M. A.

3rd Semester Examination

English
Literary Criticism
Paper-IX Course Code DSC MENG 301 (Compulsory)

Aristotle: The Poetics

Bharat Muni: Natyashastra (Chapter -6)

Dryden: Essay of Dramatic Poesy

Coleridge: BiographiaLiteraria (Chapters 13-18)

Arnold: “The Function of Criticism in the Present Time”

Eliot: “Tradition and Individual Talent” and “The Frontiers of Criticism”

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 LESSON 1
AN OUTLINE OF THE EVOLUTION OF LITERARY CRITICISM

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Learning Objectives
1.3 Evolution of Literary Criticism
1.4 Glossary
1.5 Suggested Readings
1.1 Introduction
The introduction of Literary criticism can be traced back to the classical period,
specifically ancient Greece, where the foundations of critical analysis were established. The
works of influential thinkers like Aristotle and Plato laid the groundwork for the systematic
study and evaluation of literature. Aristotle’s “Poetics” is one of the earliest and most significant
contributions to literary criticism. In this seminal work, Aristotle dissected the elements of
tragedy, epic poetry, and drama, exploring their structure, themes, and effects on the
audience. His theories on mimesis, catharsis, and the importance of plot, character, and
language in storytelling provided a framework for analysing and understanding works of
literature.
Similarly, Plato’s dialogues, particularly “The Republic” and “Phaedrus,” delved into
the power and influence of literature. Plato recognised the potential of literature to shape
individuals and societies while expressing concerns about its ability to deceive and corrupt.
He debated the role of poetry, the nature of art, and the relationship between literature and
morality. Plato’s discussions on the educational and ethical value of literature paved the way
for future scholars and critics to examine the impact of literature on the human psyche and
social order.
Moving beyond the classical period, the introduction of Literary criticism witnessed
significant developments during the Renaissance. In his work “Defence of Poesy,” figures
such as Sir Philip Sidney defended poetry as a morally enriching and educative form of
expression. Neoclassical critics like John Dryden and Alexander Pope championed the imitation
of classical models, emphasising the importance of reason, order, and decorum in literature.
The Enlightenment era brought a shift towards reason and empirical thinking, leading
to new approaches in literary criticism. John Locke’s “Essay Concerning Human Understanding”
explored the role of experience and reason in shaping literary interpretation, emphasising
the importance of the reader’s perspective in understanding and deriving meaning from
texts. Immanuel Kant’s “Critique of Judgment” delved into aesthetics, examining the nature
of beauty and the subjective judgments involved in interpreting and appreciating literary
works.
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 The Romantic period witnessed a re-evaluation of literature and individual imagination.
Poets like William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge celebrated the power of personal
experience, emotion, and the expression of the individual self in poetry. Friedrich Schlegel’s
concept of “romantic irony” and the idea that art should be self-conscious and self-reflexive
further challenged established norms in literary criticism.
As literary criticism progressed into the Victorian era, figures like Matthew Arnold
advocated studying literature for moral and cultural critique. Arnold’s concept of “the best
that has been thought and said” emphasised the importance of literature in shaping society’s
values and ideals. Walter Pater’s “The Renaissance” highlighted the pursuit of beauty and
aesthetic experience as the ultimate goal of art.
The 20th century witnessed a proliferation of diverse critical approaches. From the
formalist New Criticism that emphasised close reading and textual analysis to the post-
structuralism and postmodernist theories of Roland Barthes, Jacques Derrida, and Michel
Foucault that challenged fixed meanings and emphasised the multiplicity of interpretations,
Literary criticism continued to evolve and adapt to the changing cultural, social, and intellectual
contexts.
Literary criticism can be traced back to ancient Greece, where thinkers like Aristotle
and Plato laid the foundation for the systematic study and evaluation of literature. Since
then, literary criticism has evolved and expanded through various periods and movements,
with scholars and critics contributing diverse theories and approaches to interpreting and
understanding literary works. From classical aesthetics to contemporary critical theories,
Literary criticism has continuously evolved to explore the complex relationship between
literature, language, culture, and human experience.
1.2 Learning Objectives
Studying Literary criticism serves several important objectives that deepen our
understanding and appreciation of literature. These objectives encompass both personal
and academic perspectives:
• Enhancing Interpretation: Engaging with literary criticism helps readers develop skills
in interpreting and analysing texts. It provides tools and frameworks for critically
assessing the themes, symbols, narrative techniques, and stylistic elements employed
by authors. By studying various critical approaches, readers can gain new insights and
perspectives on literary works, enriching their interpretation and appreciation of the
texts.
• Contextualizing Literature: Literary criticism helps situate works of literature within
their historical, social, and cultural contexts. Understanding the influences, events, and
ideas that shaped a particular literary period or movement provides a deeper appreciation
of the motivations and intentions behind the texts. By exploring the historical and
cultural contexts, readers can uncover the complexities and relevance of literary works
in their respective times and societies.
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 • Evaluating Aesthetics: Literary criticism offers a framework for evaluating the aesthetic
qualities of literature. It allows readers to assess the craftsmanship, language, imagery,
and other artistic elements writers employ. By analysing the formal aspects of literary
works, readers can develop a discerning eye for quality and appreciate the creative
choices made by authors.
• Developing Critical Thinking: The study of literary criticism nurtures critical thinking
skills by encouraging readers to analyse, question, and evaluate the arguments and
theories critics present. Engaging with different critical perspectives helps readers
develop their analytical and reasoning abilities. This critical thinking extends beyond
literature and becomes applicable to various aspects of life, enhancing problem-solving
skills and fostering a deeper understanding of the world.
• Engaging in Discourse: Studying literary criticism enables readers to participate in the
scholarly and intellectual discourse surrounding literature. It allows individuals to engage
in meaningful discussions, debates, and analyses with fellow readers, scholars, and
critics. By understanding and contributing to the ongoing conversations in literary criticism,
readers become active participants in shaping the field and its future directions.
• Reflecting on Human Experience: Literature often explores profound questions about
the human condition, society, identity, and morality. Literary criticism helps readers
reflect on and navigate these themes by offering various interpretive frameworks. It
encourages readers to contemplate universal truths, ethical dilemmas, and the
complexities of human existence, fostering empathy, self-reflection, and a deeper
understanding of the human experience.
Studying Literary criticism includes enhancing interpretation skills, contextualising
literature, evaluating aesthetics, developing critical thinking abilities, engaging in intellectual
discourse, and reflecting on the profound themes of human existence. By pursuing these
objectives, readers can derive greater enjoyment, insight, and appreciation from the rich
tapestry of literary works.
1.3 Evolution of Literary Criticism
Literary criticism has witnessed a fascinating evolution over the centuries, as diverse
intellectual paradigms, cultural contexts, and the changing nature of literary texts have
shaped the discipline. From its roots in ancient Greece to its contemporary manifestations,
Literary criticism has embraced various schools of thought, critical approaches, and influential
figures. This essay aims to comprehensively explore the evolution of Literary criticism,
highlighting key movements, theorists, and their contributions.
1. Classical Antiquity:
Ancient Greece established Western literary criticism with prominent figures such as
Aristotle and Plato.

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 a. Aristotle’s Poetics established the earliest systematic treatise on literary theory,
emphasising the principles of tragedy, epic poetry, and dramatic structure.
b. Plato’s Republic proposed censorship and advanced ideological views on the
role of literature in society, advocating for the moral influence of literature.
2. Middle Ages:
The Middle Ages witnessed a dominant influence of Christianity and scholasticism on
literary criticism.
a. St. Augustine’s Confessions offered a profound exploration of the relationship
between literature, faith, and personal transformation.
b. Allegorical Interpretation became prevalent, seeking hidden meanings and
moral lessons in literary works.
3. Renaissance:
The Renaissance marked a shift towards humanism and a renewed interest in classical
literary theory.
a. Sir Philip Sidney’s Defence of Poesy championed poetry’s moral and educational
value, defending it against accusations of frivolity.
b. Neoclassicism emerged, with figures like Dryden and Pope advocating for
imitating classical models, emphasising order, reason, and decorum.
4. Enlightenment:
The Enlightenment period embraced reason and empirical thinking, leading to new
approaches to literary criticism.
a. John Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding explored the role of
experience and reason in shaping literary interpretation.
b. Immanuel Kant’s Critique of Judgment delved into aesthetics, discussing the
judgment of beauty in art and literature.
5. Romanticism:
The Romantic movement emphasised imagination, emotion, and subjectivity in
literature.
a. Wordsworth and Coleridge celebrated the power of the individual imagination
and the expression of personal experience in poetry.
b. Friedrich Schlegel’s Fragmente introduced the concept of “romantic irony”
and the idea that art should be self-conscious and self-reflexive.

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6. Victorian Era:
The Victorian era saw a resurgence of moral and cultural criticism in literature.
a. Matthew Arnold argued for the study of literature as a means of moral and
cultural critique, focusing on the concept of “the best that has been thought
and said.”
b. Walter Pater’s The Renaissance promoted the pursuit of beauty and aesthetic
experience as the ultimate goal of art.
7. Modernism:
The modernist period changed literary criticism significantly, challenging traditional
norms and exploring new perspectives.
a. T.S. Eliot’s “Tradition and the Individual Talent” proposed the idea of the
“dissociation of sensibility” and emphasised the importance of tradition in
artistic creation.
b. New Criticism emerged, emphasising close reading and formal analysis, with
proponents like Cleanth Brooks and T.S. Eliot.
8. Post-Structuralism and Postmodernism:
Post-Structuralism and Postmodernism questioned established notions of meaning
and interpretation.
a. Roland Barthes introduced the concept of “the death of the author” and
emphasised the reader’s active role in interpreting texts.
b. Jacques Derrida’s Deconstruction challenged fixed meanings and highlighted
the instability and multiplicity of interpretations.
c. Michel Foucault explored the relationship between power, discourse, and
knowledge in literature and culture.
9. Contemporary approaches to Literary criticism encompass various perspectives that
reflect our time’s evolving cultural, social, and intellectual landscape. These approaches
have emerged in response to the changing nature of literature, the recognition of
marginalised voices, and the influence of interdisciplinary studies. Here are some
prominent contemporary approaches to Literary criticism:
• Feminist criticism examines literature through the lens of gender, focusing on the
representation of women, gender roles, and power dynamics. It seeks to uncover
and challenge patriarchal biases within literary texts and explores how gender
shapes the production and reception of literature. Feminist critics draw attention
to the historical exclusion of women writers and highlight the significance of female
perspectives and experiences in literary analysis.
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 • Postcolonial criticism examines literature from the perspective of formerly colonised
nations, challenging the dominance of Western narratives and exploring the effects
of colonialism, imperialism, and cultural hybridity. Postcolonial critics investigate
how literature reflects the experiences of colonised peoples, highlight the
complexities of cultural identities, and critique the power dynamics between
colonisers and the colonised.
• The queer theory explores literature through the lens of sexual orientation and
gender identity, emphasising the fluidity and diversity of sexuality and challenging
heteronormative assumptions. Queer theorists analyse how literature represents
non-normative sexualities and identities, disrupts binary categories, and questions
societal norms and expectations. They also investigate the intersections of sexuality,
gender, and other forms of identity, such as race and class.
• Ecocriticism examines the relationship between literature and the natural world,
focusing on environmental issues, human interactions with nature, and the
representation of the environment in literary texts. Eco-critics explore how literature
reflects and shapes our understanding of the ecological crisis, environmental
justice, and sustainability. They also investigate how literary works engage with
ecological themes and promote environmental awareness.
• Cultural studies approach literature as a cultural artefact embedded within broader
social, political, and historical contexts. Cultural critics examine how literature
reflects and critiques societal values, power structures, and ideologies. They
analyse the interplay between literature and other forms of cultural expression,
such as film, music, and visual arts, emphasising the multidimensional nature of
cultural production.
• The reader-response theory emphasises the active role of readers in interpreting
and meaning-making literary texts. It recognises that readers bring their
experiences, beliefs, and cultural backgrounds to their engagement with literature,
influencing their understanding and response. Reader-response critics examine
how readers interact with texts, highlighting the subjective and diverse
interpretations that arise from different readers’ perspectives.
These contemporary approaches to Literary criticism demonstrate the dynamic and
interdisciplinary nature of the field. They reflect the ongoing efforts to diversify and expand
the canon, amplify marginalised voices, and engage with our time’s complex social, cultural,
and environmental issues. By exploring literature through these various lenses, critics contribute
to a richer understanding of texts and their significance in contemporary society.
1.4 Glossary
This glossary provides a starting point for understanding key terms and concepts in
Literary criticism. However, it is important to note that literary criticism is a dynamic and
evolving field, and new theories and approaches continue to emerge, challenging and expanding
our understanding of literature and its interpretation.
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1. Mimesis: Refers to the imitation or representation of reality in art or literature.
2. Catharsis: An emotional release or purification experienced by the audience when
witnessing a tragedy, according to Aristotle’s theory of tragedy.
3. Poetics: The study of the principles and techniques of poetry and literary
composition and the critical analysis of poetry.
4. Aesthetics: The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and appreciation
of beauty, particularly in art and literature.
5. Canon: Refers to the accepted or authoritative body of literature or works
considered of enduring value and importance within a specific literary tradition or
period.
6. Intertextuality: The interconnection and referencing of texts, where one text is
influenced by, refers to, or incorporates elements from other texts.
7. Formalism: A critical approach that focuses on the formal elements of a literary
work, such as its structure, language, and style, emphasising close reading and
analysis of the text itself.
8. Structuralism: A theoretical framework that seeks to uncover the underlying
structures and systems of meaning in language, culture, and literature. It
emphasises the role of binary oppositions and language systems in shaping
interpretation.
9. Post-structuralism: A critical approach that emerged in response to structuralism,
challenging the idea of fixed meanings and stable identities. It highlights the
multiplicity of interpretations and the instability of language and meaning.
10. Deconstruction: A method of literary analysis associated with Jacques Derrida
that aims to reveal the inherent contradictions, ambiguities, and hierarchies in
texts, challenging traditional notions of authorial intent and fixed meaning.
11. Feminist Criticism: A critical approach that examines literature through the lens of
gender, emphasising the representation of women, gender roles, and power
dynamics and highlighting the experiences and perspectives of women in literature.
12. Postcolonial Criticism: A critical approach that explores the literature of formerly
colonised regions, examining the effects of colonialism, imperialism, and cultural
hybridity on literature, identity, and power dynamics.
13. Queer Theory: A critical approach that explores literature through the lens of
sexual orientation and gender identity, challenging heteronormative assumptions
and examining the representation of non-normative sexualities and identities.

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 14. New Historicism: A critical approach that analyses literature about its historical
and cultural contexts, emphasising the interplay between texts and the social,
political, and economic conditions of the time.
15. Reader-Response Theory: A critical approach that emphasises the reader’s role
in interpreting and meaning-making a text, highlighting the subjective and diverse
responses that readers bring to their engagement with literature.
1.5 Suggested Readings
• Muni, Bharata, et al. Natyashastra. Banaras Hindu University, 1971.
• Patnaik, Priyadarshi. Rasa in Aesthetics. D.K. Printworld, 2002.
• Anagnostopoulos, Georgios. A Companion to Aristotle. Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.
• Dryden, John. “Essay of Dramatic Poesy.” London 1668.
• Wheeler, Kathleen. Sources, Processes and Methods in Coleridge’s
BiographiaLiteraria. Cambridge University Press, 1980.
• Dawson, Carl. Matthew Arnold: The Critical Heritage. Volume 2. The Poetry. Routledge,
2005.
• Williamson, George. A Reader’s Guide to T. S. Eliot. Bookseller, 1952.

