ASM Handbook, Volume 8: Mechanical Testing and Evaluation Copyright © 2000 ASM International®

H. Kuhn, D. Medlin, editors, p3–12 All rights reserved.

DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003254 www.asminternational.org

Introduction to the
Mechanical Behavior of Metals
Todd M. Osman, U.S. Steel Research
Joseph D. Rigney, General Electric Aircraft Engines

THE SUCCESSFUL EMPLOYMENT OF tures and microstructures) and the mechanical dom atomic arrangement) in limited quantities.
METALS in engineering applications relies on behavior of metals. Using basic examples, de- The basic building block of the crystal lattice is
the ability of the metal to meet design and ser- formation and fracture mechanisms are intro- the unit cell, some examples of which are
vice requirements and to be fabricated to the duced. Typical properties measured during me- shown in Fig. 2(a) through (d). By repeating
proper dimensions. The capability of a metal to chanical testing are then related to these this arrangement in three dimensions, a crystal
meet these requirements is determined by the deformation mechanisms and the microstruc-
mechanical and physical properties of the tures of metals.
metal. Physical properties are those typically
measured by methods not requiring the applica-
tion of an external mechanical force (or load). Structure of Metals
Typical examples of physical properties are den-
sity, magnetic properties (e.g., permeability),
thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity, At the most basic level, metallic materials (as
electrical properties (e.g., resistivity), specific well as many nonmetallic ones) are typically
heat, and coefficient of thermal expansion. Me- crystalline solids, although it is possible to pro- (a) (c)
chanical properties, the primary focus of this duce amorphous metals (i.e., those with ran-
Volume, are described as the relationship be-
tween forces (or stresses) acting on a material
and the resistance of the material to deformation
(i.e., strains) and fracture. This deformation,
however, may or may not be evident in the metal
after the applied load is removed. Different
types of tests, which use an applied force, are
employed to measure properties, such as elastic
modulus, yield strength, elastic and plastic de-
formation (i.e., elongation), hardness, fatigue re-
sistance, and fracture toughness. Typical speci- Flat (sheet plate) Cylinder/rod (b) (d)
mens for these evaluations are shown in Fig. 1. (a)
As will be highlighted throughout the discus-
sion below, mechanical properties are highly de-
pendent on microstructure (e.g., grain size,
phase distribution, second phase content), crys-
tal structure type (i.e., the arrangement of at-
oms), and elemental composition (e.g., alloying
element content, impurity level). A common il-
lustration of the relationship between micro-
structure and mechanical performance is the of- Double-notched tension
(b)
ten observed increase in yield stress with a de-
crease in grain size. Relationships like these be-
tween metal structure and performance make
mechanical property determination important
for a wide variety of structural applications in
metal working, in failure analysis and preven- Three-point bend
tion, and in materials development for advanced (e)
applications. (c) Compact tension
The following discussions are designed to Fig. 2 Examples of crystal structures. Unit cells: (a) sim-
Fig. 1 Typical specimens for (a) tension testing, (b) ple cubic, (b) face-centered cubic, (c) body- cen-
briefly introduce typical relationships between notched tension testing, and (c) fracture tough- tered cubic, and (d) hexagonal close-packed. A crystal
metallurgical features (such as crystal struc- ness testing lattice: (e) three-dimensional simple cubic

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 4 / Introduction to Mechanical Testing and Evaluation

lattice is formed (see Fig. 2e). Although the ar- tion and thermomechanical processing, these the purpose to optimize a variety of properties.
rangement of atoms in space can be of fourteen grains are typically approximately 1 to 1000 Minor alloying additions typically do not alter
different types (or Bravais lattices), most met- µm in size (although finer grain sizes can be the basic crystal structure as long as the ele-
als have face-centered cubic (fcc) (e.g., nickel, produced via other techniques). While the crys- ments remain in solid solution. At sufficiently
aluminum, copper, lead), body-centered cubic tal lattice within a grain is consistent, the crys- high concentrations, other phases (either with
(bcc) (e.g., iron, niobium, tungsten, molybde- talline orientations vary from one grain to an- the same or different crystallographic forms)
num), or hexagonal close-packed (hcp) (e.g., ti- other. may precipitate within the base metal (at grain
tanium, magnesium, zinc) structures as the unit Although some nonstructural applications boundaries or in the grain interior) as shown in
cell structure. In very specific applications, ma- may require pure metals because of certain Fig. 3(c). Phase diagrams are used by metallur-
terials can be used as single crystals where an physical property advantages, additions of al- gists and materials engineers to understand
entire component is fabricated with one spatial loying elements are usually made for purposes equilibrium solubility limits in engineering al-
orientation repeating throughout. More often of enhancing the mechanical properties or other loys and predict the phases which may form
than not, however, engineering materials usu- material characteristics (e.g., corrosion resis- during thermomechanical processing (Ref 2).
ally contain many crystals, or grains, as shown tance). Metal alloys may consist of over ten dif- As will be discussed later, solid solution ele-
in Fig. 3(a) and (b). Depending on the composi- ferent elements in specific concentrations with ments and precipitates/particles are often used

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 3 Examples of metallic microstructures: (a) Grains in an ultralow-carbon steel. Courtesy of U.S. Steel. (b) Grains in pure niobium. (c) Precipitates at grain boundaries in nio-
bium. (d) Discontinuously reinforced metal matrix composite (silicon carbide particles in an aluminum matrix). Source: Ref 1. Note: the grains in a–c are highlighted
through the use of a chemical etchant.

