values that trap younger
women in their subordination. Other women assume cultural and patriarchal power
that enables them to oppress other women. Examples of such women are mothers in
law and sisters in law. Senior women in polygamous and non polygamous families
enjoy a higher status as grandmothers, sisters and sisters in law (gogo, sisi, maiguru
and tete). They make sure their commands are carried by junior women. They impart
to them traditions and norms that support male dominance and female subordination.
In pre-colonial Zimbabwe, Lozikheyi Dlodlo, Lobengula’s senior wife kept younger
women under her Nabuiza, the first wife of the Mutapa in the seventeenth century
lived in the palace and served by personal servants like (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2003).

7. Ethnicity
Ethnicity like race is a serious factor in issues of subordination, the world over.
Different ethnic groups have different statuses in their countries. A woman who
belongs to the lowest ethnic group is the most subordinated. She is subordinated by
males and females of other superior ethnic groups and her husband. She is looked
down upon for ethnicity and gender. For example a Nguni woman would always be
the first wife during the reign of Mzilikazi and Lobengula (Ndlovu-Gatsheni,2003).
Her firstborn son would always be an heir even if the husband had many wives and
sons before her .Wives from royal families did not work in the fields but had other
women working for them while they participated in public affairs.
8. As rural women
The majority of women in third world countries are in rural areas. These make the
majority of illiterate women who lack access to information, technology,
technological know-how, training, health etc (Welshenman, et al, 1997 and
McFadden, 1992). Most such women do not own the means of production e.g. land ,
machinery and capital despite changes in legal instruments. Historically, these women
were affected by colonial peasantisation. They made up 90% of agricultural workers.
However, they had no access to and control of land, seeds, credit facilities etc. These

16
 were registered in male names. Males took produce of single crops like maize, cotton,
palms and tobacco to marketing boards (Marcus and Dunklin 1998) Money became a
medium of exchange in the colonial era, but women were not part of that money
economy. Women produced for commercial purposes but only controlled crops that
had to do with subsistence (consumption).
9. Religion
Almost all religions in the world subordinate women. In an Islamic religion, a devout
Muslim would stop praying when a strange women or a donkey appears (Acker,
1997). A prayer by devout Jewish reads; I thank God that I am a Jew and not a
gentile, am a man and not a woman.
In Christianity, it is believed that a woman was not created from the dist of the earth
but from Adam’s independent person. Adam was given dominion over creation and a
man is the head of the family as Christ is head of the church. In traditional religion
women do not speak to the ancestral spirit (midzimu) but can talk to stray spirits
(mashavi). Ancestral spirits from the mother’s side are not important as those of the
father’s side. Women do not make important religious decisions in the families. They
cannot appease angry ancestral spirits. This is done by fathers, brothers or brother’s
children
Applicability of the Theory
 Indeed Third World women, like men are trapped in the global capitalist system of
dependency and exploitation.
 Women like man are producers but do not benefit from what they produce. They are
exploited as a class of workers and women.
 The condition of women especially the black race is worse than that of other races.
During the colonial period, most whites had black women as their maids and nannies’.
This has not changed much in the post colonial period.
 In patriarchal societies, majority of women do not own immovable property like
houses and land for homesteads especially in rural areas. They also do not own
movable properties like cars, scotch carts, cattle especially the married ones.
 Women are further subordinated by other women for example, in Shona and Ndebele
cultures of Zimbabwe a muroora/ Umalukazana/wife has to take without questioning
instructions from the husband’s mother (vamwene/umamazala) and from the
husband’s sister (vatete/ubabakazi). These decide on muroora/umalukazana’s fate in
marriage and the custody of children.
 Elderly women in these cultures dictate and subject younger women to initiation
ceremonies and cultural norms that trap younger women in their subordination. For
example:
1. Women should be quite whatever happens in her marriage she should allow
the husband to access what he paid bride price (lobola) for (sexuality) at
whatever cost and circumstances.
2. A women should endure (persevere) in marriage to avoid breaking up of the
marriage (kuputsa imba yake/ ukudiliza umuzi). In Zimbabwe, for example,
most rural women are engaged in agriculture. They produce for both
subsistence and commercial agriculture. However, few women have access to
credit facilities, technology, technological know how and marketing facilities.
Culture and patriarchy continue to maintain the status quo despite introduction
of legal instruments and policies on access to resources and opportunities

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Limitations
1. Third world political approach tends to focus on capitalism and post colonialism.
2. It does not focus on patriarchal and cultural constraints before capitalism.
3. It ignores biological or reproductive constraints.
4. It divides women weakening their struggles because of emphasis of women diversity.
5. Argue that homogenizing women is colonizing women denying them their histories,
cultures, identities and nationalities.

Micro-Theories of gender inequalities

Post modernism has seen a shift from large scale theories with universal explanations of
gender relations, that is, patriarchy, capitalism, socialism and biology to issues of age, class,
race, and ethnicity among others.

5. BLACK FEMINISM THEORY

The Third world political approach focuses on heterogeneity of women. It is a theory of third
world women by third world women dissatisfied with other types of feminisms. Black
feminism looks at women affected by race especially the black women in the western world
who are excluded by macro theories. These are black women who are in industrialized
nations as a result of slavery, employment, studies, and refugee status.
Black feminists argue that versions of other feminists do not apply equally to white and non-
white women. Black women have particular problems of segregation or exclusion in civil
rights movements in industrialized nations. Race is viewed as the most/only relevant label for
identification. Womanhood is less than race. As a result black women have not been central
in women’s liberation movement. Where characteristics of women are measured, those of
white women are used as a yardstick (Hooks in Giddens, 2001)
Solutions
Theories of feminism should take into account issues of racism. Concentration should not be
on experiences and ideas of white women.
Applicability
Black women, the world over, are subordinated by the race issue. However, their situation is
worse in the western world. Their voices are unheard because of race, class and gender.