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 LESSON 2
ARISTOTLE

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning Objectives
2.3 Theory of Mimesis or Imitation
2.4 Concept of Tragedy
2.5 Aristotle’s concept of the tragic hero
2.6 Character
2.7 Aristotle on Comedy
2.8 Epic and Tragedy
2.9 Glossary
2.10 Self-Assessment Questions’ Answers
2.11 Suggested Readings
2.1 Introduction
Aristotle’s Poetics is a seminal work of ancient Greek literary theory and criticism
written by the philosopher Aristotle in the 4th century BCE. Considered one of the most
influential texts in the history of literary studies, Poetics explores the nature and principles of
drama, focusing particularly on tragedy. This treatise examines the essential elements that
contribute to the creation of successful plays, including plot structure, character development,
and the emotional impact on the audience. Aristotle’s Poetics has had a lasting impact on the
understanding and appreciation of literature, shaping the foundations of Western literary
thought and providing a framework for analysing and interpreting dramatic works for centuries.
2.2 Learning Objectives
• Understanding the Nature of Tragedy: Aristotle seeks to define and explore the
essence of tragedy as a form of art. He examines its fundamental elements,
structure, and characteristics to comprehensively understand what makes a
tragedy effective and powerful.
• Analysis of Plot Structure: Aristotle analyses the structure of a tragic plot,
emphasising the importance of unity, coherence, and progression. He discusses
the key components, such as the beginning, middle, and end, and introduces
concepts like peripeteia (reversal) and anagnorisis (recognition) that contribute
to plot development.
• Examination of Character: Aristotle delves into the role of characters in tragedy,
discussing their moral qualities, motivations, and relationships. He explores the
concept of the tragic hero, with their virtues and flaws, and how their actions and
choices drive the plot and evoke emotional responses from the audience.
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 • Study of Spectacle and Music: Aristotle’s primary focus is on the literary aspects
of drama, he also touches upon the significance of visual and auditory elements,
such as spectacle and music, in enhancing the overall theatrical experience.
• Exploration of Emotional Effects: Aristotle emphasises the emotional impact of
tragedy on the audience. He discusses the concept of catharsis, the purging or
cleansing of emotions, particularly pity and fear, through witnessing tragic events
on stage. Understanding tragedy’s emotional effects is seen as Poetics’ central
objective.
• Evaluation of Poetic Devices: Aristotle analyses various poetic devices in tragedy,
including language, metaphors, and rhythm. He examines their role in evoking
emotions, enhancing the aesthetic experience, and contributing to the overall
effectiveness of the play.
• Aristotle’s Poetics aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the nature
of tragedy, analyse its various components, and offer insights into how tragedy
affects the audience emotionally and intellectually. By outlining the principles and
elements of dramatic art, Aristotle aims to provide a framework for both creators
and consumers of literature, fostering a deeper appreciation and understanding
of the art form.
2.3 Theory of Mimesis or Imitation
Aristotle’s theory of imitation, known as mimesis, is a central concept in his Poetics.
According to Aristotle, art, particularly tragedy, imitates or reflects aspects of reality. Through
this imitation, artists can reveal universal truths about the human condition. Here’s an
elaboration of Aristotle’s theory of imitation, along with some examples:
Imitation as Representation: Aristotle argues that art imitates life by representing or
mirroring aspects of reality. Artists create fictional worlds and characters that resemble the
real world but are crafted to highlight certain aspects or truths about human nature. For
example, Sophocles’ tragedy “Oedipus Rex” the play presents a fictionalized story of a
tragic hero who unknowingly fulfils a prophecy and suffers the consequences of his actions.
The play mirrors the complexities of fate, free will, and the human struggle with self-discovery.
Imitation as Catharsis: Aristotle suggests that imitation in tragedy serves as a means
of catharsis, or emotional purification, for both the characters on stage and the audience.
Through witnessing the imitation of intense and emotional events, the audience experiences
a release of pity and fear, leading to a purging of these emotions and a sense of emotional
relief. For example, in William Shakespeare’s tragedy “Macbeth,” the audience is confronted
with the imitation of Macbeth’s moral decline, ambition, and guilt. By witnessing his tragic
downfall, the audience can experience a cathartic release of emotions and gain insights into
the consequences of unchecked ambition.

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 Imitation as Ethical Education: Aristotle believed that imitation, particularly in tragedy,
had a moral and educational function. He argued that by observing the imitation of virtuous
and flawed characters and their actions, the audience could learn important lessons about
morality and ethics. For example, in Henrik Ibsen’s play “A Doll’s House,” the character of
Nora Helmer imitates a woman struggling against societal expectations and finds the strength
to challenge traditional gender roles. The play’s imitation of Nora’s journey prompts the
audience to question societal norms and consider the importance of individual autonomy and
self-realisation.
Imitation as Universal Truth: Aristotle believed that art imitates specific events or
individuals and the universal aspects of human nature. Through imitation, artists can reveal
timeless truths about the human condition that resonate across cultures and periods. For
example, in Fyodor Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment,” the protagonist
Raskolnikov’s internal struggles with guilt, redemption, and the nature of evil reflect universal
human dilemmas. The novel’s imitation of Raskolnikov’s psychological journey speaks to the
complexity of human morality and the consequences of our choices.
Aristotle’s theory of imitation, or mimesis, suggests that art imitates or reflects reality
to reveal truths about the human condition. Tragedy, in particular, serves as a medium for
emotional catharsis, ethical education, and the exploration of universal themes. Artists create
works that engage and provoke audiences by imitating characters, events, and emotions,
encouraging them to reflect on and understand themselves and the world around them.
2.4 Concept of Tragedy
Aristotle’s Poetics provides extensive analysis and definition of tragedy, outlining its
key elements, purpose, and effects. Here are some key points regarding Aristotle’s views
on tragedy as discussed in Poetics:
Definition of Tragedy: According to Aristotle, tragedy is a form of art that imitates a
serious and complete action, with magnitude, embellished language, and employing different
forms of artistic mimesis (imitation). Tragedy portrays events that evoke pity and fear,
leading to a cathartic experience for the audience.
The Purpose of Tragedy: Aristotle argues that the ultimate purpose of tragedy is to
arouse the emotions of pity and fear in the audience. Tragedy presents a series of events
that elicit these emotions, leading to a cathartic release, cleansing, or purging of these
emotions. This catharsis allows the audience to experience emotional relief and a heightened
understanding of the human condition.
Elements of Tragedy: Aristotle outlines several elements that contribute to the
effectiveness of a tragic play. These include:
Plot: Aristotle emphasises that the plot is the most important element of tragedy. He
defines it as the arrangement of incidents with a beginning, middle, and end unified in their
structure. The plot should exhibit a cause-and-effect chain of events and should evoke a
sense of pity and fear in the audience.
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 Characters: Aristotle discusses the importance of characters in tragedy. He argues
that tragic heroes should possess certain qualities, such as nobility, moral virtue, and a
tragic flaw (hamartia) that leads to their downfall. The characters’ actions and choices drive
the plot and evoke emotional responses from the audience.
Thought: Aristotle emphasises the significance of thought or theme in tragedy. He
suggests that tragedy should convey universal truths and explore philosophical and ethical
questions. Thought helps to deepen the audience’s understanding of the events and the
human condition.
Diction: Aristotle discusses the use of language in tragedy. He highlights the importance
of elevated and poetic language appropriate to the characters and the genre. The choice of
words should evoke emotions and contribute to the aesthetic experience.
Music and Spectacle: While Aristotle does not consider music and spectacle as
essential components of tragedy, he acknowledges their potential to enhance the emotional
impact of the performance. Music and spectacle can contribute to the overall aesthetic
experience of the audience.
Tragic Hero: Aristotle emphasises the role of the tragic hero in tragedy. The tragic
hero is a character of noble stature who possesses virtues but also has a tragic flaw
(hamartia) that leads to their downfall. The audience experiences pity and fear as they
witness the hero’s fall from greatness.
Catharsis: One of the most famous concepts associated with Aristotle’s theory of
tragedy is catharsis. Aristotle suggests that tragedy provides a cathartic effect on the
audience. Through witnessing the tragic events and experiencing the emotions of pity and
fear, the audience can achieve a purging or cleansing of these emotions, leading to a sense
of emotional release and intellectual enlightenment.
Aristotle’s Poetics continues to be a significant and influential work in literary theory,
offering valuable insights into the nature, structure, and purpose of tragedy. His examination
of tragedy as a means of emotional and intellectual engagement has impacted the
understanding and appreciation of dramatic art.
2.5 Aristotle’s concept of the tragic hero
It is a fundamental aspect of his theory of tragedy in Poetics. According to Aristotle,
a tragic hero is a character of noble stature and high reputation who possesses virtues but
also has a tragic flaw (hamartia) that leads to their downfall. Here are some key characteristics
and qualities associated with Aristotle’s tragic hero:
Nobility and High Stature: A tragic hero is typically a person of noble birth, elevated
social status, or high reputation. They often hold a prominent societal position, such as a
king, queen, or warrior. Their noble stature adds weight to their actions and intensifies the
impact of their tragic downfall.

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 Moral Virtue and Goodness: The tragic hero possesses admirable moral qualities
and virtues. They are not completely virtuous nor villainous but are characterised by a blend
of strengths and weaknesses. Their virtues may include courage, justice, intelligence, and
integrity.
Tragic Flaw (Hamartia): The tragic hero is marked by a tragic flaw, a personal trait
or characteristic that leads to their downfall. This flaw could be excessive pride (hubris),
ambition, jealousy, or a lack of self-awareness. The hero’s tragic flaw is often connected to
their virtues, making it all the more tragic.
Downfall and Suffering: The tragic hero experiences a reversal of fortune or downfall,
often due to their tragic flaw. This downfall is a result of their own actions and choices. The
hero undergoes intense internal and external suffering as they face the consequences of
their tragic flaw.
Recognition and Insight: Through their suffering and downfall, the tragic hero gains a
moment of recognition (anagnorisis) or realisation. They understand the true nature of their
situation, the consequences of their actions, or the error in their ways. This recognition may
come too late to avert their downfall, but it brings a sense of enlightenment or self-awareness.
Pity and Fear: The tragic hero’s story evokes pity and fear in the audience. The
audience pities the hero’s suffering and sympathises with their tragic fate. The hero’s downfall
and the consequences of their actions generate a sense of fear in the audience as they
contemplate human life’s potential fragility and vulnerability.
Aristotle’s concept of the tragic hero captures human nature’s complexity and moral
ambiguity. The tragic hero is not simply a perfect individual or a wholly evil character but
rather someone with virtues and flaws, leading to their tragic downfall. Their story reflects
the human condition, provoking emotional responses and contemplation of universal themes
and truths.
According to Aristotle, a tragic hero is a character of noble stature with virtues but
also a tragic flaw (hamartia) that leads to their downfall. Here are a few quotes from Poetics
that highlight Aristotle’s views on the tragic hero:
“A man cannot become a hero until he can see the root of his own downfall.” -
Aristotle, Poetics
This quote emphasises that the tragic hero must possess self-awareness and
recognise their own tragic flaw, which ultimately leads to their downfall. The hero’s downfall
is not solely a result of external circumstances but is deeply connected to their own choices
and actions.
“But the man who fails to find pleasure in worthy things or to control his passions, and
is nailed by disaster—his ruin is not tragic, but self-inflicted and therefore more deserved.”
- Aristotle, Poetics

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 Aristotle argues that the tragic hero’s downfall should be caused by their own actions
and flaws rather than by external factors. The hero’s tragic flaw and subsequent downfall
are seen as a consequence of their own choices and inability to control their passions or
make virtuous decisions.
“Tragedy is an imitation not of men but of a life, an action... with incidents arousing
pity and fear, wherewith to accomplish its catharsis of such emotions.” - Aristotle, Poetics
This quote emphasises that the tragic hero serves as the focal point of the tragedy,
embodying the universal aspects of human life and action. The hero’s experiences and
downfall evoke pity and fear in the audience, leading to a cathartic release of these emotions.
“The tragic hero falls into bad fortune because of some flaw in his character of the
kind found in men of high reputation and good fortune.” - Aristotle, Poetics
Aristotle argues that the tragic hero’s flaw is not a result of their being wholly evil but
is often a result of their own virtues and greatness. This tragic flaw brings about their
downfall and makes their suffering and fall from grace all the more poignant.
These quotes highlight Aristotle’s views on the tragic hero as a noble character with
virtues and a tragic flaw that leads to their downfall. The tragic hero’s downfall is not seen
as a mere coincidence or external circumstance but is connected to their own choices,
actions, and inherent human qualities.
2.6 Character
In Aristotle’s Poetics, he discusses the role of the character in tragedy and its
importance in creating a compelling and effective dramatic work. Here are some key points
regarding Aristotle’s views on character in Poetics:
Character as a Means of Action: According to Aristotle, the character is not an end
in itself but rather a means through which the actions and events of the plot unfold. Characters
in tragedy are instrumental in driving the plot forward and creating conflict and tension.
Consistency and Coherence: Aristotle emphasizes the importance of consistency
and coherence in character portrayal. He suggests that characters should have a well-
defined and internally consistent set of qualities, traits, and behaviours. This consistency
contributes to the credibility and believability of the characters within the dramatic world.
Moral Virtue and Flaw: Aristotle identifies moral virtue and flaw as crucial elements
in character development. He argues that characters should possess both positive qualities
and flaws. The moral virtue adds depth and nobility to the character, while the flaw, known
as the tragic flaw or hamartia, contributes to their eventual downfall. This interplay between
virtue and flaw creates complexity and engages the audience emotionally.
Individuality and Universality: Aristotle recognizes the importance of individuality in
character portrayal. He suggests that characters should have distinct personalities and
characteristics that make them unique and memorable. At the same time, these individual
characters should also embody universal qualities and represent broader aspects of human
nature, allowing the audience to relate to and connect with them on a deeper level.
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 Consistency with the Plot: Aristotle emphasizes the close relationship between
character and plot. He argues that characters should be developed in a way that aligns with
the overall structure and progression of the plot. Their actions, choices, and motivations
should be consistent with the unfolding events and contribute to the overall development of
the story.
Emotional Connection and Catharsis: Aristotle highlights the importance of characters
in evoking emotional responses from the audience. Well-drawn and relatable characters
can generate empathy, sympathy, and emotional investment in the audience. Through this
emotional connection, the audience can experience catharsis, the purging or cleansing of
emotions, which is a central objective of tragedy.
Aristotle’s insights on character in Poetics underscore the significance of well-developed
and consistent characters in tragedy. Characters serve as agents of action and conflict,
embodying moral virtues and flaws that drive the plot and engage the audience emotionally.
Their individuality, universality, and alignment with the plot’s overall structure contribute to
the dramatic work’s effectiveness and impact.
2.7 Aristotle on Comedy
While Aristotle’s Poetics primarily focuses on tragedy, he also offers some insights
on comedy, although they are comparatively limited in comparison. Here are a few key
points regarding Aristotle’s views on comedy:
Imitation and Mimesis: Aristotle considers comedy as a form of imitation, similar to
tragedy. However, he notes that comedy imitates “inferior” individuals and focuses on the
ridiculous and laughable aspects of human behaviour rather than the elevated and noble
qualities depicted in tragedy.
Comic Character Types: Aristotle suggests that comedy often relies on the portrayal
of certain character types that evoke humour. These character types include the foolish, the
witty, the buffoon, and the socially inept. Comedy often highlights the flaws, quirks, and
absurdities of these characters, inviting the audience to find amusement in their antics.
Humour and Ridicule: Aristotle identifies the central objective of comedy as creating
laughter and amusement through the use of ridicule and satire. Comedy aims to provoke
laughter by exposing the follies, vices, and idiosyncrasies of individuals and society. Through
humour, comedy provides a sense of light-heartedness and entertainment.
Incongruity and Reversal: Like tragedy, comedy often relies on the element of
incongruity, presenting situations or events that are unexpected, surprising, or contrary to
expectations. Comedy also employs reversal, where characters experience a change of
fortune or unexpected outcomes, leading to humorous and ironic effects.
Happy Ending: Aristotle suggests that comedy typically concludes with a happy ending.
The comedic plot tends to resolve conflicts and misunderstandings, restoring order, harmony,
and reconciliation among characters. This resolution brings about a sense of joy, closure,
and satisfaction for the audience.
16
 It is important to note that Aristotle’s treatment of comedy in Poetics is relatively brief
and less comprehensive than his tragedy analysis. Nonetheless, his observations on comedy
highlight its focus on laughter, ridicule, and the portrayal of amusing character types. While
comedy and tragedy are distinct genres, Aristotle’s understanding of mimesis and the role
of imitation in art can be applied to both, albeit with different aims and effects.
2.8 Epic and Tragedy
Aristotle discusses both epic poetry and tragedy in his work, Poetics. Here are some
key points regarding Aristotle’s views on epic and tragedy:
Epic Poetry:
Definition and Imitation: Aristotle defines epic poetry as a narrative form that imitates
actions through a series of heroic events. It typically focuses on grand and extraordinary
deeds performed by legendary or mythological heroes.
Structure and Length: Aristotle notes that epic poetry tends to have a larger scope
and longer narrative than other forms of poetry. It often consists of multiple books or cantos,
with a well-structured plot that includes various episodes and subplots.
Elevated Language and Style: Aristotle emphasises the importance of elevated
language and a majestic style in epic poetry. Epic poems use formal and dignified language,
employing epic similes, epithets, and other rhetorical devices to enhance the grandeur and
impact of the narrative.
Heroic Characters: Epic poetry features heroic characters who embody noble qualities
and undertake extraordinary adventures. These characters often possess exceptional strength,
courage, and wisdom and are typical of high social status.
Universal Themes: Aristotle suggests that epic poetry explores universal themes and
addresses fundamental questions about the human condition, morality, and the relationship
between gods and mortals. Epic poems often convey a sense of awe, wonder, and
transcendence.
Tragedy:
Definition and Imitation: Aristotle defines tragedy as a form of drama that imitates a
serious and complete action characterized by the downfall of a noble and virtuous hero.
Tragedy aims to evoke pity and fear in the audience.
Plot: Aristotle considers the plot as the most important element of tragedy. He
emphasizes the need for a well-structured plot with a beginning, middle, and end, driven by
a cause-and-effect chain of events. The plot should elicit an emotional response from the
audience.
Tragic Hero: Aristotle discusses the role of the tragic hero in tragedy. The tragic hero
is a character of noble stature who possesses virtues but also has a tragic flaw (hamartia)
that leads to their downfall. The audience experiences both pity and fear as they witness the
hero’s fall from greatness.
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 Catharsis: Aristotle’s concept of catharsis is closely associated with tragedy. He
suggests that tragedy provides a cathartic effect on the audience, purging or cleansing their
emotions of pity and fear. The audience can experience a sense of emotional release and
intellectual enlightenment by witnessing the tragic events.
Unity and Language: Aristotle emphasizes the importance of unity in tragedy, both in
terms of plot and language. The plot should have a coherent and unified structure, with each
element serving a purpose. Language should be appropriate, elevated, and poetic, contributing
to the aesthetic experience.
Aristotle’s analysis of epic poetry and tragedy in Poetics highlights their similarities
and differences. Both epic and tragedy involve imitation, explore universal themes, and
employ elevated language. However, they differ in terms of length, structure, and the specific
elements associated with each genre.
2.9 Glossary
1. Tragedy: A genre of drama that portrays the downfall of a noble hero or heroine,
usually due to a tragic flaw, and evokes feelings of pity and fear in the audience.
2. Tragic Hero: The central character in a tragedy who possesses noble qualities and
a tragic flaw (hamartia) that leads to their downfall.
3. Tragic Flaw (Hamartia): The character trait or error in judgment of the tragic hero
that brings about their downfall. It is often a result of their own virtues taken to an
extreme or their inability to recognize their limitations.
4. Catharsis: The emotional release or purification experienced by the audience through
witnessing the tragic events in a play. Tragedy provides a cathartic effect by arousing
and then purging feelings of pity and fear.
5. Mimesis: The concept of imitation or representation of human actions and experiences
in tragedy. Tragedy imitates life and elicits an emotional response from the audience.
6. Plot: The arrangement and sequence of events in a tragedy. Aristotle emphasizes
the importance of a well-structured plot with a beginning, middle, and end driven by
cause-and-effect relationships.
7. Reversal (Peripeteia): A sudden change of fortune or circumstance experienced by
the tragic hero, often leading to a shift from good to bad or vice versa.
8. Recognition (Anagnorisis): The moment of realisation or discovery experienced by
the tragic hero, where they gain insight into their own identity, circumstances, or the
consequences of their actions.
9. Unity of Action: The principle that a tragedy should have a tightly constructed plot
with clear and focused central action. Unnecessary or extraneous elements should
be avoided.
10. Hamartia: The Greek term for the tragic flaw or error in judgment of the tragic hero.
It can refer to a character’s hubris (excessive pride), hamartia (tragic mistake), or
other traits that lead to their downfall.
11. Ethos: A character’s moral or ethical quality in a tragedy. It refers to the character’s
virtues, values, and beliefs.
12. Peripety: Another term for reversal. It signifies a sudden turn of events or change in
circumstances.
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2.10 Self-Assessment Questions’ Answers
1. What is the nature of tragedy?
Suggested Answer: The tragedy is a form of drama that imitates a serious and
complete action, depicting the downfall of a noble hero or heroine due to their tragic
flaw, evoking pity and fear in the audience.
2. What makes a character a tragic hero?
Suggested Answer: A tragic hero is a character of noble stature who possesses
virtues but also has a tragic flaw (hamartia) that leads to their downfall. They evoke
both pity and fear in the audience.
3. How should the plot of a tragedy be structured?
Suggested Answer: The plot should have a clear beginning, middle, and end. It
should be driven by a cause-and-effect chain of events, with a well-structured plotline
that engages the audience emotionally and leads to a cathartic effect.
4. What is the role of catharsis in tragedy?
Suggested Answer: Catharsis refers to the emotional release or purification
experienced by the audience through witnessing tragic events. Tragedy provides
catharsis by arousing and then purging feelings of pity and fear, allowing the audience
to experience a sense of emotional release and enlightenment.
5. How should the language and style of tragedy be employed?
Suggested Answer: The language should be appropriate, elevated, and poetic,
heightening the impact of the tragic events. The style should engage the audience
through metaphors, vivid imagery, and rhetorical devices.
6. What is the significance of recognition and reversal in tragedy?
Suggested Answer: Recognition (anagnorisis) is the moment of realisation or discovery
experienced by the tragic hero, where they gain insight into their identity or
circumstances. Reversal (peripeteia) is a sudden change of fortune that often leads
to a shift from good to bad or vice versa. These elements contribute to the play’s
emotional impact and tragic effect.
7. How does tragedy relate to morality?
Suggested Answer: Tragedy explores moral and ethical themes by presenting
characters with virtues and flaws. It raises questions about human actions, choices,
and consequences, allowing the audience to contemplate human nature’s and
morality’s complexities.
2.11 Suggested Readings
• Anagnostopoulos, Georgios. A Companion to Aristotle. Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.
• Annas, Julia. Classical Greek Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 2001.
• Barnes, Jonathan. The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle. Cambridge University
Press, 1995.
• Else, Gerard. Aristotle’s Poetics: The Argument. Harvard University Press, 1957.
• Werner, Jaeger. Aristotle. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, 1948.