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 Introduction to the Mechanical Behavior of Metals / 5

during alloy design to improve the strength of a All of these factors are important and will be the strain. In this region, all deformation is
metal. covered in various articles contained within considered to be elastic because the sample will
Metal matrix composites can also be fabri- this Volume. For simplicity, the remainder of return to its original shape (i.e., dimensions)
cated in which dissimilar constituents (e.g., ce- this section focuses on basic examples to illus- when the applied stress is removed. If, how-
ramics and intermetallics) are incorporated into trate the relationship between the structure of a ever, the sample is not unloaded and deforma-
the metallic microstructure in order to enhance metal and the properties measured during me- tion continues, the stress-versus-strain curve
mechanical properties. The example micro- chanical testing. becomes nonlinear. At this point, plastic defor-
structure in Fig. 3(d) shows the reinforcement mation begins, causing a permanent elongation
material to be dispersed throughout a continu- that will not be recovered after unloading of the
ous metallic matrix with the metal representing specimen. The stress at which a permanent de-
50% or greater of the total volume. Although
Deformation of Metals formation occurs is called the elastic (or pro-
the example shows particles as the reinforce- portional) limit; however, an offset yield
ment, these materials can be designed with The basic principles of deformation and frac- strength (e.g., 0.2% offset) is typically used to
whiskers, short fibers, or long fibers (e.g., rods ture can be described through the use of a quantify the onset of plastic deformation due to
or filaments). Processing of these composites uniaxial tension (or tensile) test. A detailed re- the ease and standardization of measurement.
typically entails the incorporation of the rein- view of tension testing is presented later in this The tensile yield strength of most alloys is on
forcement material into the metal using ingot Volume; therefore, only a brief description is the order of 102 to 103 MPa:
metallurgy or powder metallurgy techniques presented for the purpose of introducing defor-
(Ref 3). mation and fracture mechanisms in metals. In • 135 to 480 MPa (20–70 ksi) for low-carbon
general, tensile tests are performed on cylindri- steels
To the structural engineer, or in the macro-
cal specimens (e.g., rods) or parallel-piped spec- • 200 to 480 MPa (30–70 ksi) for aluminum al-
scopic view (1×), most metals appear to be con- loys
imens (e.g., sheet and plate) as shown in Fig.
tinuous, homogeneous, and isotropic. Continu-
1(a). The samples are loaded uniaxially, along • 1200 to 1650 MPa (175–240 ksi) for high-
ity assumes that structures do not contain voids; strength steels
homogeneity assumes that the microstructure the length of the specimen. The applied load and
(in views at ~100–1000×) and properties will extension (or change in length) of the sample are
To understand the different deformation
be identical in all locations; isotropic behavior simultaneously measured.
modes, the structure of a metal must be consid-
assumes that the properties are identical in all The load and displacement are used to calcu-
ered. Elastic deformation can be conceptual-
orientations. While these assumptions have late engineering stress (s) and engineering
ized by considering the bonds between individ-
been used in continuum mechanics to study the strain (e) using Eq 1 and 2:
ual atoms to be springs. As mentioned above, a
strength of materials and structures under load, metal will stretch under the application of a
engineering materials are often inhomogeneous S = P/A0 (Eq 1) load, but will return to its original shape after
and anisotropic. While it is desirable to mini- the removal of that load if only elastic deforma-
mize such inhomogeneities, it is often impossi- e = ∆L/L0 = (Li – L0)/L0 (Eq 2) tion occurs. Just as a spring constant relates the
ble to completely eliminate them. As discussed force to the applied displacement (i.e., F = kx),
above, microstructural evaluation typically the elastic modulus (E) relates the tensile stress
shows that materials are comprised of an aggre- where P is the applied load, L0 is the initial to the applied tensile strain (i.e., σ = Eε) and is
gate of grains of unique crystal structure and gage length, L i is the instantaneous gage simply the slope of the linear portion of the ten-
length, A0 is the initial gage cross-sectional sile stress-versus-tensile strain curve produced
usually have second phases (with different
area, and ∆L is the change in length. This anal- in the tension test. Differences in the measured
properties) dispersed throughout the parent
ysis facilitates the comparison of results ob- elastic moduli for different metals can therefore
structure. Typically, materials will have varia-
tained when testing samples that differ in be rationalized in part by the differences in the
tions in grain size, second phase size and distri-
thickness or geometry. (For validity, the sam- atomic bonds between the individual atoms
bution, and chemical composition, especially in ples need to conform to certain design speci-
binary and higher-order alloys. Fabrication within the crystal lattice.
fications as detailed later in this Volume.) Plastic deformation results in a permanent
route may also play a key role in affecting the Although these engineering values are ade-
preferred crystallographic orientation (or tex- change of shape, meaning that after the load is
quate, the best measures of the response of removed, the metal will not return to its origi-
ture) of the grains, further contributing to the a material to loading are the true stress (σ)
inhomogeneity and anisotropy of the micro- nal dimensions. This implies a permanent dis-
and true strain (ε) determined by the instanta- placement of atoms within the crystal lattice. If
structure. As will be shown later, all of these neous dimensions of the tensile specimen in
microstructural features can greatly influence a perfect crystal is assumed, this deformation
Eq 3 and 4: could only occur by breaking all of the bonds at
the properties measured during mechanical test-
ing.
σ = P/Ai = S(1 + e) (Eq 3)
When metals are subject to an external force,
Uniform Nonuniform
the response will depend on a number of fac- plastic plastic
tors. The type of loading (e.g., tension, com- ε = ln (Li/L0) = ln (1 + e) (Eq 4) Elastic flow flow
pression, shear, or combinations thereof) is one
Engineering stress