6. SOCIALIST FEMINIST THEORY

Socialist Feminism is not a theory on its own, but a critique of the Marxist and radical
feminist theories. Bryson (1992:234) argues that:
It refers to recent attempts to synthesize the insights of Marxists
and radical feminism to build a new theory combining the best of
both. It rose in the 1960s.

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Some of the proponents are Heidi, Jaggar and Ann Ferguson. The socialist- Feminists differ
from Marxist- Feminists in that their explanation for gender inequalities extend from
capitalism to patriarchy. Unlike Marxists, they looked at women in both the public and the
private spheres. Marxists focused more at the workplace.
Major Expositions
 The modern society is viewed as both capitalist and patriarchal. Socialist-
feminists believe that the subordination of women is rooted in the two evils of
capitalism and patriarchy:
 The theory is dualistic in nature with two evils mutually reinforcing.
 Sometimes the two systems conflict – for examp Capitalist demand for labour is
opposed by patriarchal demand for personal services in the home. However, both
capitalist and patriarchal men benefit from the above arrangement that subordinate
women.
 Marxists are criticized for focusing only on capital ignoring relations of men and
women.
 To socialist feminists, women’s subordinates go beyond capitalism to patriarchy
that pre-dates capitalism.
 Patriarchy is based on men’s control over women’s labour and this is part of the
productive process.
 Capitalism is based on the capitalist control of labour in the productive process.
 Ferguson feels that patriarchy is semi-autonomous, while Young views patriarchy
and capitalism as not dual but unified systems (Bryson, 1992).
 To support the above, Jaggar says the two are inseparable. For both, oppression
of women touches issues of reproduction and production, for example, patriarchy
controls reproduction of women and their labour in the production process.
Patriarchy benefits from the control of the produce from reproduction (children)
and women’s labour (products). Capitalism like patriarchy benefits from
reproduction of future workers and produce from women’s labour.
 Vogel says maintenance and production of the working class are essential
requirements of capitalism. Hence, the two systems of domination are
‘inextricably entangled’ (Bryson, 1992:247).
 Socialist- feminist argue that entry into wage labour by women cannot be key to
their liberation as Marxists suggested.
 Women entered wage labour during the industrial revolutions in Europe, for
example, Britain (1800) France (1830), Germany (1850) but the position of
women did not change in homes and workplace. Again, during world wars (WWI
1914- 1918) and (WW II 1939-1945) women participated in industries but this did
not usher the fruits they expected.
 Class analysis by Marxists is not enough. They ignore patriarchy and over
estimate the power of capital.
 Socialist Feminists focus on women’s question and make demands as both
workers and women.
 Men have vested interest in the subordination of women because they benefit
socially and materially.
 Women produce, reproduce, socialize and service families at no cost. Women
reproduce workers for capitalists. They also reproduce heirs as well as workers for
their husbands.
 Education is seen as reproducing both class and gender inequalities.
(Stromquist1989; Sanderson, 1988). Schools through socialization reproduce

19
 capitalists and patriarchal values, habits of passivity, conformity among girls as
well as children from lower class background.
 Capitalism and patriarchy legitimizes class and gender inequalities.
 Capitalism and patriarchy work hand in hand in the exploitation of women. Male
supremacy is embedded in economic structures. These are strengthened by
patriarchal relations.

Solutions
The following are solutions suggested by Socialist- Feminists:
 A revolution that challenges the two ideologies leading to uprooting of both
capitalism and patriarchy;
 Women struggle should focus on conditions of production, reproduction, reproductive
rights, sexuality, and new forms of family organization.
 Women should be united by their experiences, disputes, race, class, ethnicity or
religion.
 All class and cultural forces of oppression should be ended in order to liberate
women.
 Women should work side by side with men.

Applicability of the Socialist- Feminist Theory

The Socialist- Feminist Theory has led to Gender and Development (GAD) Approach where
men and women work side by side with men in political, economic and social development.
It has made development agencies or governments to focus on inequalities in the private and
public spheres. Economic ownership, reproduction, family organization and reproductive
rights are now areas of focus in some SADC countries. This has led to introduction of laws
that enable women to access property, health care, and reproductive rights and to choose
marriage types (forms of family organization). Some governments in the SADC like
Zimbabwe have crafted national gender policies for development. These policies look at men
and women’s access to land, education and training, housing, water, health, political decision
making, natural resources. The policies encourage participation of women and men in al
spheres of life.
Limitations
The following have been identified as weaknesses of the Socialist- Feminist Theory:
 It focuses on working middle class women leaving out peasants.
 Socialist- Feminists do not explain the origins of patriarchy and give no suggestions
of how it can be uprooted.
 Socialist- Feminists do not offer a theory of their own but only critique existing
theories.
 Patriarchy can work in other modes of production besides capitalism, for example,
pre-capitalist and socialist modes of production.
 Patriarchy can be strengthened and supported by other ideologies beside capitalism,
for example, culture, religion and socialization.

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