*****
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 LESSON 3
ARISTOTLE

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Learning Objectives
3.3 Plato’s Objection to Poetry
3.4 Aristotle’s Answer to Plato
3.5 Aristotle’s Poetics
3.6 Parts of Tragedy
3.7 Glossary
3.8 Self-Assessment Questions’ Answers
3.1 Introduction: Plato and Aristotle
Plato and Aristotle, two influential Greek philosophers, made significant contributions
to the study of literature and aesthetics. While their perspectives on poetry and art differ,
both philosophers explored the nature, purpose, and effects of artistic expression. In the
context of poetics, Plato and Aristotle offer distinct insights and theories that continue to
shape our understanding of literature and its role in society.
Plato, a student of Socrates, held a sceptical view of poetry and the arts. His work
“The Republic” expresses concerns about poetry’s moral and educational impact. Plato
argues that poetry merely imitates the physical world, presenting a distorted and illusory
version of reality. He believed that art’s appeal to emotions and sensory experience could
lead individuals astray from the pursuingof knowledge and virtue. Plato’s objections to poetry
reflect his emphasis on reason, the search for eternal truths, and the belief in a higher realm
of ideal forms.
On the other hand, Aristotle, a student of Plato, developed a more nuanced and
positive approach to literature and art in his work “Poetics.” Aristotle’s focus in “Poetics” is
primarily on tragedy, exploring its elements, structure, and effects. He sees poetry as a
form of mimesis, an imitation of life that can evoke emotions, engage the audience, and offer
insights into human nature. Aristotle analyses the components of tragedy, including the role
of the tragic hero, plot, character, and catharsis, the purging of emotions experienced by the
audience. Aristotle’s theories in “Poetics” provide a framework for understanding the aesthetic
principles and artistic techniques that contribute to the effectiveness of dramatic works.
While Plato and Aristotle have differing views on the value and purpose of poetry,
their works complement each other in the study of literature. Plato’s scepticism and concern
with the moral influence of art challenge us to examine the messages and effects of artistic
expression critically. On the other hand, Aristotle’s focus on the elements and structure of
tragedy guides us in understanding literature’s artistry and emotional impact. The philosophies
of Plato and Aristotle in poetics offer a rich foundation for exploring the complexities and
significance of literary works, inviting us to contemplate the power and purpose of art in our
lives.
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3.2 Learning Objectives
- Plato’s “The Republic”:
- Critique of Poetry: Understand Plato’s objections to poetry and the arts, including
concerns about its imitative nature, moral influence, emotional manipulation, and
diversion from the pursuit of truth and virtue.
- Role of Reason: Explore Plato’s emphasis on reason and philosophical inquiry as
superior to the realm of art and poetry. Examine his belief in the existence of ideal
forms and the pursuit of transcendent truths.
- Education and Society: Examine Plato’s ideas on the role of poetry and art in
education and society. Consider his views on the influence of art on individuals and
the potential impact on society’s moral and intellectual development.
- Aristotle’s “Poetics”:
- Analysis of Tragedy: Understand Aristotle’s exploration of tragedy as a form of
literature. Study the elements of tragedy, such as plot, character, thought, diction,
melody, and spectacle, and their role in creating a successful dramatic work.
- Tragic Hero: Examine Aristotle’s concept of the tragic hero, including their qualities,
tragic flaw (hamartia), and the emotional response they elicit in the audience.
- Catharsis: Explore Aristotle’s theory of catharsis, the purging of emotions experienced
by the audience through tragedy. Understand its purpose and the emotional impact
it aims to achieve.
- Aesthetics and Mimesis: Study Aristotle’s ideas on aesthetics and the concept of
mimesis, imitation of life, as applied to poetry. Consider the role of art in reflecting
and revealing truths about human nature.
- Unity and Structure: Analyse Aristotle’s emphasis on the unity of action and well-
structured plots in tragedy. Examine the role of causality and the interconnectedness
of events within the narrative.
- By engaging with the learning objectives of Plato and Aristotle in their respective
works on poetics, students can gain a deeper understanding of the philosophical
and aesthetic principles that underlie literary creation and the role of art in society.
3.3 Plato’s Objection to Poetry
In his work “The Republic,” Plato raises several objections to poetry. Here are some
key objections put forth by Plato:
Imitation of the World: Plato argues that poetry is an imitation of the world and,
therefore, a mere copy of reality. He believes that poetry represents a lower level of truth
than philosophical reasoning, which seeks to understand the forms or ideal concepts that
transcend the physical world.

21
 Moral Corruption: Plato expresses concern that poetry can have a corrupting influence
on individuals and society. He suggests that poets often depict immoral or undesirable
behaviours, which may be imitated by the audience, leading to the erosion of moral values.
Emotional Manipulation: Plato contends that poetry appeals to emotions rather than
reason. He argues that it can manipulate and stir the passions of individuals, leading them
away from rationality and critical thinking.
Diverting Attention from the Ideal: Plato believes that poetry distracts individuals from
pursuing higher knowledge and understanding of the ideal forms. He sees it as a form of
entertainment that lures people into a world of appearances and sensations, diverting them
from the cocontemplatingate truths.
Falsehood and Illusion: Plato maintains that poetry creates illusions and presents a
distorted version of reality. He suggests that it deceives individuals by presenting a flawed
representation of the world, hindering their ability to perceive the true nature of things.
In summary, Plato objects to poetry because it is a mere imitation of reality, has the
potential to corrupt morals, appeals to emotions over reason, diverts attention from the
pursuit of higher knowledge, and presents a distorted version of the world. These objections
stem from Plato’s emphasis on pursuing truth, reason, and the ultimate forms as the highest
ideals.
3.4 Aristotle’s Answer to Plato
While there isn’t a direct response from Aristotle to Plato’s objections to poetry,
Aristotle’s work “Poetics” can respond to some of Plato’s concerns. Aristotle offers a more
nuanced and positive view of poetry and art, addressing some of the criticisms raised by
Plato. Here are a few ways in which Aristotle’s ideas in “Poetics” can be seen as a response
to Plato:
Imitation and Mimesis: While Plato argues that poetry is a mere imitation of the
physical world, Aristotle acknowledges the imitative nature of poetry but sees it as a valuable
form of representation. He argues that poetry, through mimesis, allows for a deeper
understanding of human nature and emotions, offering insights into the human condition.
Emotional Catharsis: Aristotle’s concept of catharsis can be seen as a response to
Plato’s concern about the emotional manipulation of poetry. Aristotle suggests that through
its emotional impact on the audience, tragedy provides a cathartic release of emotions,
purifying the audience’s emotional state rather than manipulating it for negative purposes.
Education and Moral Value: While Plato expresses concerns about poetry’s potential
corrupting influence, Aristotle argues that tragedy, when well-executed, can have a positive
moral and educational impact. He suggests that through the depiction of moral dilemmas
and the consequences of actions, tragedy can lead to moral reflection and growth in the
audience.

22
 Aesthetic Value: Aristotle focuses on the aesthetics of tragedy and the craft of
storytelling, emphasising the importance of plot structure, character development, and unity.
He values the artistry and skill in creating a well-constructed tragedy, highlighting its artistic
and intellectual merits.
It’s important to note that while Aristotle’s “Poetics” can be seen as a response to
some of Plato’s concerns, the two philosophers still differ in their overall views on poetry and
its place in society. Aristotle acknowledges the complexities and potential of poetry, whereas
Plato remains sceptical of its value compared to philosophical inquiry.
3.5 Aristotle’s Poetics
Chapter 1: Aristotle defines poetry as a form of mimesis, or imitation, that provides pleasure
and catharsis for the audience. He distinguishes between different forms of
poetry and identifies tragedy as superior and complete.
Chapter 2: Aristotle discusses the various components of a tragedy, including plot, character,
thought, diction, melody, and spectacle. He emphasises the importance of the
plot and argues that it should be structured with a beginning, middle, and end,
following the principles of unity and causality.
Chapter 3: Aristotle focuses on the plot concept, highlighting its significance in creating a
successful tragedy. He discusses the importance of a well-constructed plot
that arouses pity and fear in the audience and leads to a cathartic release of
emotions.
Chapter 4: Aristotle explores the role of the character in a tragedy. He explains the qualities
of a tragic hero, emphasising that they should be of noble stature, possess
virtues, and have a tragic flaw (hamartia) that leads to their downfall. He also
discusses the importance of character consistency and recognition (anagnorisis).
Chapter 5: Aristotle discusses the role of thought, or the intellectual content, in tragedy.
He argues that thought should be expressed through the characters’ speeches
and actions, contributing to the overall meaning and depth of the play.
Chapter 6: Aristotle examines the role of diction, or language, in tragedy. He discusses
the importance of using appropriate and elevated language that suits the
characters and the genre, and he emphasises the power of metaphors and
imagery in evoking emotions.
Chapter 7: Aristotle briefly mentions the role of melody and spectacle in tragedy. While he
acknowledges their importance in enhancing the overall effect of the play, he
suggests that they are secondary to the other components.
Chapter 8: Aristotle concludes his work by discussing the impact and purpose of tragedy. He
explains that tragedy provides a cathartic experience for the audience, purging
them of pity and fear, and he argues that it has a moral and educational function,
allowing the audience to reflect on the consequences of human actions.

23
 Overall, Aristotle’s “Poetics” provides a comprehensive examination of the components
and principles of tragedy, offering insights into the art and aesthetics of dramatic literature.
3.6 Parts of Tragedy
In Aristotle’s “Poetics,” he identifies several key parts or components of tragedy.
These parts work together to create a cohesive and impactful dramatic experience. Here
are the main parts of tragedy according to Aristotle:
Plot (mythos): Aristotle considers the plot the most important element of tragedy. It
refers to the arrangement and structure of the events in the play. The plot should have a
clear beginning, middle, and end and follow a cause-and-effect chain of events, leading to
a resolution. Aristotle emphasises the importance of unity, coherence, and logical progression
in the plot.
Character (ethos): Characters play a crucial role in the tragedy. Aristotle emphasises
the significance of the tragic hero, a noble person with virtues and a tragic flaw (hamartia).
The tragic hero’s actions and choices drive the plot, and their downfall evokes pity and fear
in the audience.
Thought (dianoia): This refers to the intellectual content of the play. It includes the
ideas, arguments, and themes explored through the characters’ speeches and actions.
Thought adds depth and meaning to the tragedy, engaging the audience intellectually.
Diction (lexis): Diction refers to the language and dialogue used in the play. Aristotle
emphasises the importance of using appropriate, elevated language that suits the characters
and genre. The choice of words, metaphors, and imagery contributed to the tragedy’s
overall impact.
Song and Melody (Melos): Aristotle acknowledges the role of music and song in
tragedy, although he considers it less significant than the others. Music and song can heighten
the play’s emotional impact, enhancing the overall experience.
Spectacle (opsis): Spectacle refers to the visual elements of the performance, such
as costumes, scenery, and stage effects. While Aristotle recognises its role in the tragedy,
he suggests it is the least important component and should not overshadow the other parts.
It’s important to note that Aristotle emphasises the interplay and harmony among
these parts, with plot and character being the primary focus. The successful integration of
these elements contributes to tragedy’s emotional and intellectual impact on the audience.
3.7 Glossary
1. Mimesis: The concept of imitation or representation. Aristotle argues that poetry is
a form of mimesis, where the poet imitates or represents aspects of life and human
experience.
2. Catharsis: The purging or cleansing of emotions experienced by the audience while
watching a tragedy. Aristotle suggests that tragedy provides a cathartic release of
pity and fear, leaving the audience with a sense of emotional purification.
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 3. Tragedy: A specific genre of poetry and drama that focuses on the downfall of a
noble protagonist, the tragic hero, through a series of unfortunate events. Tragedy
evokes feelings of pity and fear in the audience.
4. Tragic Hero: The central character in a tragedy who possesses noble qualities but
also has a tragic flaw or error in judgment (hamartia) that leads to their downfall.
The tragic hero evokes empathy and catharsis in the audience.
5. Hamartia: The tragic flaw or error in judgment that leads to the tragic hero’s downfall.
It can be a character trait, such as excessive pride or ambition, that ultimately
brings about their tragic fate.
6. Anagnorisis: The moment of recognition or revelation in a tragedy when the tragic
hero realises the truth, usually about their own identity or circumstances. It often
occurs at a critical point in the plot and contributes to the hero’s understanding of
their situation.
7. Peripeteia: A reversal of fortune or a sudden change in circumstances that occurs
in the plot of a tragedy. It often involves an unexpected turn of events that alters the
protagonist’s life.
8. Unity of Action: Aristotle emphasizes the importance of a unified and tightly constructed
plot in tragedy. Unity of action refers to the idea that all events in a tragedy should
be interconnected and contribute to the overall storyline, with a clear beginning,
middle, and end.
9. Diction: The choice and use of words in poetry or drama. Aristotle discusses the
importance of appropriate and elevated diction in tragedy, highlighting its impact on
the overall effect of the play.
10. Thought: The intellectual content or ideas expressed through the characters’ speeches
and actions in a tragedy. Thought adds depth and meaning to the play, engaging the
audience intellectually.
3.8 Self-Assessment Questions’ Answers
Question: What is the definition of poetry according to Aristotle?
Suggested Answer: Poetry, according to Aristotle, is a form of mimesis, or imitation,
that provides pleasure and catharsis for the audience.
Question: What is the significance of tragedy in poetry?
Suggested Answer: Tragedy is considered the most superior and complete form of
poetry because it evokes strong emotions, offers insights into human nature, and
provides a cathartic experience for the audience.
Question: According to Aristotle, what are the main components of a tragedy?
Suggested Answer: Aristotle identifies several components of a tragedy, including
plot, character, thought, diction, melody, and spectacle.