key factor. The strain rate, temperature, nature Because the instantaneous dimensions of the
of loading (monotonic versus alternating fa- specimen are not typically measured, the true Fracture
tigue stresses), and presence of notches will stress and true strain may be estimated using
also affect the deformation response of the the engineering stress and engineering strain
metal. Chemical influences, such as those asso- (see Eq 1 and 2). It is noted that these estima-
ciated with stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) tions are only valid during uniform elongation
and hydrogen embrittlement, as well as physi- Total elongation
(see Fig. 4) and are not applicable throughout
to fracture
cal alterations, such as those resulting from ra- the entire deformation range.
diation damage, may affect the deformation be- Figure 4 depicts a typical engineering stress-
havior. Finally, the specimen size and surface versus-engineering strain curve produced in a Engineering strain
preparation can influence the response ob- uniaxial tension test. In the initial stages of de- Typical engineering stress-versus-engineering
served during mechanical testing. formation, generally stress varies linearly with
Fig. 4 strain curve

ASM Handbook-Volume 8-01-a1

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 6 / Introduction to Mechanical Testing and Evaluation

once between two planes of atoms and then given type of metal (e.g., aluminum-killed true stress-versus-true strain data as suggested
sliding one row (or plane) of atoms over an- versus fully stabilized steels) can in part be ra- by Eq 5:
other. Based on calculations using the theoreti- tionalized by which slip systems are active dur-
cal bond strengths, this process would result in ing deformation. Likewise, differences in the σ = Kεn (Eq 5)
yield strengths on the order of 104 to 105 MPa. properties between different metal types (e.g.,
These strengths are much greater than those bcc iron versus fcc aluminum versus hcp tita-
typically observed in actual metals (102 MPa); nium) can be related to the active slip systems where K is the strength coefficient and n is the
therefore, deformation must occur via a differ- in each metal and the relative ease with which strain-hardening exponent. The true stress and
ent method. dislocations can move within the slip systems. true strain measured (or calculated from Eq
Even under the most ideal crystal growth Motion within a slip system is governed by 1–4) can be used to determine the strain-hard-
conditions, metals are not crystallographically the critical resolved shear strength (τCRSS). As ening exponent (n-value). This exponent is
perfect, as shown in Fig. 2. Instead, the lattice shown schematically in Fig. 7 for a single crys- simply the slope calculated after plotting the
may contain many imperfections. One such im- tal, the attainment of τCRSS on a given slip sys- logarithm of true stress versus the logarithm of
perfection is an edge dislocation, which, for tem is related to the geometric relationship be- true strain:
simple cubic structures, can be considered to be tween the applied load and the slip system. This
the extra half plane of atoms shown schemati- relationship is described mathematically by log σ = n log ε + log K (Eq 6)
cally in Fig. 5. Regions surrounding the dislo- Schmid’s law.
cation may be a perfect array of atoms; how- In polycrystalline metals, plastic flow typi- As will be discussed later in this Volume, the
ever, the core of the dislocation is shown as cally does not occur at a constant stress. In con- value of the strain-hardening exponent be-
a localized distortion of the crystal lattice. trast, an increased stress must be applied to pro- comes important when predicting the response
While it may appear that this structure is unfa- duce additional deformation, as shown in Fig. of metals to straining during primary metal-
vorable, dislocations are necessary in metals. 4. This trend can be rationalized by considering working as well as forming operations for final
For example, at grain boundaries, dislocations the motion, interaction, and multiplication of components.
are “geometrically necessary” to allow the indi- dislocations. As plastic flow continues, the As shown in Fig. 4, there is a point in the
vidual grains of different orientations to match. number of dislocations increases, typically in a stress-versus-strain curve where the work hard-
The nature and quantity of the dislocations parabolic fashion (Ref 6). These dislocations ening can no longer compensate for the in-
become an integral aspect of plastic deforma- begin to interact with each other and with inter- crease in local stress arising from the reduced
tion. There are two generic types of disloca- faces such as grain boundaries. When a disloca- cross-sectional area. At this point, nonuniform
tions, edge and screw, which are primarily dif- tion encounters a grain boundary, motion is plastic flow occurs in which deformation is
ferentiated by the manner in which each may usually halted. Although direct transmission to concentrated in one region, called a neck.
traverse through the metallic crystal (Ref 4). It the neighboring grain may occur (Ref 7–9), Necking in the tensile specimen usually coin-
is noted that dislocations of mixed character more typically dislocations start to build up at cides with the maximum stress (i.e., the ulti-
(i.e., partially edge and partially screw) are the grain boundary and dislocation tangles may mate tensile strength) in an engineering stress-
most commonly observed. In general, both be created. As this buildup continues, a back versus-engineering strain curve.
types of dislocations entail the stepwise move- stress develops that opposes the motion of ad- Figure 7 introduces the influence of crystal-
ment of the dislocation across the crystal lattice ditional dislocations, giving rise to work hard- lographic orientation on the deformation of sin-
as opposed to the displacement of an entire ening (i.e., the increase in strength with strain- gle crystals. Although this relationship be-
plane over another. This means that only one ing shown in Fig. 4) (Ref 7). comes more complex in polycrystalline metals,
set of bonds is broken at a time as opposed Typically, the work hardening of a metal is the deformation will still depend on the orienta-
to an entire plane. Motion now occurs on a calculated by assuming a parabolic fit to the tion of the load with respect to the active slip
distinct set of slip systems, which are com- systems. For example, the tensile properties of
binations of planes—denoted as {uvw} or a highly oriented (i.e., textured anisotropic)
(uvw)—and directions—denoted as 〈hkl〉 or metallic sheet product will be different when
[hkl]—based on the closest packing of atoms measured parallel (longitudinal), normal (trans-
within the crystal structure (see Fig. 6 for an
example of crystallographic planes and direc-
tions) (Ref 5). For example, motion will pre- P
dominantly occur on {111}〈110〉 slip systems (111)
in fcc metals and on {110}〈111〉, {112}〈111〉,
φ
or {123}〈111〉 slip systems in bcc metals. As a λ N
result, differences in the plastic behavior of a
–
[110] A