25
Question: Why does Aristotle emphasise the importance of a plot in a tragedy?
Suggested Answer: Aristotle considers the plot the most important element of a
tragedy because it provides structure, coherence, and a cause-and-effect chain of
events that engage the audience and elicit emotional responses.
Question: What is the concept of catharsis in tragedy?
Suggested Answer: Catharsis refers to the purging or cleansing of emotions
experienced by the audience while watching a tragedy. It is believed to provide a
cathartic release of pity and fear, leaving the audience with a sense of emotional
purification.
Question: How does the concept of catharsis relate to tragedy?
Suggested Answer: Tragedy elicits strong emotions in the audience, particularly
feelings of pity and fear. Through the experience of these emotions, the audience
undergoes a cathartic process, experiencing a release and purging of these emotions.
Question: What are the characteristics of a tragic hero according to Aristotle?
Suggested Answer: According to Aristotle, a tragic hero is a person of noble stature
who possesses virtues but also has a tragic flaw (hamartia) that leads to their downfall.
They evoke empathy and catharsis in the audience.
Question: What is the significance of recognition (anagnorisis) in a tragedy?
Suggested Answer: Anagnorisis refers to the moment of recognition or revelation in
a tragedy when the tragic hero realizes the truth, often about their own identity or
circumstances. It adds depth to the plot and contributes to the hero’s understanding
of their situation.

*****

26
 LESSON 4
ARISTOTLE

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Learning Objectives

4.3 Theories of Catharsis: Purgation, Purification and Clarification Theory

4.4 The plot is the soul of tragedy. -Aristotle

4.5 Glossary

4.6 Self-Assessment Questions’ Answers

4.1 Introduction to Catharsis
Catharsis is a concept that originated in ancient Greek philosophy and was later
explored by Aristotle in his work “Poetics.” It refers to the emotional and psychological effect
certain art forms, particularly tragedy, can have on the audience.
In its original context, Catharsis was associated with Greek theatre and the experience
of watching a tragedy. The word “catharsis” itself means purification or cleansing. Aristotle
used the term to describe tragedy affects the audience’s emotions, specifically feelings of
pity and fear.
According to Aristotle, the purpose of tragedy is to evoke strong emotions in the
audience, particularly pity and fear. As the audience witnesses the characters’ tragic events
and suffering on stage, they undergo a cathartic experience. Through this emotional journey,
the audience members can release and purge their own pent-up emotions, leading to a
sense of emotional purification and renewal.
Catharsis is often interpreted as a form of emotional release or cathartic healing. It
provides a way for the audience to vicariously experience intense emotions and confront
difficult aspects of human existence in a safe and controlled environment. Through this
emotional process, the audience gains a deeper understanding of their emotions and insights
into the human condition and the consequences of actions.
It is important to note that the exact nature and interpretation of Catharsis have been
subjects of debate and varying interpretations over the centuries. Some scholars argue that
Catharsis is purging negative emotions, while others suggest it is a purging of emotions in
general or a transformative experience. The concept of Catharsis has also extended beyond
the realm of tragedy and has been applied to other art forms and psychological theories.
Catharsis is a fundamental concept in understanding the emotional impact of art,
particularly tragedy. It offers a unique perspective on the power of storytelling and the
potential of art to engage, move, and transform the audience on an emotional level.

27
4.2 Learning Objectives
- Understanding Ancient Greek Tragedy: Gain a deeper understanding of ancient
Greek tragedy’s historical and cultural context, where Catharsis originated as a
central concept. Explore the significance of Catharsis within the framework of Greek
theatre and its role in shaping dramatic narratives.
- Analysing Aristotle’s Theory: Study Aristotle’s definition and interpretation of Catharsis
as presented in his work “Poetics.” Grasp the nuances of his argument and the
specific emotions, such as pity and fear that he believes are purged through the
cathartic experience.
- Exploring Emotional Effects: Examine the emotional effects of tragedy and Catharsis
on the audience. Analyse how tragedy elicits empathy, stirs emotions, and provides
a transformative experience through Catharsis.
- Appreciating Aesthetic and Dramatic Techniques: Gain an appreciation for the
aesthetic and dramatic techniques employed in tragedy to evoke Catharsis. Study
the use of plot, character, language, and other elements of dramatic artistry to
create emotional impact and engage the audience in the cathartic experience.
- Evaluating the Purpose and Value of Tragedy: Reflect on the purpose and value of
tragedy as outlined by Aristotle. Consider tragedy’s moral, intellectual, and
psychological aspects, and explore how Catharsis contributes to tragic works’ overall
impact and significance.
- Drawing Connections to Contemporary Arts and Media: Draw connections between
Aristotle’s concept of Catharsis and contemporary arts, media, and entertainment.
Analyse how similar emotional effects are achieved in modern storytelling, film,
literature, and other forms of artistic expression.
- Engaging in Critical Analysis: Develop critical thinking and analytical skills by examining
and evaluating different interpretations, critiques, and debates surrounding the
concept of Catharsis. Consider alternative theories and perspectives that challenge
or expand upon Aristotle’s ideas.
- Applying Cathartic Experiences: Reflect on personal experiences of Catharsis through
engagement with art forms, such as attending a play or watching a film, and explore
how these experiences can provide emotional release, Catharsis, and a deeper
understanding of oneself and the human condition.
- By pursuing these objectives, learners can understand Aristotle’s concept of Catharsis,
its significance in the realm of ancient Greek tragedy, and its broader implications
for art’s emotional and aesthetic impact.

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4.3 Theory of Catharsis
As proposed by Aristotle in his work “Poetics,” the theory of Catharsis suggests that
tragedy serves a therapeutic function by providing emotional release and purification for the
audience. Here is a detailed explanation of the theory, along with examples from the literature:
Emotional Release: Aristotle argues that tragedy evokes two primary emotions in the
audience: pity and fear. Through the experience of tragedy, these emotions are intensified
and cathartically released, allowing the audience to undergo an emotional purging. The
characters’ tragic events and suffering catalyse the audience’s emotional journey.
Example from Literature: In William Shakespeare’s play “Hamlet,” the tragic events
and the intense emotions experienced by the characters, such as Hamlet’s grief and despair,
Ophelia’s madness, and the final bloodshed, elicit strong feelings of pity and fear in the
audience. The climactic scene where multiple characters meet their tragic end is a cathartic
release for the audience’s pent-up emotions.
Emotional Purification: Catharsis is believed to cleanse and purify the audience’s
emotions. By witnessing the suffering and downfall of tragic characters, the audience can
confront and experience their own deep-seated emotions in a controlled and safe environment.
The audience achieves a cathartic release of emotions through this process, leading to a
sense of emotional purification and renewal.
Example from Literature: In Sophocles’ tragedy “Oedipus Rex,” the tragic hero Oedipus
unknowingly fulfils a prophecy by killing his father and marrying his mother. The audience
witnesses Oedipus’ gradual realisation of his tragic fate and ultimate downfall. The play
engages the audience’s pity and fear, allowing them to confront complex emotions such as
guilt, shame, and the fear of destiny. The Catharsis experienced by the audience offers a
sense of emotional release and purification.
Moral and Intellectual Reflection: Catharsis also encourages moral and intellectual
reflection in the audience. Through emotional engagement with tragedy, individuals gain
insights into the human condition, the consequences of actions, and the complexities of
moral dilemmas. Catharsis prompts self-reflection and deepens the audience’s understanding
of themselves and society.
Example from Literature: In Arthur Miller’s play “The Crucible,” based on the Salem
witch trials, the audience witnesses the destructive power of hysteria, false accusations,
and the abuse of authority. The play evokes pity and fear by portraying the tragic consequences
of ignorance and mass hysteria. The audience is prompted to reflect on themes of justice,
individual conscience, and the dangers of unchecked power, leading to a moral and intellectual
engagement.
Artistic Empathy and Identification: Catharsis involves the audience’s emotional
empathy and identification with the tragic characters. As the audience becomes emotionally
invested in the characters’ struggles and plights, they develop a sense of shared humanity
and connection. This emotional identification intensifies the cathartic effect and enhances
the audience’s emotional release.
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 Example from Literature: In Harper Lee’s novel “To Kill a Mockingbird,” the character
of Tom Robinson, a falsely accused African-American man, represents the tragic figure who
faces injustice and prejudice. The readers’ emotional investment in Tom’s plight and their
empathy for his struggle against a biased society elicit pity and fear. The Catharsis experienced
by readers allows them to reflect on racial inequality, injustice, and the importance of empathy
and compassion.
These examples make it evident how literature, particularly tragic works, can evoke
Catharsis in the audience. By engaging with the characters’ emotional journeys and confronting
deep-seated emotions, individuals experience a sense of release, purification, and heightened
self-awareness.
Theories:
Purgation, purification, and clarification are three theories proposed to explain the
concept of Catharsis. While they share similarities, each theory offers a slightly different
perspective on the nature and effects of Catharsis.
Purgation Theory: This theory suggests that Catharsis involves the purging or cleansing
of negative emotions or psychological tensions. Through the experience of tragedy or intense
emotional engagement with art, individuals can release and discharge their pent-up emotions
in a cathartic manner. The cathartic process allows for temporary alleviation of emotional
burdens and a sense of emotional relief.
Example: In Henrik Ibsen’s play “Ghosts,” the audience confronts taboo subjects
such as venereal disease, infidelity, and the burden of secrets. As the play unfolds and these
intense and suppressed emotions are brought to light, the audience experiences a purgation
of their own hidden emotions and societal taboos, leading to a cathartic release.
Purification Theory: The purification theory of Catharsis suggests that engaging with
tragedy or intense emotional experiences in art leads to a purification of the soul or a moral
cleansing. Through Catharsis, individuals can confront and reflect upon their own moral
dilemmas, conflicts, and shortcomings. The artwork’s characters’ emotional journey and
moral dilemmas allow the audience to gain insight, self-awareness, and a heightened sense
of moral clarity.
Example: In Sophocles’ tragedy “Antigone,” the audience witnesses the moral conflict
between personal loyalty and obedience to the state. The play raises questions about the
nature of justice, individual conscience, and the consequences of one’s actions. Through this
exploration of moral complexities, the audience experiences a purification of their own moral
values and a deeper understanding of ethical dilemmas.
Clarification Theory: The clarification theory of Catharsis suggests that Catharsis
clarifies emotions, thoughts, and perceptions. Through the emotional engagement with tragedy
or intense art, individuals gain a clearer understanding of their own emotions, conflicts, and
the human condition. Catharsis serves as a means of self-reflection and introspection,
providing individuals with insights into their own emotional landscape and the complexities of
the world around them.
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 Example: In Virginia Woolf’s novel “Mrs. Dalloway,” the readers are immersed in the
inner thoughts and emotions of the characters, particularly the protagonist Clarissa Dalloway.
Through the stream-of-consciousness narrative style, the novel explores Clarissa’s inner
world and the complexities of human experience. The readers experience a clarification of
their own emotions and a heightened understanding of the intricacies of human thought and
perception.
These purgation, purification, and clarification theories offer different perspectives
on Catharsis’s transformative and therapeutic effects. They highlight the potential of engaging
with intense emotions and thought-provoking art to release, purify, and clarify human psyche
aspects, leading to emotional relief, moral growth, and self-awareness.
4.4 The plot is the soul of tragedy. – Aristotle
“Plot is the soul of tragedy” is a famous statement by Aristotle in his Poetics. According
to Aristotle, the plot is the most important element of tragedy because it is the driving force
behind the events and actions that unfold in the dramatic work. Here’s a further elaboration
on the significance of the plot in tragedy:
Structuring the Narrative: The plot determines the overall structure and organisation
of the tragic work. It provides the framework for the story, establishing the beginning,
middle, and end. The events and actions are arranged coherently and meaningfully through
a well-constructed plot, capturing the audience’s attention and guiding their emotional journey.
Cause and Effect: The plot establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between the events,
creating a chain of actions and consequences. Each event in the plot leads to the next,
propelling the story forward. This cause-and-effect structure adds tension, suspense, and
a sense of inevitability to the tragedy, drawing the audience deeper into the narrative.
Unity and Completeness: A well-developed plot ensures unity and completeness in
the tragic work. It combines characters, conflicts, and themes into a cohesive whole. The
plot allows for the exploration and resolution of the central conflict or dilemma, providing a
sense of closure to the audience.
Emotional Engagement: The plot plays a crucial role in engaging the audience
emotionally. Through the progression of events, the plot generates a range of emotions,
such as pity, fear, empathy, and Catharsis. The audience becomes invested in the characters’
fate and struggles, experiencing an emotional connection essential to the tragic experience.
Exploration of Universal Themes: The plot provides a vehicle for exploring universal themes
and ideas within the tragedy. The events and conflicts depicted in the plot examine fundamental
aspects of human nature, morality, and the human condition. The plot allows for portraying
complex ethical dilemmas, social issues, and philosophical questions.
In summary, Aristotle’s assertion that the “plot is the soul of tragedy” emphasises the
central role of the plot in shaping and defining the tragic work. The plot serves as the
backbone of the tragedy, driving the narrative, engaging the audience emotionally, and
enabling the exploration of universal themes and ideas. Through the skilful construction and
development of the plot, the true essence and impact of tragedy are realised.

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4.5 ‘Glossary
1. According to Aristotle, Catharsis refers to the emotional release or purification the
audience experiences when engaging with tragedy. It involves purging emotions
such as pity and fear, leading to emotional relief and psychological Catharsis.
2. Tragedy: Tragedy is a genre of literature or drama that presents serious and
significant events, often involving the downfall or suffering of the main characters. It
is through the experience of tragedy that Catharsis is believed to occur.
3. Pity: Pity is an emotion evoked by witnessing the suffering or misfortune of others.
In Aristotle’s theory of Catharsis, tragedy elicits pity in the audience as they empathise
with the characters’ tragic events and struggles.
4. Fear: Fear is an emotion that arises from a sense of danger, threat, or anticipation
of harm. Tragedy generates fear in the audience by presenting suspenseful,
uncertain, or potentially catastrophic circumstances. The audience’s fear is an integral
part of the cathartic experience.
5. Emotional Release: Catharsis involves releasing pent-up or repressed emotions
through engagement with tragedy. It provides the audience with a safe and controlled
environment to vicariously experience and express their emotions.
6. Emotional Purification: Catharsis is also seen as a process of emotional purification.
Individuals can confront and process emotions through intense emotional engagement
with tragedy, leading to emotional clarity and purification.
7. Empathy: Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others. In
the context of Catharsis, the audience’s empathetic connection with the characters
in tragedy allows for a more profound emotional engagement and facilitates the
cathartic experience.
8. Moral Reflection: Catharsis prompts moral reflection and contemplation in the
audience. By witnessing the moral dilemmas and ethical conflicts presented in tragedy,
individuals are encouraged to reflect on their moral values and beliefs.
9. Psychological Release: Catharsis is believed to provide a psychological release,
allowing individuals to confront and process their psychological tensions, conflicts,
and anxieties through emotional engagement with tragedy.
10. Transformation: Catharsis is seen as a transformative process. Through the
experience of tragedy and the subsequent cathartic release, individuals may undergo
personal growth, gain insights into themselves and the human condition, and achieve
a greater understanding of life’s complexities.
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4.6 Self-Assessment Questions’ Answers
1. What is the meaning of Catharsis in Aristotle’s theory?
Suggested Answer: In Aristotle’s theory, Catharsis refers to the emotional release
or purification experienced by the audience when engaging with tragedy.
2. What emotions are involved in the process of Catharsis?
Suggested Answer: According to Aristotle, Catharsis involves the emotions of pity
and fear. These emotions are intensified and then released through the experience
of tragedy.
3. How does tragedy elicit Catharsis in the audience?
Suggested Answer: Tragedy elicits Catharsis by presenting the audience with
emotionally intense situations and characters that evoke empathy and emotional
investment. Through identification with the characters and their experiences, the
audience experiences a purging of their own emotions.
4. What is the significance of Catharsis in Aristotle’s theory of tragedy?
Suggested Answer: In Aristotle’s theory, Catharsis serves as a key objective of
tragedy. It allows the audience to undergo an emotional and psychological
transformation, leading to a sense of relief, purification, and cathartic release.
5. How does Catharsis contribute to the moral and intellectual development of the
audience?
Suggested Answer: Catharsis prompts moral reflection and contemplation in the
audience. By engaging with the moral dilemmas and conflicts presented in tragedy,
individuals can gain insights into their own moral values, beliefs, and the complexities
of human nature.
6. How does Catharsis differ from mere emotional entertainment?
Suggested Answer: Catharsis goes beyond mere emotional entertainment by
providing a transformative experience. It allows the audience to confront and process
their own emotions, leading to personal growth, self-awareness, and a deeper
understanding of the human condition.
7. Can Catharsis be experienced through other art forms besides tragedy?
Suggested Answer: While Aristotle primarily discussed Catharsis in the context of
tragedy, some argue that Catharsis can be experienced through various art forms.
Any artistic work that elicits intense emotions and provides an avenue for emotional
release and reflection can lead to a cathartic experience.