(a) τR
–
[111]

Slip
direction
Slip plane
(110)

x
a (b)
Fig. 7 Schmid’s law. τR = (P/A) COS φ COS λ. Note:
Examples of crystallographic planes and direc- plastic flow on a given slip system will initiate
Fig. 5 Schematic of an edge dislocation
Fig. 6 tions. (a) (111)[1 1 0 ] and (b) (110) ( 1 11) when τR > τCRSS

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 Introduction to the Mechanical Behavior of Metals / 7

verse), or at 45° (diagonal) to the rolling direc- location “pile-up” at the grain boundaries), ure 10 schematically illustrates two scenarios
tion. The variation in plastic deformation in dif- leading to a larger resistance to dislocation mo- for incorporating atoms into a metallic matrix.
ferent orientations can be defined in terms of tion. As the grain size increases, the opposition Substitutional atoms (see Fig. 10a) take the
Lankford values (Ref 10). The individual to dislocation motion, due to back stresses as- place of matrix atoms. Because of the mis-
Lankford values in Eq 7 are calculated using sociated with dislocation tangles at grain match in atomic size between the substitutional
strains measured in a tensile test: boundaries, lessens due to the larger distances atom and the matrix atom, the lattice may be-
between grain boundaries. Therefore, the lower come locally strained. This lattice strain may
r = εw/εt = –εw/(εl + εw) (Eq 7) strength of a large-grained metal when com- impede dislocation motion and is convention-
pared to a small-grained metal can be rational- ally considered to be the source of solid solu-
ized by a decrease in the resistance to disloca- tion strengthening in metals. In general, the
where εw, εt, and εl are width, thickness, and tion motion. strengthening increment varies proportionally
longitudinal true strains measured from a par- The strength of a metal will also be related to with the mismatch in atomic size and properties
allel-sided tensile specimen, respectively. The the impurity content. Sometimes elements are (specifically modulus) between the solute and
mean plastic anisotropy (rm) and normal plastic intentionally added to metals, such as adding solvent atoms, as shown in Fig. 11 (Ref 14).
anisotropy (∆r) can be calculated using Eq 8 nickel to copper or phosphorus to steel. Other Interstitial atoms can also be present within
and 9, respectively: times, the presence of impurities, such as inclu- the metal (see Fig. 10b). In this case, the atom

rm =
( r0 + 2 r45 + r90 ) (Eq 8)
sions (e.g., oxides) in copper or solute carbon
in steel, may be undesired. In order to rational-
is much smaller than the matrix atoms and is lo-
cated in the gaps (or interstices) in the crystal
4 ize these statements, the effect of each on plas- lattice. Most often, interstitial atoms can dif-
∆r =
( r0 – 2 r45 + r90 ) (Eq 9) tic flow in metals needs to be considered. Fig- fuse to the dislocation core (see Fig. 5) due to
2

where r0, r45, and r90 are the r-values calculated 2.8
from sheet tensile specimens oriented at 0°
(parallel), 45° (diagonal), and 90° (normal) to 2.4
the rolling direction, respectively. As may be
expected, Lankford values depend on the crys-
Average strain ratio (rm)

2.0
tal structure. Figure 8 relates the calculated
Lankford values with crystallographic texture
for a low-carbon steel as measured using X-ray 1.6
diffraction techniques, further highlighting the
influence of metallic structure on mechanical 1.2
behavior.
0.8

Strength of Metals 0.4

Intensity (111)/intensity (001) is the ratio of the intensities
from x-ray diffraction from the (111) and (001) planes

Thus far, the mechanical properties of crys- 0

talline metals have been discussed only in rela- 0.1 1.0 10 100 1,000 10,000
tionship to the crystal lattice. Because most Intensity (111)/intensity (001)
metals are comprised of many grains (see Fig.
Fig. 8 Relationship between average (mean) plastic strain ratio (rm) and crystallographic texture. Source: Ref 11
2), properties such as yield strength and ductil-
ity (i.e., elongation to fracture) are also highly
dependent on the microstructure. Once again,
the influence of both of these factors can be ra-
tionalized by considering the motion of disloca- 66 at.%
at.% Si
Si
tions. The strength of a metal is related to the 50
ease, or conversely the difficulty, of dislocation
motion. If dislocation motion is uninhibited 300
(i.e., motion is initiated easily and continues 40
without hindrance), the strength will be low Yield strength, MPa
H3
H3 Ni
Yield strength, ksi

Ni
and relatively little work hardening will occur.
36 at.%
at.% Si
Si
In contrast, the presence of obstacles, or barri-
30 200
ers, within the microstructure slow dislocation
motion, resulting in an increase in strength. 33 at.%
at.% Ni
Ni
Grain boundaries provide an obstacle to dis-
1.5
1.5 at.%
at.% Si
Si
location motion. As the grain size is decreased, 20
the strength (σ) of the metal typically increases 1.5
1.5 at.%
at.% Ni
Ni
Fe-C 100
according to the Hall-Petch relationship given
in Eq 10 and illustrated in Fig. 9 (Ref 12, 13): 3 at.%
at.% Cr
Cr
10
1.5
1.5 at.%
at.% Cr
Cr
Fe
σ = σ0 + kd–1/2 (Eq 10)
0 0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
where σ0 is the intrinsic strength of the metal, k
is a coefficient, and d is the grain diameter. At d –1/2, mm–1/2
small grain sizes, there is a larger probability of
dislocation-dislocation interactions (e.g., dis- Fig. 9 Influence of grain size diameter (d ) on yield strength for α-iron alloys. Source: Ref 12

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 8 / Introduction to Mechanical Testing and Evaluation

the more open structure and the local tensile most often attributed to the breakaway of dislo- to two factors: (a) a higher probability of the
stresses in this region of the crystal lattice. The cations from the solute carbon atoms. If the mobile dislocation intersecting the particles
presence of the interstitial can inhibit disloca- physical appearance of the tensile specimen is due to the smaller interparticle spacing and (b)
tion motion, leading to dislocation “locking.” considered, localized distortions, called Lüders the higher fracture resistance of smaller parti-
This locking necessitates larger applied stresses fronts (local regions of yielded material), will cles. Conversely, as the size of the particles in-
to produce dislocation motion and further plas- traverse the length of the specimen during creases at a constant volume fraction, the
tic deformation (Ref 15). In the classic example yield-point elongation, and continuous plastic interparticle spacing increases, causing the par-
of carbon in iron, such a mechanism can result flow under an increasing load will not com- ticles to become less effective strengtheners
in discontinuous yielding as shown in Fig. 12. mence until the entire gage section has yielded. (i.e., barriers to dislocation motion) (Ref 18).
Deformation is not continuous, and a sharp up- The extent of the yield-point elongation will This effect can be observed in hot-rolled,
per yield point is typically observed followed depend on the density of mobile dislocations low-carbon steels. At low coiling temperatures,
by yielding at a constant stress. The serrations (i.e., those which are not “locked”) and the ease finer carbides (e.g., Fe3C and NbC) are typi-
in the stress-versus-strain curve in Fig. 12 are with which these dislocations can move once cally produced, resulting in increased strength.
initiated (Ref 16). At higher coiling temperatures, the carbide par-
Impurity atoms and interstitial alloy addi- ticles coarsen at a constant volume fraction,
tions can often cause second phase particles or which typically results in a lower strength.
precipitates to be present in the structure. A A similar scenario occurs with age-harden-
fine dispersion of small particles generally pro- able aluminum alloys. The strength of these al-
duces a higher strength than a coarse dispersion loys varies as a function of time at temperature
of large particles, as suggested in Fig. 13. At as shown in Fig. 14. The yield strength initially
each volume fraction, small particles (10 Å) increases proportionally with time, but eventu-
produce a higher strength than large (100 Å) ally reaches a maximum. Longer aging times
particles. The strengthening increase is related then result in decreased yield strength. These
trends are once again directly related to the
mechanisms of particle hardening. At short ag-
1120 ing times, small coherent precipitates form that
Mismatch factor:
εs = ε'G – 3εb
560 εG = modulus mismatch
εb = atomic size mismatch Upper yield point
Substitutional Locally strained
dτ0 /d C, MPa

solute atom lattice

Engineering stress
280
(a) Lower yield point

Yield point
140 elongation

70
0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2
εs = (3εb + 3ε'G)

Relationship between mismatch factor and Engineering strain

Fig. 11 strengthening increment (∆τ0/∆C) for solute
atoms in copper alloys. Source: Ref 14 Fig. 12 Discontinuous yielding

Interstitial solute atom

(b) 30

Fig. 10 Two scenarios of incorporating atoms into a

metal matrix. (a) Substitutional atoms and (b)
Solid
Solid
solution
Fine
Fine dispersion
dispersion of
of
solution small precipitates
precipotates
an interstitial atom in a body-centered cubic unit cell 25

T4
T4 condition
condition
Tensile elongation, %

20
225 °
10 A
Increase in yield stress, MPa

°
15 A 15
150 20 A
° T6
T6 condition
condition
° 10 Coarse
Coarse dispersion
dispersion
30 A
precipitates
of large precipotates
°
Overage
Overage
75 50 A
°
5
100 A

0
0.004 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.10 0.20 0.40 0
50 100 150 200 250 300
Niobium, % Yield strength, MPa

Fig. 13 Influence of particle size on yield strength

(NbC in an HSLA steel). Source: Ref 17 Fig. 14 Effect of aging heat treatment on ductility for a 2036 aluminum alloy. Source: Ref 19

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 Introduction to the Mechanical Behavior of Metals / 9