*****

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 LESSON 5
BHARAT MUNI: NATYASHASTRA

5.1 Introduction
5.1.1. Natyashastra
5.1.2. Rasa Theory
5.2 Learning Objectives
5.3 Rasa and Bhava
5.4 key terms in Bharatamuni’s Rasa theory
5.4 1 Concept of “Generalization.”
5.5 Types of Rasas in Bharatamuni’sNatyashastra
5.6 Quotes
5.6 1 Highlighting the essence of Rasa theory (Sanskrit)
5.6 2 Quotable quotes (English)
5.7 Glossary
5.8 Self-Assessment Questions’ Answers
5.9 Questions
5.9 1 Long Answer Type Questions
5.9 2 Short Answer Type Questions
5.10 Suggested Readings
5.1 Introduction
5.1 1 Natyashastra
The Natyashastra, also known as the “Treatise on Dramaturgy,” is a comprehensive
ancient Indian text that serves as a guidebook for various performing arts. It is attributed to
Bharatamuni, an esteemed sage and scholar considered the father of Indian theatre, dance,
music, and aesthetics. Composed around the 1st century BCE, the Natyashastrais a seminal
work encompassing a wide range of topics related to dramatic arts, including acting, staging,
music, dance, costumes, makeup, and more.
The Natyashastrais divided into 36 chapters, each dedicated to a specific aspect of
performing arts. It offers detailed instructions, principles, and theories to artists and
practitioners, guiding them in creating and presenting aesthetic experiences. The text covers
the technical aspects of performance and explores art’s psychological and emotional
dimensions, emphasising the importance of evoking the audience’s rasa (emotional essence).
Bharatamuni’sNatyashastraprovides a holistic view of performing arts, showcasing
its integral connection to spirituality, culture, and society. It explores the role of art in shaping
human emotions, moral values, and the overall well-being of individuals and communities.
The text also presents an intricate understanding of aesthetics, discussing concepts such as
rasa (emotional flavour), bhava (emotional states), and abhinaya (expressive techniques).
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 The influence of the Natyashastraextends far beyond theatre and dance. It has had
a profound impact on Indian art, literature, and philosophy, shaping the cultural fabric of the
nation. The principles and techniques outlined in the Natyashastracontinue to be widely
studied, interpreted, and practised by artists, scholars, and enthusiasts, preserving and
evolving the rich heritage of Indian performing arts.
The Natyashastrais a timeless and invaluable treatise, encompassing a comprehensive
understanding of Indian performing arts. Its profound insights into aesthetics, emotion, and
artistic expression continue to inspire and guide artists, ensuring the preservation and evolution
of this ancient artistic tradition.
5.1 2 Rasa Theory
Bharatamuni, often called the father of Indian performing arts, was an ancient Indian
sage and scholar who lived during the 1st century BCE. He is credited with composing the
Natyashastra, a comprehensive treatise on performing arts, which includes detailed
discussions on various aspects of theatre, dance, music, and aesthetics. One key concept
Bharatamuni introduced in the Natyashastrais the theory of rasa.
Rasa, in the context of Indian aesthetics, refers to the emotional essence or flavour
that is evoked in a spectator or audience member through a work of art. It is the experience
of a specific sentiment or mood created by manipulating various artistic elements. Bharatamuni
identified nine primary rasas: Shringara (erotic or romantic), Hasya (comic), Karuna (pathetic
or compassionate), Raudra (furious), Veera (heroic), Bhayanaka (fearful), Bibhatsa (disgusting
or repulsive), Adbhuta (wondrous or marvellous), and Shanta (tranquil or peaceful).
According to Bharatamuni, rasa is not limited to the realm of emotions; it is a
transcendental experience that connects the individual viewer or listener with the universal
consciousness. The successful creation and portrayal of rasa in a performance rely on the
combined efforts of the artist, the art form itself, and the receptive audience. It requires a
deep understanding of human psychology, aesthetics, and the techniques of artistic
expression.
Bharatamuni emphasised that each rasa should be portrayed with purity and intensity
without diluting or mixing other rasas. The artist must master the appropriate gestures,
facial expressions, vocal modulation, and musical accompaniment to convey the desired
emotional state. The interplay between elements, such as costume, makeup, stage design,
and lighting, contributes to the overall aesthetic experience.
The Natyashastraprovides detailed guidelines for the creation and presentation of
each rasa. For example, Shringara rasa, associated with love and beauty, requires graceful
and delicate movements, gentle facial expressions, and melodious music. On the other
hand, Raudra rasa, representing anger or fury, demands powerful and vigorous physical
actions, intense expressions, and forceful rhythms.
Bharatamuni’s theory of rasa has had a profound impact on Indian art and aesthetics.
It has influenced theatre, dance, and other forms of artistic expression, such as poetry,
sculpture, and painting. The concept of rasa has been incorporated into different regional
performance traditions across India, giving rise to a rich and diverse cultural tapestry.
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 Over the centuries, scholars, artists, and philosophers have engaged with
Bharatamuni’s rasa theory, interpreting and expanding upon its principles. They have explored
the relationship between rasa and bhava (emotional states of the characters), the role of the
audience in the rasa experience, and the connection between rasa and spiritual
transcendence.
In conclusion, Bharatamuni’s rasa theory introduced a revolutionary approach to
understanding art’s emotional and aesthetic dimensions. It provided a framework for artists
to create profound and evocative experiences for their audiences. Even today, his ideas
continue to inspire and guide practitioners of Indian performing arts, ensuring the preservation
and evolution of this ancient artistic tradition.
5.2 Learning Objectives
The objectives of Bharatamuni’s rasa theory encompass artistic and emotional aspects,
aiming to create a profound and transformative experience for the audience. Here are the
main objectives of Bharatamuni’s rasa theory:
- Evoking Emotions: One of the primary objectives of rasa theory is to evoke and
elicit specific emotions in the audience. By skilfully portraying various bhavas and
rasas, artists strive to create a deep emotional impact on the spectators, enabling
them to connect with and experience various emotions.
- Aesthetic Experience: Rasa’ theory seeks to provide a heightened aesthetic
experience for the audience. It aims to transport the spectators to a realm beyond
ordinary life, where they can immerse themselves in artistic expressions and
experience beauty, transcendence, and emotional resonance.
- Catharsis: Another objective of rasa theory is facilitating catharsis, a process of
emotional purification and release. Through portraying emotions and the subsequent
experience of rasas, the audience can undergo a cathartic release of pent-up
emotions, leading to a sense of emotional cleansing and rejuvenation.
- Transcending Individual Experiences: Rasa theory aims to transcend individual
experiences and create a collective emotional experience. Evoking universal emotions
and employing generalisation allows people from diverse backgrounds and cultures
to connect with and appreciate the emotional journey depicted in the performance,
fostering a sense of shared humanity.
- Education and Moral Guidance: Rasa theory also serves educational and moral
purposes. It aims to impart moral lessons, ethical values, and philosophical insights
through artistic expression. Performances can convey moral dilemmas, lessons,
and reflections, offering guidance and wisdom to the audience.
- Entertainment and Enjoyment: Rasa theory recognises the importance of
entertainment and enjoyment in the artistic experience. While evoking emotions and
providing a transformative experience, it also seeks to entertain and captivate the
audience, ensuring their engagement and enjoyment throughout the performance.

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5.3 Rasa and Bhava
The Natyashastra, an ancient Indian treatise on performing arts, is a comprehensive
guide encompassing various aspects of theatre, dance, music, and aesthetics. One of its
pivotal chapters is the sixth chapter, which delves into the topic of Rasa and Bhava. This
chapter is of utmost importance as it explores the fundamental principles that underpin the
emotional and aesthetic dimensions of artistic expression. Let us delve into the key aspects
of the sixth chapter of the Natyashastra.
The sixth chapter begins by emphasising the significance of Rasa, the emotional
essence or flavour experienced by the audience. Rasa is described as the ultimate goal of
any artistic endeavour, as it evokes a profound emotional experience, transporting the
audience to a state of heightened aesthetic bliss. Bharatamuni, the author of the Natyashastra,
outlines the nine primary rasas: Shringara (erotic or romantic), Hasya (comic), Karuna
(pathetic or compassionate), Raudra (furious), Veera (heroic), Bhayanaka (fearful), Bibhatsa
(disgusting or repulsive), Adbhuta (wondrous or marvellous), and Shanta (tranquil or peaceful).
The chapter further explores the concept of Bhava, which refers to the emotional
states of the characters portrayed in the performance. Bhava is the means through which
the audience experiences Rasa. Bharatamuni identifies eight primary Bhavas: Rati (love),
Hasa (laughter), Shoka (sorrow), Krodha (anger), Utsaha (enthusiasm), Bhaya (fear), Jugupsa
(disgust), and Vishada (depression). These Bhavas are the foundation for portraying various
emotional states within a performance.
It delves into the techniques employed to evoke Rasa and Bhava. It emphasises the
importance of proper character development, where the artist must fully understand and
embody the emotions and motivations of the characters they portray. This includes a detailed
analysis of the character’s physical traits, psychological makeup, and societal background,
allowing for a nuanced and authentic portrayal.
Furthermore, the chapter discusses the role of various artistic elements in evoking
Rasa and Bhava. It highlights the importance of gestures (Mudras), facial expressions
(Abhinaya), vocal modulation (Svara), and other physical and vocal techniques. These
techniques are meticulously described, providing artists with a comprehensive framework
for expressing emotions and creating a compelling performance.
It also addresses the concept of SattvikaAbhinaya, the involuntary physical and
emotional reactions experienced by the performer when deeply immersed in the character.
It emphasises that skilled artists should be able to evoke genuine emotions within themselves,
resulting in a heightened and authentic portrayal that resonates with the audience.
Moreover, the chapter touches upon the significance of the audience’s role in the
experience of Rasa and Bhava. It acknowledges that the audience brings their own subjective
interpretations and experiences, allowing for diverse emotional responses. The artist must
be attuned to the audience’s receptivity and adjust their performance accordingly to
communicate the desired emotions effectively.

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 Over all, the sixth chapter of the Natyashastrais a comprehensive guide to
understanding and evoking Rasa and Bhava. It elucidates the nine rasas and the eight
Bhavas and provides detailed instructions on character development, artistic techniques,
and the role of the audience. This chapter continues to be a cornerstone of Indian performing
arts, guiding artists in their pursuit of creating profound emotional and aesthetic experiences.
In Bharatamuni’s rasa theory, the concept of “bhava” plays a vital role in the portrayal
and experience of rasa. Bhava refers to the emotional states or psychological conditions
that the characters in a performance undergo, and it serves as the foundation for evoking
and expressing various emotions within the audience.
Bhava is closely related to rasa, as it is through the depiction of bhavas that the
audience ultimately experiences rasa. Bharatamuni identified eight primary bhavas: Rati
(love), Hasa (laughter), Shoka (sorrow), Krodha (anger), Utsaha (enthusiasm), Bhaya (fear),
Jugupsa (disgust), and Vishada (depression). These bhavas represent a specific emotional
state and are associated with particular gestures, facial expressions, vocal modulation, and
overall demeanour.
The artist’s portrayal of bhavas requires a deep understanding of the characters’
emotions, motivations, and situations within the performance. Through the effective expression
of bhavas, the artist can immerse the audience in the world of the characters, allowing them
to empathise and connect with the emotional journey unfolding on stage.
Bhava and rasa are intricately linked, as the portrayal of bhavas generates the
corresponding rasas in the audience. For example, the depiction of love (Rati bhava) may
evoke the erotic or romantic rasa (Shringara rasa). In contrast, the portrayal of anger
(Krodha bhava) may elicit the furious rasa (Raudra rasa). The harmonious combination of
bhavas and the subsequent experience of rasas create a profound aesthetic and emotional
impact on the audience.
Bharatamuni’s understanding of bhava as the basis for evoking emotions in performance
has significantly influenced Indian classical arts. It provides artists with a framework for
creating nuanced and authentic portrayals, allowing for a deep exploration of human emotions
and experiences. The interplay between bhava and rasa continues to be a cornerstone of
Indian performing arts, enriching the artistic expressions and connecting the audience with
the emotional essence of the performance.
5.4 key terms in Bharatamuni’s Rasa theory
1. Rasa: Rasa refers to the emotional flavour or essence evoked and experienced
by the audience during a performance. It represents the aesthetic and emotional
response that transcends ordinary experiences.
2. Bhava: Bhava refers to the characters’ emotional states or psychological conditions
in a performance. It encompasses the various emotions portrayed by the
characters, serving as the foundation for evoking rasa.

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3. Sthayibhava: Sthayibhava refers to a character’s dominant or permanent
emotional state. It is the foundational emotion or sentiment that remains constant
throughout the performance. Sthayibhava is the emotional core of a character
and serves as the basis for portraying other transitory emotions. For example,
love (Rati) can be the Sthayibhava of a character in a romantic play. The underlying
emotion drives the character’s actions and interactions with others.
4. Sancharibhava: Sancharibhava, also known as the transitory or fleeting emotions,
are the temporary emotional states that arise in response to various situations,
interactions, or stimuli within the performance. The characters depict and express
these emotions to convey a range of emotional experiences. Sancharibhavas
are dynamic and change throughout the performance, reflecting the character’s
reactions and responses to different events. For example, within a romantic
play, the character may experience jealousy, longing, or joy as transitory emotions
(Sancharibhavas) that arise during specific scenes or interactions.
The interplay between Sthayibhava and Sancharibhava is crucial for evoking rasa in
the audience. The dominant Sthayibhava provides a foundation for the character’s
emotional makeup, while the transitory Sancharibhavas create a sense of
emotional variation and depth. By skillfully portraying a combination of Sthayibhava
and Sancharibhavas, artists can evoke the corresponding rasas in the audience.
It’s important to note that while Sthayibhava represents the dominant emotion,
the portrayal of transitory emotions (Sancharibhavas) allows for a dynamic and
engaging performance. The skilful depiction and transition of Sancharibhavas
contribute to the overall emotional journey of the characters and create a more
immersive experience for the audience. Bharatamuni’s understanding of
Sthayibhava and Sancharibhava provides artists with a framework to effectively
convey emotions, evoke rasas, and create engaging performances. The interplay
between these two facets of emotional expression adds depth, complexity, and
relatability to the characters and their emotional journeys, enriching the overall
aesthetic experience for the audience.
5. Vibhava: Vibhava refers to the factors or stimuli that evoke emotions in the
characters. It includes internal and external elements such as circumstances,
events, thoughts, and memories that influence the emotional state of the characters.
6. Anubhava: Anubhava refers to emotions’ visible or external manifestations. It
encompasses physical expressions, gestures, facial expressions, and other forms
of outward display that convey the character’s emotional state.
7. Vyabhicharibhava: Vyabhicharibhava refers to the transitory or involuntary
emotions that arise as a result of the dominant emotion. These secondary or
subsidiary emotions add depth and complexity to the character’s emotional
portrayal.