are effective strengtheners. Overaging (i.e., of ductile fracture by microvoid coalescence As a result, the ductility of a metal typically
soaking past the maximum yield strength) has been described by several authors (Ref decreases with increasing particle content, as
causes the particles to coarsen, and the inter- 21–23). Microvoids nucleate predominantly at shown in Fig. 16. An increase in particle vol-
particle spacing increases, resulting in the de- particles (e.g., inclusions, precipitates) that are ume fraction results in a larger number of po-
creased strength. present in nearly all metals. The particle size tential void nucleation sites. Furthermore, there
Figure 14 also provides evidence that the duc- and shape, the particle-matrix interfacial strength, is an increased probability for the linkage of
tility (i.e., the elongation prior to failure) of a and the matrix flow strength influence the neighboring voids (impingement).
metal will also be influenced by microstructural mechanism of void formation. In general, void According to the descriptions in Table 1, brit-
changes. Typically, there is an inverse relation- nucleation by particle cracking is favored by in- tle behavior is generally classified by failure at
ship between strength and ductility. In order to creasing particle size, higher interfacial stresses below the yield strength and low reduc-
rationalize this observation, the failure modes strengths, and the presence of nonequiaxed par- tions in area (little uniform strain) (Ref 25). Al-
for metals need to be considered. In general, ticles. By contrast, void nucleation by interfa- though this fracture process may be initiated by
failure is classified as either ductile or brittle. cial decohesion is more likely with smaller some dislocation activity, the levels generally
There are many ways to differentiate the two particles, weaker interfaces, and lower matrix detected are far below those found in a material
types of failures, as illustrated in Table 1 and flow strength (Ref 23). After nucleation, the exhibiting ductile behavior. Cleavage fracture,
Fig. 15. voids will grow in the direction of the applied one of the brittle fracture modes, is distin-
Ductile fracture is generally preceded by tensile stress and secondary voids can also nu- guished by separation of individual grains
stresses that exceed the yield stress, and speci- cleate at smaller particles. During necking, ex- along low index crystallographic planes in a
mens failing with high reductions of area and pansion of the voids can occur, leading to co- transgranular manner—for example, iron cleaves
by shear or microvoid coalescence. The process alescence by void impingement (resulting in along (100) planes. As shown in Fig. 15(b), lines
higher uniform strain) or by void sheet forma- on the cleavage facets, as seen in the scanning
tion (lower, more local strain). After failure, a electron microscope (SEM), provide postmortem
“dimpled” fracture surface is typically ob- evidence of the direction of crack growth (i.e.,
served, as shown in Fig. 15(a). the lines trace back to the origin of the failure

Table 1 Distinguishing characteristics of brittle versus ductile behavior depending on

the scale of observation
Scale of observation Brittle Ductile

Structural engineer Applied stress at failure is less Applied stress at failure is greater than the
than the yield stress yield stress
By eye (1×) No necking, shiny facets, Necked, fibrous, woody
crystalline, granular
Macroscale (<50×) “Low” RA or ductility Medium to high RA
Microscale, scanning electron Brittle microprocess, cleavage Ductile microprocess, microvoid coalescence
microscopy (100–10,000×) (see Fig. 15b), intergranular (see Fig. 15a)
(see Fig. 15c)
Transmission electron microscopy May have a large level of local High amount of plasticity globally
(>10,000×) plasticity

RA, reduction of area

(a)

(b) (c)

Fig. 15 Examples of fracture surfaces of metals failing by (a) microvoid coalescence, (b) cleavage, and (c) intergranular fracture. Source: Ref 20

ASM Handbook-Volume 8-01-a1

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 10 / Introduction to Mechanical Testing and Evaluation

origin). Each “line” is actually a step created arated into athermal (i.e., not influenced by & and tempera-
combined effect of strain rate (ε)
between fractures propagating along parallel temperature) and thermal (i.e., dependent upon ture (T) can be seen in Eq 11 (Ref 5):
low index planes but separated by a small step. temperature) components (Ref 5). Athermal
For pure cleavage, a step created on each side barriers, such as long-range interaction of dis-  – ∆G * ( τ*) 
of the fracture surface should fit together ex- locations, are too large to be overcome by glid- ε& = ε& 0 exp   (Eq 11)
cept for some discrepancy that may occur due ing dislocations utilizing only thermal fluctua-  kT 
to some plasticity at the step. Another brittle tions and the applied stress to move from one
fracture mode is intergranular fracture. In this site to another. In contrast, thermal barriers, where ∆G* is the Gibbs free energy associated
case, a crack is initiated at grain boundaries and such as solute atoms and precipitates, are sur- with the shear stress (τ*) required to overcome
propagates along them. The grain-boundary mountable by dislocations with the assistance short-range obstacles and ε& 0 is the product of