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 8. SattvikaAbhinaya: SattvikaAbhinaya refers to the involuntary or natural
expressions of emotions. It involves the subtle and genuine portrayal of emotions
through the body, voice, and facial expressions, resulting in a more authentic and
impactful performance.
5.4 1 Concept of “Generalisation”
In Bharatamuni’s rasa theory, “generalisation” refers to the idea that the emotions
portrayed in a performance should be relatable and recognisable to the audience, transcending
individual experiences to create a collective aesthetic experience. Generalisation allows for
the universality of emotions and the resonance of the artistic expression with the audience.
According to Bharatamuni, the emotions depicted in a performance should not be
limited to the personal experiences of the characters or the artist but should have broader
relevance. The aim is to evoke universally human emotions, tapping into shared emotional
experiences that transcend cultural, societal, and individual boundaries.
Generalisation in rasa theory involves the artist’s ability to portray emotions in a way
that allows the audience to connect with and understand them, regardless of their background
or specific circumstances. By presenting emotions in a generalised manner, the artist creates
a collective experience where the audience can collectively engage with and appreciate the
emotional journey depicted on stage.
It involves distilling emotions to their essential elements, stripping away individualistic
or context-specific details to reveal the core emotional essence. This universalisation of
emotions enables the audience to relate to the characters and their experiences more
profoundly.
By generalising their artistic expressions, artists can create performances with broader
impact and resonance. It allows for a shared emotional experience, where the audience can
collectively experience and appreciate the range of emotions portrayed, thereby enhancing
the performance’s overall aesthetic and emotional impact.
Generalisation, therefore, plays a significant role in rasa theory as it ensures that the
emotions depicted in performance have a wider reach, transcending individual experiences
and connecting with the shared humanity of the audience. It enables the creation of a
profound and transformative artistic experience that resonates with people from different
backgrounds and cultures.
5.5 Types of Rasas in Bharatamuni’sNatyashastra
Bharatamuni’s rasa theory classifies the emotional flavors or rasas into nine primary
categories. Each rasa represents a distinct emotional state and specifically impacts the
audience. Here are the types of rasas in Bharatamuni’s theory, along with brief descriptions
and examples:
1. Shringara Rasa (Love/Beauty):
Shringara rasa represents the sentiment of love, romance, and beauty. It encompasses
emotions such as attraction, desire, and devotion. Examples include the love between
Radha and Krishna in Indian mythology or the depiction of romantic relationships in
classical dance performances.
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 2. Hasya Rasa (Laughter):
Hasya rasa is associated with humor and laughter. It includes light-hearted, comedic
situations, and witty exchanges. Comedic plays, stand-up comedy acts, and humorous
dialogues in movies are examples of evoking hasya rasa.
3. Karuna Rasa (Sorrow):
Karuna rasa is the emotion of sorrow or compassion. It involves feelings of empathy,
pity, and sympathy. Tragic plays, heart-wrenching poems, or narratives of personal
suffering evoke karuna rasa, such as the tale of Rama’s exile in the Ramayana.
4. 4. Raudra Rasa (Anger):
Raudra rasa represents the emotion of anger, fury, or aggression. It portrays intense
and powerful expressions of anger. Battles scenes in epics like the Mahabharata,
where heroes display wrath and aggression, evoke raudra rasa.
5. 5. Veera Rasa (Heroism):
Veera rasa embodies the sentiment of heroism, valour, and bravery. It portrays the
triumph of good over evil and inspires courage and admiration. Stories of warriors
like Arjuna from the Mahabharata or patriotic films depicting national heroes evoke
veera rasa.
6. Bhayanaka Rasa (Fear):
Bhayanaka rasa represents the emotion of fear or terror. It evokes a sense of
suspense, anticipation, and the thrill of danger. Horror films, ghost stories, or tense
moments in a play that create a sense of fear stimulate bhayanaka rasa.
7. Vibhatsa Rasa (Disgust):
Vibhatsa rasa conveys the feeling of disgust, revulsion, or repulsion. It evokes strong
aversions and unpleasant sensations. Depictions of grotesque characters or repulsive
situations in visual or performing arts elicit vibhatsa rasa.
8. Adbhuta Rasa (Wonder):
Adbhuta rasa represents the sentiment of wonder, amazement, or astonishment. It
evokes a sense of awe and marvels at extraordinary or supernatural occurrences.
Magical performances, supernatural tales, or mind-bending illusions stimulate adbhuta
rasa.
9. Shanta Rasa (Peace/Tranquility):
Shanta rasa embodies the emotion of peace, tranquility, and serenity. It represents
a state of calmness and harmony. Meditative music, serene landscapes, or peaceful
and serene moments depicted in art evoke shanta rasa.
These are the primary rasas in Bharatamuni’s theory, each eliciting a specific emotional
response from the audience. It is important to note that rasas can be combined and interwoven
in performances to create complex and nuanced emotional experiences. The skillful portrayal
and evocation of these rasas contribute to the artistic expression’s overall aesthetic and
emotional impact.
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5.6 Quotes
1.6 1 Highlighting the essence of Rasa theory (Sanskrit)
1- ^^jlksások;ayksdsloZLo%**A
Translation: “RasohyevâyaAlokesarvasva%.”
Emphasis: “Rasa is indeed everything in this world.”
2- ^^;FkkjlkRedksokD;ks] jl:iksjlkRed%**A
Translation: “Yathârasâtmaikovâkyo, rasa-rûporasâtmake%.”
Emphasis: “Just as a sentence is composed of rasa, so is the form of rasa itself.”
3- ^^vuqHkwr;'pjlk% lkfRodk%**A
Translation: “Anubhûtayaúcarasâ%sâtvikâ%.”
Emphasis: “The experienced emotions are the true essence of rasa.”
4- ^^foHkkO;k|Lrql×pkj% çs{;rsHkkouke;%**A
Translation: “Vibhâvyâdyastusañcâra%prekcyatebhâvanâmaya%.”
Emphasis: “The transformation from vibhâva (stimulus) to anubhâva (expression) is seen as
bhâva (emotion).”
5- ^^lejlkLoknusprÙoKk% çks|keLokfnuksxqjo%**A
Translation: “Samarasâsvâdane cha tattvajñâ%prôdyâmasvâdinogurava%.”
Emphasis: “The true connoisseurs, knowledgeable of the essence, are the enlightening
gurus who awaken the taste of rasa.”
These quotes highlight the essence and significance of rasa in Bharatamuni’s theory,
emphasising its all-encompassing nature, its connection to emotions and experience, and
the role of the connoisseurs and gurus in understanding and appreciating rasa.
1.6 2 Quotable Quotes (English)
1. “Just as a taste experienced in the mouth spreads its flavour throughout the
body, so the emotional experience of rasa pervades the entire being.”
2. “The purpose of all art is to evoke and sustain a specific rasa in the hearts of the
audience.”
3. “The artist must understand the characters’ emotions, motivations, and situations
to evoke rasa in the audience effectively.”
4. “The gestures, expressions, and vocal modulation should be appropriate to the
character and the desired rasa.”
5. “A true artist should be able to evoke genuine emotions within themselves,
experiencing the sattvikaabhinaya that resonates with the audience.”
6. “The success of a performance lies in the artist’s ability to transport the audience
to a state of aesthetic bliss, where they experience the intended rasa.”
7. “Rasa is a transcendental experience that connects the individual viewer or listener
with the universal consciousness.”

42
 8. “Each rasa should be portrayed with purity and intensity, without any dilution or
mixture of other rasas.”
9. “The receptive nature of the audience allows for a diverse range of emotional
responses, enhancing the collective experience of rasa.”
10. “Bharatamuni’s rasa theory provides a profound understanding of the emotional
and aesthetic dimensions of art, enriching the cultural tapestry of society.”
5.7 Glossary
1. Rasa: The primary emotional flavour or sentiment evoked in the audience through
artistic performance.
2. Bhava: The emotional state or mood that forms the basis for the expression of a
rasa. It includes sthayibhava (dominant emotion) and sancharibhava (transitory
emotions).
3. Stthayibhava: The dominant emotion or permanent state of emotion that sustains
throughout a performance or a particular scene.
4. Sancharibhava: The transitory or fleeting emotions that arise and change within
a performance or a particular scene.
5. Vibhava: The stimuli or causes that evoke emotions in a performance. It includes
alambana (supporting factor), uddipana (excitement factor), and anubhava
(consequent reactions).
6. Anubhava: The visible expressions or reactions of the performers that manifest
the emotions and intensify the audience’s experience.
7. Vyabhicâri bhava: The transitory or involuntary emotions that respond to the
dominant emotion (sthayibhava) and intensify the emotional impact.
8. Sattvikaabhinaya: The involuntary, natural, and authentic expressions of emotions
by the performers, including facial expressions, gestures, and bodily movements.
9. Sthayibhavavyabhichari: The combination of sthayibhava and vyabhicâri bhava
that brings about a complete and intensified experience of a particular rasa.
10. Rasika: The connoisseur or audience member who experiences and appreciates
the rasas in a performance.
11. Rasa-dhvani: The aesthetic suggestion or resonance of a rasa that lingers after
the performance.
12. Rasa-lila: The divine play or dance of emotions, often associated with the love
between Radha and Krishna, performed in Indian classical dance and music
traditions.
13. Abhinaya: The art of expression in performing arts, encompassing facial
expressions, gestures, movements, and voice modulation.

43
 14. Natya: The broader term for dramatic arts, including dance, music, and theatre,
incorporates the principles and concepts of rasa theory.
15. Rasa-bhanga: The disruption or loss of a rasa due to improper performance
portrayal or lack of skill.
16. Rasa-drishti: The ability of the artist to perceive and experience the rasas within
themselves, allowing them to effectively portray those emotions to the audience.
17. Rasa-sutra: The thread or underlying essence that connects and weaves together
the various elements of a performance to evoke the desired rasa in the audience.
18. Rasa-abhinaya: The art of expressing and evoking rasas through the effective
use of abhinaya, including facial expressions, body movements, and vocal
modulation.
19. Rasa-viccheda: The separation or differentiation of rasas within a performance,
where multiple emotions or sentiments are portrayed simultaneously.
20. Rasa-bhakti: The devotion or emotional attachment of the audience towards a
particular rasa, leading to a deep sense of engagement and resonance.
21. Rasa-siddhi: The attainment or accomplishment of a rasa, wherein the audience
experiences the intended emotional impact and aesthetic pleasure.
22. Rasa-purusha: The personification or embodiment of a rasa, representing the
essence and personification of a specific emotion or sentiment.
5.8 Self-Assessment Questions’ Answers
1. What is the role of vibhava in evoking emotions in rasa theory?
Suggested Answer:Vibhava refers to the stimuli or causes that evoke emotions in a
performance. It includes alambana (supporting factor) and uddipana (excitement factor).
Vibhavas provide the triggers or catalysts for the emotions to arise and set the stage for
portraying rasas.
2. How does the concept of sthayibhava differ from sancharibhava?
Suggested Answer:Sthayibhava refers to the dominant or permanent state of emotion that
sustains throughout a performance or a particular scene. Sancharibhava, on the other hand,
refers to the transitory or fleeting emotions that arise and change within a performance or
a particular scene. While sthayibhava sets the foundation for portraying a rasa, sancharibhavas
add depth and variation to the emotional journey.
3. What is the significance of sattva in rasa theory?
Suggested Answer: Sattva refers to ta character or individual’s inherent mental disposition
or temperament in rasa theory, sattva is associated with purity, tranquillity, and serenity. The
presence of sattva in a performance enhances the portrayal of emotions and facilitates the
experience of rasas with authenticity and subtlety.

44
 4. How does rasa theory address the concept of aesthetics?
Suggested Answer: Rasa theory explores the aesthetic dimensions of performing arts by
focusing on a performance’s emotional and aesthetic impact. It delves into the interplay of
emotions, expressions, and artistic elements to create a harmonious and captivating
experience for the audience. Rasa theory emphasises art’s aesthetic pleasure and
transformative power in evoking emotions and transporting the audience to a heightened
state of emotional experience.
5. What is the role of rasa in the audience’s experience of a performance?
Suggested Answer: The primary objective of rasa theory is to evoke specific emotional
responses or rasas in the audience. Rasas serve as a medium through which the audience
can connect with the emotions portrayed in a performance and experience a range of
emotions themselves. The evocation of rasas enhances the audience’s aesthetic pleasure,
emotional engagement, and overall enjoyment of the artistic experience.
6. What is rasa in Bharatamuni’s rasa theory?
Suggested Answer: Rasa refers to the primary emotional flavour or sentiment evoked in
the audience through artistic performance.
7. How many primary rasas are there in Bharatamuni’s rasa theory?
Suggested Answer: There are nine primary rasas in Bharatamuni’s rasa theory: Shringara
(Love), Hasya (Laughter), Karuna (Compassion), Raudra (Anger), Veera (Heroism),
Bhayanaka (Fear), Bibhatsa (Disgust), Adbhuta (Wonder), and Shanta (Peace).
8. What is the role of bhava in rasa theory?
Suggested Answer: Bhava refers to the emotional state or mood that forms the basis for
expressing a rasa. It includes sthayibhava (dominant emotion) and sancharibhava (transitory
emotions). Bhavas provide the foundation for portraying emotions and the experience of
rasas.
9. How are rasas evoked in a performance?
Suggested Answer: Rasas are evoked in a performance through the combined use of
vibhavas (stimuli), anubhavas (expressions), vyabhicâri bhavas (transitory emotions), and
sattvikaabhinaya (involuntary expressions). These elements work together to create an
emotional impact and evoke specific rasas in the audience.
10.What is the significance of sattvikaabhinaya in rasa theory?
Suggested Answer: Sattvikaabhinaya refers to the involuntary, natural, and authentic
expressions of emotions by the performers, including facial expressions, gestures, and
bodily movements. It adds authenticity and depth to the portrayal of emotions, enhancing
the audience’s emotional engagement and the overall experience of rasas.
11. What is the concept of generalization in rasa theory?
Suggested Answer: Generalization in rasa theory refers to the ability of the audience to
connect and relate to the emotions portrayed in a performance on a universal level. By
transcending individual experiences, the emotions depicted in the performance resonate
with the collective human experience, allowing people from diverse backgrounds to appreciate
and connect with the emotional journey.
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5.9 Questions
5.9 1 Long Answer Type Questions
1. Who was Bharatamuni, and what is his significance in performing arts?
2. What is the Natyashastra, and why is it important in Bharatamuni’s rasa theory?
3. What is the concept of rasa according to Bharatamuni? How does it relate to
emotions and aesthetic experiences?
4. How many primary rasas did Bharatamuni identify, and what are their names?
Can you provide a brief description of each?
5. How does Bharatamuni’s rasa theory impact art forms such as theatre, dance,
music, poetry, and painting?
6. What key elements are involved in creating and portraying rasa in a performance?
How do gestures, facial expressions, vocal modulation, and other artistic techniques
contribute to the experience of rasa?
7. How does the concept of bhava relate to rasa? What are the primary bhavas
identified by Bharatamuni, and how do they influence the portrayal of emotions in
a performance?
8. What role does the audience play in the experience of rasa? How do their
interpretation and receptivity contribute to the overall aesthetic experience?
9. How has Bharatamuni’s rasa theory been interpreted and expanded upon by
scholars, artists, and philosophers throughout history?
10.What is the significance and impact of Bharatamuni’s rasa theory on contemporary
performing arts and cultural traditions in India and beyond?
5.9 2 Short Answer Type Questions
1. What is rasa theory?
2. How many primary rasas are there in Bharatamuni’s rasa theory?
3. What is the purpose of evoking rasas in a performance?
4. Define “bhava” in the context of rasa theory.
5. What is the difference between sthayibhava and sancharibhava?
6. What is the role of vibhava in evoking emotions?
7. What are anubhavas and vyabhicâri bhavas concerning rasas?
8. How does generalisation play a role in rasa theory?
9. What is the significance of sattvikaabhinaya in portraying emotions?
10.What is the objective of rasa theory in terms of the audience’s experience?
5.10 Suggested Readings
• Agyeya. Kendra AurParidhi. Jaipur National Publishing House, 1984.
• Cuddon, J. A., et al. The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory.
Penguin Books, 2014.
46
• Gnoli, R. The Aesthetic Experience According to Abhinav Gupta. 1956. Varanasi
Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, 1985.
• Muni, Bharata, et al. Natyashastra. Banaras Hindu University, 1971.
• Pandey, K. C. Comparative Aesthetics. Vol. 1-2. 1950. Varanasi Chowkhamba
Sanskrit Series, 2008.
• Patnaik, Priyadarshi. Rasa in Aesthetics. D.K. Printworld, 2002.
• Verma, Nirmal. India and Europe: Selected Essays by NirmalVerma. Trans.
AlokBhalla. Shimla: IIAS, 2000.
• Verma, Nirmal. PattharAurBahataPaani. Ed. Nanadakishor Acharya. Bikaner
VagdeviPrakashan, 2000.