facets appear to be “glassy smooth” as in Fig. of this thermal energy and an applied stress. the mobile dislocation density, the vibration
15(c). There may be evidence of local plasticity At low temperatures, the thermal activation frequency for the dislocation segment, and the
with tearing evident at the grain-boundary cor- of dislocations is minimal; therefore, a large Burgers vector for the dislocation, the distance
ners. It should be noted that intergranular applied stress is required for deformation. At that the dislocation may “jump.” This relation-
microvoid coalescence, which is locally ductile higher temperatures, thermal activation will as- ship illustrates that sufficiently high tempera-
fracture in grain boundary regions, can also oc- sist in dislocation motion “around” the thermal tures or low enough strain rates increase the
cur. barriers. The applied stress necessary for plas- probability for exciting dislocation motion
tic flow is lowered, which reduces the mea- through a thermal activation event in the pres-
sured strength. Above a critical temperature, ence of an applied load. On the other hand, low
thermal activation provides a substantial por- temperatures and high strain rates can lead to
Special Conditions in Flow: tion of the driving force for dislocation motion, significant strengthening due to smaller contri-
Temperature and Strain Rate such that the strength of the material will be butions by thermal activation.
primarily determined by athermal barriers. For bcc metals, which exhibit a ductile-to-
The previous discussion assumes that plastic brittle transition, increasing the strain rate can
Many of the most widely employed structural have an additional effect. As discussed previ-
metals have bcc lattices (e.g., steels, refractory flow will take place and that there is a con-
stancy of fracture mechanism. Such an assump- ously and shown schematically in Fig. 17, the
metals) or fcc lattices (e.g., aluminum, copper). yield strength increases at a higher strain rate.
The strength of fcc metals is relatively insensi- tion is not necessarily valid for bcc metals.
These metals show a transition in fracture This shifts the temperature dependence of yield
tive to test temperature; however, the properties strength, resulting in an intersection with the
of bcc metals are typically highly dependent on mode from ductile (microvoid coalescence or
shear) to brittle (e.g., cleavage) with decreasing brittle fracture stress at a higher temperature
testing conditions. This dissimilar behavior is (T2 in Fig. 17). The end result is that the mea-
related to the nature of dislocation motion with temperature. This transition can be conceptual-
ized using a simple Orowan-type construction sured DBTT will be greater at a higher strain
the individual crystal lattices. Face-centered cu- rate (T2) than at a lower strain rate (T1).
bic metals are more closely “packed” (i.e., a (Ref 27) such as the one shown in Fig. 17. The
shorter distance exists between atoms in the unit brittle fracture stress (the cleavage stress) var-
cell of Fig. 2) than body-centered cubic metals. ies weakly with temperature and may be con-
sidered to be approximately independent of
A common slip system (i.e., {111}〈110〉) pre-
temperature. The yield strength, however, will Special Conditions in Fracture:
vails across temperature regimes for fcc metals; Notches and Cracks
however, dislocations have been found to move increase with decreasing temperatures as dis-
on different slip systems in bcc metals (e.g., cussed previously. The temperature where the
{110}〈111〉, {112}〈111〉, or {123}〈111〉 for α-iron), two curves intersect (T1 in Fig. 17) is consid- The deformations and processes governing
depending on temperature (Ref 5, 25, 26). ered to be the ductile-to-brittle transition tem- fracture in metals are affected by both the
In bcc metals, a substantial increase in flow perature (DBTT) for the metal. Above this tem- stresses and strains experienced in the speci-
stress (or strength) can be observed at tempera- perature, the metal will yield prior to fracture, men. In a simple tension test, the stresses are
tures less than one-fifth the melting tempera- while below the DBTT, cleavage occurs with- designed to be uniform throughout the cross
ture of the metal. Under these conditions, the out macroscopic yielding. section of the sample. When stress is applied to
internal resistance to dislocation motion can In addition to temperature, the rate of loading a component with a notch, crack, or other stress
greatly increase. If the barriers to dislocation (i.e., strain rate) during testing will also greatly concentration, regions in the vicinity of these
motion are considered further, they can be sep- affect the measured mechanical properties of features will always experience much higher
bcc metals. In general, an increase in strain rate stresses compared to unaffected regions, and
is analogous to a decrease in temperature. The the strains produced can be very different from
1.5
what would be predicted by the stresses. The
Cu-Fe-Mo stress fields created around stress concentra-
Cu with second-phase holes
Cu-Cr
Yield stress at tions are controlled by three factors: (a) the ex-
Cu-Alumina low strain rate
Cu-Fe
tent of deformation prior to failure, (b) the
1.0 Cu-Mo Brittle fracture stress mode of loading (i.e., the relative orientation of
Strain fracture

Cu-Alumina the applied load with respect to the plane of the

Cu-Silica
Yield stress at
crack), and (c) the constraints, if any, on the
cracked body (Ref 25, 27).
Stress

high strain rate

As a result, the mechanical properties mea-
0.5 σ*
sured when testing specimens with notches
(see Fig. 1b) or cracks (see Fig. 1c) will be
much different than those observed in uniaxial
σA tension tests. For the case of notched tensile
0 specimens, the measured tensile yield strength
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 T1 T2 often will be greater than that observed in a
Volume fraction Temperature, K uniaxial tension test. However, the ductility
Influence of particle content on ductility. Schematic illustration of the ductile-to-brittle and load-carrying capacity will be decreased.
Fig. 16 Source: Ref 24
Fig. 17 transition in body-centered cubic metals As the sample is loaded, the notched region

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 Introduction to the Mechanical Behavior of Metals / 11

will yield first due to the elevated local be represented as the radius of a circle as de- ture than a metal with a larger amount of parti-
stresses and strains associated with the notches. scribed by Eq 12 (Ref 25, 27): cles (in agreement with Fig. 16).
The maximum stress ahead of the notch will
be a function of the geometry of the notch and 2
the applied loading (Ref 28, 29). Furthermore, 1  K1 
rp =   (Eq 12)
the stresses are no longer purely uniaxial (such 6 π  σ ys  Summary
as is developed in a tensile test), but now be-
come triaxial (i.e., tensile stresses in the three
where rp is the distance from the crack to the The previous discussions were designed to
primary directions of space). If ductile frac-
elastic-plastic boundary, KI is the stress inten- provide a brief introduction to the influence of
ture via microvoid coalescence is reconsid-
sity calculated from the geometry and loading microstructure on the mechanical behavior of
ered, the elevated stress and strain fields may
conditions, and σ ys is the uniaxial yield metals. The mechanisms of elastic and plastic
accelerate the nucleation of secondary voids.
strength of the material. The highly constrained flow have been highlighted along with the re-
The void growth rate will also increase pro-
regions experiencing the triaxial stress state are sponse of metals to stress raisers such as
portionally to the level of the triaxial stresses,
located within this volume. As a result, the size notches. The properties measured during me-
resulting in reduced ductility for notched sam-
of this zone relative to the microstructural fea- chanical testing can be rationalized by consid-
ples compared to smooth, uniaxial tensile spec-
tures becomes a key factor influencing the ering the effect of microstructural features,
imens (Ref 30, 31).
measured properties of cracked specimens. such as grain size and particle content, on de-
A more severe stress concentration will occur
In general, the stresses are highest in a plas- formation mechanisms. During quality-control
in cracked specimens, such as those used to de-
tically deforming material ahead of the crack testing, a larger-than-normal strength (or hard-
termine fracture toughness (see Fig. 1c). In the
tip. In contrast, the plastic strains are highest at ness) for a given metal during testing might be
most limiting case (e.g., opening of a sharp
the notch tip and decrease after a critical dis- the result of grain refinement during process-
crack or Mode I loading), the component is
tance, which is approximately equivalent to the ing. A lower strength observed for an
highly constrained (with the level of constraint
crack-opening displacement (i.e., the relative age-hardenable metal might be the result of
dependent on mechanical properties and com-
displacement of the “mouth” of the crack) (Ref particle coarsening during overaging in heat
ponent size). Under these conditions and with
treatment. Likewise, a dramatic drop in ductil-
the application of a sufficient load, the peak 27). The extent of the strained region often be-
ity might be the result of an increased inclusion
tensile stresses around the crack tip can reach comes comparable to microstructural features
content (or, in some cases, from embrittlement
levels as high as five times the yield strength of (grain size, interparticle particle spacing, etc.)
due to impurity segregation to the grain bound-
the metal. As in the case of notched specimens, and can initiate failure. When large strains are
aries).
this change in stress state reduces the measured required for fracture, the crack-opening dis-
The relationship between microstructure and
fracture strains due to a local acceleration of placement must reach a critical size as to en-
mechanical properties is also important when
the fracture process. velop the microstructural features responsible designing processing conditions, as well as in
To understand effects of cracks in ductile met- for void nucleation. Depending on the intrinsic material selection for various applications. If
als, the interactions between microstructural fea- fracture resistance of the metal, void growth and increased strength in the final product is de-
tures and the elevated stress fields around the failure will occur when this zone becomes 1.0 to sired, solid-solution strengtheners may be
crack tip need to be considered. Ahead of a 2.7 times the microstructural feature responsible added (e.g., adding nickel to copper), or the
sharp crack, a finite volume of material is sub- for fracture (e.g., the grain size or the mean thermomechanical processing may be changed
jected to deformations at high stress values. To spacing of second-phase particles) (Ref 32, 33). to produce a finer distribution of particles (e.g.,
a first-order approximation, this volume of ma- An example of this type of fracture process lowering the coiling temperature for hot-rolled
terial, or the “plastic zone” in plane strain, can can be seen in the case of metal matrix compos- steel). If the final application has notches, it
ites (i.e., a ductile metal matrix with brittle re- may be beneficial to use a metal with a lower
inforcement particles). Crack growth in such a inclusion content.
material is schematically shown in Fig. 18. The remaining articles in this Volume will
When a crack in the ductile matrix is loaded, continue to build on this theme. In particular,
the large stresses ahead of the notch promote the design of mechanical testing procedures
void nucleation by particle fracture or interface and the analysis of resultant data will be highly
Crack decohesion. This void nucleation limits the dependent on the structure of the metal. Small
λ straining capacity of the metal in the vicinity of variations in this structure may result in large
the crack tip. The high strain field ahead of the changes in mechanical properties. As high-
tip then allows for continued growth of the nu- lighted above, these changes are a direct conse-
cleated voids to the point of instability, as the quence of the relationship between the metal-
blunted crack links with the microcrack. This lurgical features and the mechanisms of
Crack δt process of microcracking, crack-tip blunting, deformation and fracture.
and failure of the matrix (void formation) be-
tween the particles continues as the crack propa-
gates. This mechanism gives cracks an easy path
for failure and clearly shows that the presence of
Increasing
a stress raiser exacerbates the processes of frac-
REFERENCES
stress
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Crack The interaction between the microstructure 1. T.M. Osman, J.J. Lewandowski, and W.H.
of a metal and the resulting properties mea- Hunt, Jr., Fabrication of Particulates Rein-
sured during mechanical testing is further illus- forced Metal Composites, ASM Interna-
trated by Fig. 18. In this example, crack propa- tional, 1990, p 209
Fig. 18 Rice and Johnson model for failure in ductile gation from a notch or crack tip is related to the 2. Alloy Phase Diagrams, Vol 3, ASM Hand-
matrix composites. Top: sharp crack blunts. spacing of microstructural features. As a result, book, ASM International, 1992
Middle: particle cracking occurs followed by ductile
tearing. Bottom: crack propagation. λ is the interparticle
a metal with a reduced volume fraction of parti- 3. D. Hull, An Introduction to Composite
spacing; δ t is the crack opening displacement. Source: Ref cles (and the assumed increased interparticle Materials, Cambridge University Press,
32 spacing) can exhibit a greater resistance to frac- 1975

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 12 / Introduction to Mechanical Testing and Evaluation

4. R.W.K. Honeycombe, The Plastic Defor- 22. R.H. Van Stone, T.B. Cox, J.R. Low, and of Metals, London, 1956
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Trans., Vol 4, 1973, p 379 32. J.R. Rice and M.A. Johnson, Inelastic Be- • J.W. Martin, Micromechanisms in Particle
13. N.J. Petch, J. Iron Steel Inst. Jpn., Vol 173, havior of Solids, M.F. Kanninen, Ed., Hardened Alloys, Cambridge University
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Press, 1980 • J.F. Knott, Fundamentals of Fracture Me-
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mation Technology and Applications, Nostrand Reinhold, Birkshire, UK, 1987 Brittle Solids, Cambridge University Press,
C.A. Pampillo et al., Ed., American Soci- • C.R. Barrett, W.D. Nix, and A.S. Tetelman, 1975
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20. V. Kerlins and A. Philips, Modes of Frac- Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Mechanics, Edward Arnold, London, 1985
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21. I. Kirman, Metall. Trans., Vol 2, 1971, p 1761 Structure of Metals and Alloys, The Institute 4th ed., Dordrecht, Netherlands, 1987

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