*****

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 LESSON-6
JOHN DRYDEN: ESSAY OF DRAMATIC POESY

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Learning Objectives
6.3 An Essay of Dramatic Poesy
6.4 Quotes from Dramatic Poesy
6.5 Dialogues in Dramatic Poesy
6.6 Dryden’s Views on Tragi-comedy
6.7 Glossary
6.8 Self-Assessment Questions’ Answers
6.9 Suggested Readings
6.1 Introduction
John Dryden was a prominent English poet, playwright, and critic born on August 9,
1631, in Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire, England. He is considered one of the most influential
literary figures of the late 17th century and is often called the “Father of English Criticism.”
Dryden’s literary career spanned the Restoration era, a period marked by significant
political and social changes following the reinstatement of the English monarchy under King
Charles II.
Dryden’s versatility as a writer allowed him to excel in various genres, including
poetry, drama, and critical prose. He demonstrated exceptional skill in adapting classical
forms and themes to the contemporary English literary landscape. As a poet, Dryden’s
works encompassed a wide range of subjects, from epic and satire to love poetry and
political verse. Notable poetic works by Dryden include “Annus Mirabilis,” “Absalom and
Achitophel,” and “The Hind and the Panther.”
In addition to his poetic contributions, Dryden made significant contributions to English
drama. He was a prolific playwright, penning both comedies and tragedies. Dryden’s most
celebrated plays include “All for Love” and “Marriage A-la-Mode.” His works brought a new
level of sophistication to the English stage and profoundly impacted the development of
English drama.
Dryden’s critical writings were equally influential. He was known for his eloquent and
insightful literary criticism, particularly his prefaces to plays and his essay “An Essay of
Dramatic Poesy.” In these works, Dryden expounded upon his views on the nature of literature,
the function of drama, and the principles of literary criticism. His critical writings played a
significant role in shaping the literary landscape of the time and continue to be studied and
analysed today.
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 Overall, John Dryden’s contributions to English literature as a writer and critic were
substantial and enduring. His ability to adapt and innovate within established literary forms,
combined with his insightful and articulate commentary on the nature of literature, established
him as a leading figure of the Restoration period. Dryden’s works continue to be studied and
appreciated for their literary merit and significant influence on subsequent generations of
writers.
6.2 Learning Objectives
- Understanding the Defenses of English Drama: Explore Dryden’s arguments in
defence of English drama against the prevailing view that French drama was superior.
Gain insights into the merits of English playwrights such as Shakespeare and Jonson
and their contributions to the dramatic tradition.
- Analysing Verisimilitude in Drama: Examine Dryden’s concept of verisimilitude and
its importance in dramatic representation. Learn how a play can balance truth and
probability, enhancing its artistic effect while maintaining plausibility.
- Exploring the Unity of Action: Understand Dryden’s advocacy for the unity of action
in a play. Study the significance of having a coherent and focused central plot and
its impact on the overall effectiveness of a dramatic work.
- Examining the Three Unities: Gain an understanding of the three unities - time,
place, and action - as derived from Aristotle’s Poetics. Evaluate the extent to which
adherence to these unities contributes to the success of a play and the implications
of their application in dramatic writing.
- Appreciating Heroic Drama: Explore Dryden’s defence of heroic drama and its
portrayal of elevated and noble characters. Gain insights into the reasons behind
the use of such characters and their effect on the audience’s emotional experience.
- Evaluating the Use of Rhyme in Drama: Examine Dryden’s views on the use of
rhyme in dramatic poetry. Assess the advantages and challenges associated with
employing rhyme in plays and understand its impact on the overall quality of the
work.
- Analysing the Influence of “Dramatic Poesy”: Consider the lasting impact of “Dramatic
Poesy” on subsequent generations of playwrights, critics, and the development of
English drama. Reflect on the significance of Dryden’s ideas and arguments in
shaping the literary landscape.
- By studying Dryden’s “Dramatic Poesy,” learners can better understand the principles
and elements that contribute to successful dramatic writing. They can also explore
the historical context of English drama and the critical debates surrounding it during
Dryden’s time. Additionally, learners can analyse the ongoing relevance of Dryden’s
ideas and their continued influence on literary criticism.
49
6.3 An Essay of Dramatic Poesy
John Dryden lived during the 17th century, from 1631 to 1700. One of his significant
contributions to literary criticism came through his work titled “An Essay of Dramatic Poesy,”
also known as “Of Dramatic Poesy” or simply “Dramatic Poesy.” This essay, published in
1668, presents Dryden’s views on the nature and function of drama, particularly concerning
classical and contemporary plays. Here are some key contributions that Dryden made
through “Dramatic Poesy”: Defense of English Drama: Dryden defends English drama against
the prevalent view that French drama, particularly that of Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine,
is superior. He argues that English playwrights, including William Shakespeare and Ben
Jonson, have produced works of equal merit, if not greater, than their French counterparts.
Verisimilitude in Drama: Dryden discusses the concept of verisimilitude, which refers
to the appearance of truth or plausibility in dramatic representation. He argues that a play
should maintain a balance between truth and probability, allowing some departures from
reality to enhance the artistic effect.
Unity of Action: Dryden advocates for the unity of action in a play, stating that a well-
constructed drama should have a single central plot that is coherent and focused. He criticises
the plays with multiple subplots that distract from the main storyline.
Observance of the Three Unities: Dryden discusses the three unities derived from
Aristotle’s Poetics - unity of time, unity of place, and unity of action. He argues that while
adherence to these unities can contribute to the effectiveness of a play, strict adherence is
not necessary for successful dramatic work.
Heroic Drama: Dryden defends heroic drama, which involves portraying elevated and
noble characters in dramatic works. He suggests that such characters provide a sense of
grandeur and admiration, allowing the audience to experience emotional elevation.
Rhyme in Drama: Dryden discusses the use of rhyme in dramatic poetry. He supports
the use of rhyme as long as it is skillfully employed and does not hinder the natural flow of
the dialogue.
Through “Dramatic Poesy,” Dryden defended English drama against its critics and
offered valuable insights into the principles of dramatic writing and the elements that contribute
to a successful play. His ideas on verisimilitude, unity of action, the three unities, heroic
drama, and the use of rhyme influenced subsequent generations of playwrights and critics,
shaping the development of English drama.
6.4 Quotes from Dramatic Poesy
Here are some notable quotes from John Dryden’s “An Essay of Dramatic Poesy”:
• “For it is not sufficient to have an excellent plot and fine language, but the characters
must be natural; the manners of the persons represented are to be exactly preserved;
a poet is not to write a comedy only, but a comic poet.”
50
 • “Rhyme, though it cannot be said to be wholly banished from us, is yet so
discountenanced by the greater part of our best critics that neither Spenser nor
Fairfax, who have so much excelled in it, are in any degree valued or regarded by us.”
• “Shakespeare was the man who of all modern, and perhaps ancient poets, had the
largest and most comprehensive soul.”
• “If we examine the dramas of Shakespeare and Fletcher, we shall find, I believe, no
perfect character in any one of them, but a kind of drawing of what ought to have
been, rather than that which really was.”
• “But a poem is the work of art, which is the more perfect as it affects more strongly
and universally.”
• “The end of poesy is to instruct delightfully.”
• “The persons of the drama, therefore, must imitate humanity in general, and not any
particular man; they must have in them those passions which belong to all mankind.”
These quotes reflect Dryden’s views on various aspects of dramatic writing, including
the importance of natural characters, the role of rhyme, the admiration for Shakespeare, the
pursuit of perfect characters, the power of poetry to affect and instruct, and the universality
of human passions in drama. They showcase Dryden’s thoughts on great dramatic works’
purpose, techniques, and qualities.
6.5 Dialogues in Dramatic Poesy
In John Dryden’s “An Essay of Dramatic Poesy,” the main characters engage in
dialogues that form the essay’s core. The dialogue format allows Dryden to present
contrasting viewpoints and critically analyse various aspects of dramatic poetry. Dryden
explores different themes and concepts through these dialogues, offering his insights and
opinions.
The dialogue begins with four friends, Eugenius, Crites, Lisideius, and Neander, who
represent different perspectives on the subject of dramatic poetry. Each character takes
turns presenting their arguments and engaging in lively debates. Through these dialogues,
Dryden covers a wide range of topics and compares different forms of drama.
One major comparison between ancient and modern drama is made in the dialogues.
The characters discuss the merits and flaws of both traditions, comparing the works of
ancient Greek and Roman playwrights like Sophocles and Euripides to contemporary English
playwrights such as Ben Jonson and William Shakespeare. They explore the differences in
structure, language, characterisation, and themes, considering whether the moderns can
equal or surpass the achievements of the ancients.

51
 Another significant comparison is made between French and English dramas. The
characters engage in a spirited discussion about these two traditions’ respective styles and
conventions. Critics like Eugenius defend the French neoclassical theatre, highlighting its
adherence to the rules of unity and decorum. In contrast, critics like Lisideius argue in favour
of the English theatre, emphasising its creativity and naturalness. This comparison sheds
light on the different approaches to drama, the clash between the classical ideals of the
French and the more free-spirited nature of English playwrights.
The essay also explores the comparison between tragic and comic drama. The characters
discuss the distinct features and purposes of these two forms. They examine how tragedy
arouses pity and fear by portraying noble and disastrous events, while comedy provides
entertainment and laughter by depicting everyday life and humorous situations. This
comparison allows for a deeper understanding of these genres’ different effects and
objectives.
Additionally, the characters debate the observance of the classical rules of drama versus
the freedom of the modern. They discuss whether the unity of time, place, and action should
be strictly followed or if there is room for deviation to suit the demands of the plot and the
audience. This comparison highlights the tension between adhering to established rules and
embracing innovation in dramatic poetry.
Through these dialogues, Dryden provides readers with a comprehensive analysis of the
major aspects of dramatic poetry. The comparisons made between ancient and modern
drama, French and English drama, tragic and comic drama, and adherence to rules versus
artistic freedom enable readers to explore different perspectives and appreciate the
complexities of the art form. Dryden’s dialogues serve as a platform for critical discourse,
encouraging readers to think deeply about the nature and purpose of dramatic poetry.
These dialogues serve as a platform for Dryden to present contrasting viewpoints on various
drama-related subjects. Here are some major comparisons made through these dialogues:
• Ancient versus Modern Drama: The characters in the essay engage in a lively debate
comparing the merits of ancient Greek and Roman drama to contemporary English
drama. They discuss the differences in structure, language, characterisation, and
themes between the two traditions. The dialogues explore whether the ancients
should be the sole models for dramatic poetry or if the moderns can create equally
compelling works.
• French Drama versus English Drama: The essay compares French and English drama.
The characters debate the styles and conventions of both traditions, with the French
neoclassical theatre represented by critics like Eugenius and the English theatre
defended by critics like Lisideius. They discuss the use of rhyme, the treatment of
plots and characters, and the balance between rules and creativity in each tradition.

52
 • Tragic Drama versus Comic Drama: The essay also compares tragic and comic
drama. The characters discuss the different purposes and effects of tragedy and
comedy, including their treatment of passion, moral lessons, and audience response.
They explore which form of drama is superior in artistic achievement and impact.
• Ancients’ Rule Observance versus Freedom of the Moderns: The essay features a
debate between critics who advocate strict adherence to the classical rules of drama
and those who argue for greater artistic freedom for modern playwrights. The
characters discuss whether the unity of time, place, and action should be followed
strictly or if deviations are permissible to suit the demands of the plot and the audience.
These comparisons and debates within the dialogues serve to highlight the diversity
of opinions and approach to dramatic poetry during Dryden’s time. They showcase the clash
of ideas and the theatre’s search for a balance between tradition and innovation. Through
these dialogues, Dryden presents contrasting viewpoints and encourages readers to critically
evaluate the different aspects of dramatic poetry, ultimately contributing to the ongoing
discourse and development of English drama.
6.6 Dryden’s Views on Tragi-comedy
In “An Essay of Dramatic Poesy,” John Dryden shares his views on tragi-comedy, a
genre combining tragedy and comedy elements. Dryden acknowledges that tragi-comedy
was a popular form of entertainment during his time, but he offers a nuanced perspective on
its merits and drawbacks.
Dryden suggests that tragi-comedy can be seen as a way to cater to the diverse
tastes of the audience. He recognises that some spectators prefer the intensity and
seriousness of tragedy, while others enjoy the lightness and humour of comedy. In his view,
Tragi-comedy provides a balance between these two contrasting elements, offering a varied
experience that can cater to a wider range of preferences.
However, Dryden also points out some potential issues with tragi-comedy. He argues
that tragi-comedies may lack coherence and consistency in their tone by combining tragic
and comic elements. The mixture of serious and light moments can result in a disjointed or
confusing experience for the audience. Dryden believes maintaining a consistent tone is
essential for successful dramatic work.
Furthermore, Dryden expresses concerns about the moral implications of tragi-
comedy. He suggests that tragi-comedies sometimes blur the lines between right and wrong,
as they often portray characters who engage in immoral or unethical behaviour without
facing proper consequences. This departure from the traditional concept of poetic justice,
where virtue is rewarded, and vice is punished, raises questions about the moral message
conveyed by tragi-comedy.

53
 Despite these concerns, Dryden acknowledges that tragi-comedy can have its merits
when executed skillfully. He appreciates the potential for tragi-comedy to explore complex
human emotions and moral ambiguities. When done with careful craftsmanship, tragi-comedy
can provide a unique and thought-provoking theatrical experience.
In summary, Dryden’s views on tragi-comedy in “An Essay of Dramatic Poesy” are
mixed. While he recognises its popularity and capacity to appeal to diverse audience
preferences, he raises concerns about its coherence, consistency of tone, and moral
implications. Dryden ultimately suggests that tragi-comedy can be successful when it tackles
complex themes and emotions with skill and artistry.
6.7 Glossary
1. Dramatic Poesy: Refers to the genre of dramatic poetry, which includes plays,
tragedies, comedies, and other forms of theatrical writing.
2. Neoclassicism: A movement in literature and art that sought to revive the principles
and aesthetics of classical Greek and Roman literature. Dryden engages with
neoclassical ideals in his essay.
3. Verisimilitude: The appearance of truth or plausibility in a work of art. Dryden discusses
the importance of verisimilitude in drama, finding a balance between truth and
probability.
4. Unity of Action: A play should have a single central plot or action that is coherent and
focused. Dryden argues for the importance of unity of action in dramatic works.
5. Three Unities: Derived from Aristotle’s Poetics, the three unities are unity of time,
unity of place, and unity of action. Dryden debates the importance of adhering to
these unities in dramatic writing.
6. Rhyme: The use of similar sounds at the ends of lines in poetry. Dryden discusses
the use of rhyme in dramatic poetry and its effectiveness when used skillfully.
7. Ancients and Moderns: Refers to comparing ancient Greek and Roman dramatists
and contemporary English playwrights. Dryden engages in a debate regarding the
merits and achievements of these different traditions.
8. Heroic Drama: A form of drama that features heroic characters and explores grand
themes. Dryden defends the use of heroic drama in his essay.
9. Tragi-comedy: A genre that combines elements of tragedy and comedy. Dryden
discusses the merits and drawbacks of tragi-comedy compared to pure tragedy
and comedy.
10. Poetic Justice: The idea that virtue is rewarded and vice is punished in literature.
Dryden explores the concept of poetic justice and its role in dramatic poetry.

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6.8 Self-Assessment Questions’ Answers
1. What is Dryden’s stance on the superiority of ancient drama over modern drama?
Suggested Answer: Dryden argues that ancient drama, particularly the works of Greek and
Roman playwrights, surpasses modern drama in structure, unity, and adherence to poetic
rules. He suggests that the ancients had a deeper understanding of dramatic principles and
achieved a level of perfection that modern playwrights should aspire to. Dryden asserts,
“The ancients have done well in choosing those actions which have been delivered down to
posterity as the worthiest of imitation; they have taken their subjects out of the most excellent
poets and best periods of their stories.”
2. How does Dryden defend the use of rhyme in dramatic poetry?
Suggested Answer: Dryden defends the use of rhyme in dramatic poetry against its critics
by emphasising its aesthetic and melodic qualities. He argues that rhyme enhances the
beauty of verse, adds musicality to the language, and captivates the audience’s ear. He
states, “For to make a true judgment in this part requires the greatest sagacity, and penetration
of thought, the soundest judgment, and most exquisite taste of what is excellent in writing,
for rhyme can never be supported but by an extraordinary vigour of fancy.”
3. What are Dryden’s thoughts on the three unities (time, place, and action) in dramatic
writing?
Suggested Answer: Dryden expresses his reservations about strictly adhering to the three
unities in dramatic writing. While acknowledging their importance and guidance, he believes
these rules should be treated as guidelines rather than rigid constraints. He argues that the
primary focus should be on the coherence and effectiveness of the plot rather than on the
mechanical observance of the unities. Dryden states, “I dare not condemn all that practice
that we have seen of violating the unities, which I observe has been done by many of the
greatest men, those who have been careful of preserving the decencies of the stage, and
the reputation of their wit.”
4. How does Dryden justify the use of “decorum” in character portrayal?
Suggested Answer: Dryden defends the concept of “decorum” in character portrayal, which
refers to the appropriate representation of characters according to their social status, age,
and other defining attributes. He argues that adhering to decorum is necessary to maintain
believability and realism in dramatic writing. He asserts, “If there be any such thing as that
which is universally received by all nations under an imitation of manners (which, indeed,
there is), then the strict observation of this decorum is as necessary to the manners as the
accent is to the language.”

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 5. How does Dryden defend the use of verse in drama?
Suggested Answer: Dryden defends the use of verse in drama by highlighting its ability to
elevate the language and convey heightened emotions. He argues that verse provides a
more eloquent and impactful expression of thoughts and feelings, allowing the audience to
experience the power and beauty of the spoken word. Dryden states, “Verse being the
highest and most harmonious kind of writing, is capable of expressing the greatest variety
of thoughts, and of suiting itself to all the various moods and passions of the mind.”
6. What is Dryden’s view on the importance of wit in dramatic poetry?
Suggested Answer: Dryden considers wit as a vital component of dramatic poetry. He
believes that wit, when used skillfully, enhances the entertainment value of a play and
engages the audience’s intellect. He asserts that wit adds sparkle and cleverness to the
dialogue, making the language more lively and engaging. Dryden states, “For wit being a
quality of the mind, and the highest perfection of human nature, it necessarily follows that
those who best understand it are best born to success in all undertakings.”
7. How does Dryden justify the use of fictional characters in dramatic poetry?
Suggested Answer: Dryden justifies using fictional characters by emphasising their ability to
represent universal human experiences and emotions. He argues that fictional characters,
when well-developed, can evoke empathy and connect with the audience on a deeper level.
Dryden states, “The characters of the persons are such as are most known among us; such
as imitate the greatest and noblest natures, and such as are raised to that pitch of virtue and
civility by the sublimest precepts of philosophy and religion.”
8. What is Dryden’s perspective on the purpose of drama?
Suggested Answer: Dryden sees the purpose of drama as a means to instruct and entertain
the audience. He believes that drama has the power to convey moral lessons, stimulate
intellectual engagement, and provide pleasure through its artistic merits. Dryden states,
“The end of poesy is to instruct delightfully; by representing virtue, vice, or indifferent accidents,
which happen to men.”
9. How does Dryden compare the French and English plays regarding dramatic structure?
Suggested Answer: Dryden compares French and English plays, particularly focusing on
their dramatic structure. He suggests that French plays, following the rules of neoclassical
drama, excel in terms of adherence to the unity of time, place, and action. In contrast, he
criticises English plays for being more flexible in structure and often deviating from these
rules. Dryden states, “I am apt to believe the English have lost more in leaving the ancients
than they have got by joining with the French.”

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 10.What are Dryden’s comparisons between the ancients and the moderns regarding
poetic genius?
Suggested Answer: Dryden compares the poetic genius of the ancients, specifically Greek
and Roman playwrights, with that of the moderns. He acknowledges the ancients’ greatness
and unparalleled mastery of dramatic poetry. Dryden argues that the moderns, including
English playwrights, can learn from the achievements of the ancients but also have the
potential to surpass them with time and diligent study. He states, “It is true that the ancients
have written better, but it may be added the moderns have imitated better.”
11. How does Dryden compare the dramatic works of Shakespeare and Ben Jonson?
Suggested Answer: Dryden compares the works of Shakespeare and Ben Jonson, two
prominent English playwrights of the Renaissance era. He praises Shakespeare’s natural
genius and ability to depict a wide range of characters and emotions. On the other hand, he
commends Jonson’s adherence to classical principles, particularly in plot construction. Dryden
suggests that both playwrights have their merits, with Shakespeare excelling in portraying
individual characters and Jonson demonstrating skill in overall dramatic structure.
12.What are Dryden’s comparisons between tragic and comic modes of drama?
Suggested Answer: Dryden discusses the differences between tragic and comic modes of
drama, offering a comparison between the two. He asserts that tragedy focuses on depicting
elevated and serious subjects, dealing with themes of heroic actions, fate, and moral dilemmas.
In contrast, the comedy explores life’s lighter side, often highlighting ordinary people’s follies
and foibles. Dryden suggests that tragic and comic modes have their place in dramatic
poetry, each serving different purposes and providing distinct forms of entertainment.
6.9 Suggested Readings
• Dryden, John. “Essay of Dramatic Poesy.” London 1668.
• Simon, Irène. “Dryden’s Revision of the Essay of Dramatic Poesy.” The Review
of English Studies 14. 54 (1963): 132-141.
• Huntley, Frank Livingstone. “On Dryden’s Essay of Dramatic Poesy.” Modern
Language Notes 33. 2 (1948): 88-95.
• Huntley, Frank Livingstone. “On the Persons in Dryden’s Essay of Dramatic Poesy.”
Modern Language Notes 63. 2 (1948): 88-95.

*****

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 LESSON 7
COLERIDGE: BIOGRAPHIA LITERARIA (CHAPTERS 13-18)

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Learning Objectives
7.3 BiographiaLiteraria(Chapter 13 to Chapter 18)
7.4 Fancy and Imagination
7.5 Primary and secondary imagination
7.6 Willing Suspension of Disbelief
7.7 Coleridge’s and Wordsworth’s views on poetic diction
7.8 Glossary
7.9 Self-Assessment Questions’ Answers
7.10 Suggested Readings
7.1 Introduction
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, born in 1772, was a renowned English poet, philosopher,
and literary critic of the Romantic period. He is often regarded as one of his time’s most
influential and innovative critics. Coleridge’s critical writings greatly contributed to the
development of literary theory and criticism, particularly through his insightful analysis of
poetry and his exploration of the imagination and the reader’s role.
Coleridge’s approach to criticism was characterised by his emphasis on the organic
unity of works of art, his examination of the psychological and emotional aspects of literature,
and his belief in the transformative power of imagination. He believed literature should be
understood and appreciated as a holistic experience where form, content, and meaning are
intertwined.
One of Coleridge’s most significant contributions to literary criticism is his concept of
the “willing suspension of disbelief.” He argued that readers should willingly immerse
themselves in the imaginative world created by the poet or the writer, setting aside their
scepticism and rationality to engage with the work fully. According to Coleridge, this suspension
of disbelief allows readers to experience literature’s true essence and emotional impact.
Coleridge’s criticism also encompassed examining poetic language, symbolism, and
the poet’s role as a creator. He believed poetry should possess an “esoteric” quality,
transcending mere description or entertainment and capturing deeper truths and insights
about the human condition.
Furthermore, Coleridge’s criticism extended beyond analysing individual works to
encompass broader discussions on aesthetics, philosophy, and the nature of creativity. His
ideas on the imagination and the interplay between the conscious and unconscious mind
greatly influenced later generations of critics and thinkers.
In summary, Samuel Taylor Coleridge is a prominent literary critic figure renowned
for his insightful and imaginative approach. His writings continue to be studied and appreciated
for their exploration of the transformative power of literature and the profound connections
between art, imagination, and the human experience.
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7.2 Learning Objectives of chapter 13 to 18 of BigraphiaLiteraria
- Understanding Coleridge’s views on imagination and fancy: In these chapters,
Coleridge explores the distinction between imagination and fancy. The learning
objective would be to comprehend the nuances of these concepts presented by
Coleridge and their implications for the creative process and artistic expression.
- Exploring Coleridge’s theory of poetic diction: Coleridge discusses the importance
of selecting appropriate language and diction in poetry. The objective would be to
examine his ideas on the relationship between words and meaning, the use of
imagery, and the impact of language choices on the reader’s experience.
- Analyzing Coleridge’s thoughts on the nature of symbol and allegory: Coleridge
delves into the significance of symbols and allegory in literature and their ability to
convey a deeper meaning. The objective would involve studying Coleridge’s
interpretation of symbolic language and its role in communicating complex ideas
and emotions.
- Examining Coleridge’s analysis of William Wordsworth’s poetry: In these chapters,
Coleridge reflects on the poetry of his close collaborator, William Wordsworth.
The objective would be to analyse Coleridge’s evaluations of Wordsworth’s works,
including his praise for Wordsworth’s creative vision and his critiques of certain
poetic choices.
- Understanding Coleridge’s exploration of the supernatural and the metaphysical:
Coleridge discusses topics related to the supernatural, dreams, and metaphysical
aspects of existence. The learning objective would involve grasping Coleridge’s
perspective on these themes and their significance in literature and human
experience.
- Exploring Coleridge’s engagement with philosophical ideas: Coleridge engages
with various philosophical concepts and thinkers throughout these chapters. The
objective would be to delve into Coleridge’s interpretations and assimilation of
philosophical theories, such as those of Kant, and understand how they inform his
literary and critical perspectives.
- Examining Coleridge’s discussions on the unity of consciousness and the self:
Coleridge delves into the nature of consciousness and selfhood, discussing ideas
related to identity, perception, and the interconnectedness of the mind. The objective
would be to analyse Coleridge’s theories on these topics and their implications for
understanding the human condition and its representation in literature.
7.3 BiographiaLiteraria(Chapter 13 to Chapter 18)
Chapter 13: In this chapter, titled “On the Imagination, or Esemplastic Power,” Coleridge
explores the concept of imagination and its role in the creative process. He
distinguishes between imagination and fancy, emphasising the former as a
unifying and transformative power that shapes and synthesises diverse elements
into a coherent whole. Coleridge discusses the nature of primary and secondary
imagination and their relationship to poetic creation. He also delves into the
concept of “esemplastic” power, referring to the ability of the imagination to
mould and shape the raw materials of experience into artistic expression.
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Chapter 14: Titled “Occasion of the ‘Lyrical Ballads’, the Remotest Sources of the Beauty of
Poetry, and the ‘Essentials of Poetry’ Discovered in Its Tadpole State, Analogous
to the Modern Epigrams of Two Lines, and Epigram, as the Test of a Poem,”
this chapter focuses on the poetic revolution initiated by Wordsworth and
Coleridge in their joint publication, “Lyrical Ballads.” Coleridge discusses the
background and intent of the collection, emphasising the importance of using
everyday language and simple themes to evoke powerful emotional responses.
He argues that the essence of poetry is found in its “tadpole state,” suggesting
that the concentrated expression of ideas in a short epigram can reveal the
true quality of a poem.
Chapter 15: In “The Specific Symptoms of Poetic Power,” Coleridge delves into the qualities
characterising true poetic power. He discusses the role of imagery and metaphor
in poetry, emphasising their ability to convey deep emotions and insights.
Coleridge also explores the use of language and diction in poetry, stressing the
importance of selecting the right words to evoke the desired effect. He analyses
examples from ancient and contemporary poets to illustrate the specific
symptoms of poetic power.
Chapter 16: This chapter, titled “Aptness of Imagination to Generalization,” focuses on the
ability of the imagination to generalize and create universal representations.
Coleridge argues that the imagination has a natural inclination towards
abstraction, enabling it to grasp universal concepts and connect disparate
experiences. He emphasizes the importance of this generalizing power in poetic
creation, enabling poets to convey profound truths and insights that resonate
with readers across time and cultures.
Chapter 17: In “Poetry with Reference to Aristotle’s ‘Poetics’,” Coleridge engages with
Aristotle’s principles of poetry and provides his own commentary. He discusses
Aristotle’s concepts of mimesis (imitation), tragedy, and epic poetry, offering
his insights and observations on their application to English poetry. Coleridge
praises Aristotle’s understanding of tragedy but suggests that Aristotle’s
principles may not fully encompass the complexities of poetry.
Chapter 18: Titled “The Drama—its Laws, and the Principles of Criticism Proper to it,” this
chapter explores Coleridge’s views on drama and theatrical performances. He
discusses the principles of dramatic poetry, highlighting the importance of unity
of action, characterisation, and plot. Coleridge analyses the works of various
playwrights and provides his own commentary on their strengths and
weaknesses. He also examines the role of the audience and the elements that
contribute to a successful dramatic performance.
These chapter summaries briefly overview the topics and themes covered in chapters
13 to 18 of the “BiographiaLiteraria.” However, reading the original text for a comprehensive
understanding of Coleridge’s ideas and arguments is important.

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7.4 Fancy and Imagination
In the “BiographiaLiteraria,” Samuel Taylor Coleridge distinguishes between two
faculties of the mind: fancy and imagination. Here is a summary of Coleridge’s views on
fancy and imagination:
Fancy: According to Coleridge, fancy is the lower faculty of the mind that deals with
the surface-level perception of objects and phenomena. It is characterised by its ability to
combine and recombine sensory impressions and images playfully and decoratively. Fancy
is governed by the laws of association, allowing it to create whimsical and imaginative
combinations. However, Coleridge suggests that fancy needs more depth and profound
meaning and tends to prioritise superficial appearances over deeper truths. Fancy is primarily
concerned with external forms and does not possess the transformative power of imagination.
Imagination: Unlike fancy, Coleridge considers imagination as the higher faculty of the mind,
which possesses creative and unifying power. Imagination is the faculty that allows us to
apprehend and express deeper truths, meanings, and connections beyond the mere
appearances of things. It is the ability to grasp the underlying essence or unity within the
diversity of experience. Coleridge refers to the imagination as the “esemplastic” power,
meaning it can shape and unify diverse elements into a coherent whole. Imagination is not
limited to sensory perception but extends into ideas, symbols, and metaphysical concepts.
Through imagination, the poet creates meaningful and profound works of art that resonate
with universal truths.
Coleridge emphasises that imagination is a synthesis of both reason and fancy. It
combines the rational faculties with fancy’s creative and associative capabilities, allowing
for exploring deeper realities. Imagination can go beyond the limitations of empirical knowledge
and access a higher realm of truth and beauty.
Overall, Coleridge’s view of fancy and imagination underscores the transformative
and profound nature of the latter. Imagination, with its capacity to unify and reveal deeper
truths, is considered the higher faculty that enables the creation of meaningful and enduring
works of art.
According to Coleridge, Fancy is the faculty of the mind that deals with the external
appearances and surface-level perceptions of objects. It involves the playful and decorative
manipulation of sensory images and impressions. Fancy operates through the laws of
association, which allow it to create whimsical and imaginative combinations. It has a certain
wit and inventiveness, producing pleasing and entertaining effects.
However, Coleridge criticises fancy for its limitations. He argues that fancy tends to
prioritise superficial appearances over deeper truths. It does not possess the transformative
power of imagination, which can reveal the underlying essence or unity within the diversity
of experience. Fancy may generate clever and imaginative associations, but it lacks the
depth and profound meaning imagination can achieve.
In contrast, Coleridge regards imagination as the higher faculty of the mind, endowed
with creative and unifying power. Imagination transcends the realm of appearances and
allows for the apprehension and expression of deeper truths. It goes beyond the limitations
of empirical knowledge and taps into a higher realm of truth and beauty.
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 Coleridge refers to the imagination as the “esemplastic” power, which means it can
shape and unify diverse elements into a coherent whole. Through this unifying capacity,
imagination can reveal the interconnectedness of seemingly disparate phenomena. Imagination
can synthesise and transform the raw materials of experience, creating meaningful and
profound works of art.
Coleridge emphasises that imagination is not divorced from reason or intellect. Instead,
it combines the rational faculties with fancy’s creative and associative capabilities. Imagination
harnesses reason to give form and structure to imaginative creations, ensuring they are
coherent and internally consistent. This synthesis of reason and fancy allows for exploring
deeper realities and expressing profound insights.
Coleridge’s view of imagination as the higher faculty that goes beyond the sensory
realm aligns with his Romantic contemporaries, who emphasised the importance of the
imagination in the creative process and the search for transcendence. Imagination, for
Coleridge, is not merely a passive receiver of sensory impressions but an active and
transformative force that unlocks deeper truths and fosters a deeper understanding of the
world.
Coleridge’s view of fancy and imagination highlights the contrast between the superficial
and the profound, the decorative and the transformative. Fancy operates at the surface
level, creating pleasing and imaginative associations, while imagination delves into the depths,
revealing deeper truths and unifying diverse elements. Through the power of imagination, art
and poetry can transcend the ordinary and touch the sublime.
7.5 Primary and Secondary Imagination
In Coleridge’s philosophical framework, he distinguishes between two forms of
imagination: primary and secondary imagination. Let’s explore these concepts in more detail:
Primary Imagination: Coleridge describes primary imagination as the fundamental
creative faculty that underlies all human perception and cognition. It is the power that allows
us to perceive and make sense of the world. Primary imagination bridges the external world
of sensory experience and the internal realm of our thoughts and perceptions.
Primary imagination is responsible for the immediate perception of objects and
phenomena. It synthesises sensory impressions, combining and organising them into coherent
perceptions. Through this process of primary imagination, we can perceive the world around
us and form a cohesive understanding of our experiences.
Coleridge suggests that primary imagination is closely connected to the faculty of
intuition. It enables us to grasp the essence or underlying unity of the objects we perceive
beyond mere sensory appearances. Through primary imagination, we gain a deeper sense
of the interconnectedness of things and a glimpse into their essential nature.
Secondary Imagination: Secondary imagination, also known as a poetic imagination,
is a higher form of imaginative power that goes beyond the immediate perception of the
primary imagination. It is the creative faculty that poets and artists possess, enabling them
to produce imaginative and transformative works of art.

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 Secondary imagination involves the ability to recreate and recombine sensory
impressions, symbols, and ideas in novel and original ways. It transcends the limitations of
the immediate perception of the primary imagination, allowing for creating new and imaginative
connections. Secondary imagination is not bound by empirical reality but can access deeper
truths and insights.
Coleridge argues that secondary imagination is essential for the creation of poetic
works. It enables the poet to transform ordinary experiences into something extraordinary,
to imbue their art with profound meaning and symbolism. Through secondary imagination,
the poet can synthesise different elements, evoke emotions, and engage the reader or
audience in a transformative experience.
Secondary imagination is not limited to the realm of art and poetry. Coleridge suggests
that it is a faculty that all individuals possess to varying degrees. The power of the secondary
imagination allows us to empathise with others, understand perspectives different from our
own, and engage in creative and imaginative endeavours beyond the confines of immediate
perception.
Coleridge’s primary and secondary imagination represent different levels of imaginative
power. The primary imagination is responsible for our immediate perception of the world. In
contrast, secondary imagination is a higher form of creative power that enables poets and
artists to produce imaginative and transformative works. These concepts highlight the role
of imagination in shaping our perception and understanding of reality and its capacity for
artistic creation and transcendence.
7.6 Willing Suspension of Disbelief
Coleridge’s “willing suspension of disbelief” concept is discussed in his famous essay
“BiographiaLiteraria.” This concept refers to the reader’s or audience’s ability to temporarily
set aside their scepticism and fully engage with a work of literature, accepting its fictional
world as real for the duration of the experience. Here are some poetic quotes from Coleridge’s
essay that capture the essence of the concept:
“It was agreed that my endeavours should be directed to persons and characters
supernatural, or at least romantic, yet to transfer from our inward nature a human interest
and a semblance of truth sufficient to procure for these shadows of imagination that willing
suspension of disbelief for the moment, which constitutes poetic faith.” (Chapter 14)
In this quote, Coleridge expresses his intention to create fictional characters and
situations with supernatural or romantic qualities but infused with enough human interest and
truth to engage the reader’s willing suspension of disbelief. He emphasises the importance
of eliciting poetic faith from the reader, where they willingly immerse themselves in the
imaginative world of the text.
“Poetry awakens and enlarges the mind itself by rendering it the receptacle of a
thousand unapprehended combinations of thought.” (Chapter 14)
Coleridge suggests that poetry has the power to expand the mind by introducing new
and imaginative thoughts and ideas. Through the willing suspension of disbelief, the reader
opens themselves up to these unapprehended combinations of thought, allowing their
imagination to be enriched and their understanding of the world to be broadened.
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 “In this idea originated the plan of the Lyrical Ballads, in which it was agreed that my
endeavours should be directed to persons and characters supernatural, or at least romantic,
yet to transfer from our inward nature a human interest and a semblance of truth sufficient
to procure for these shadows of imagination that willing suspension of disbelief for the
moment, which constitutes poetic faith.” (Chapter 17)
Coleridge reiterates that he aimed to blend supernatural or romantic elements with a
sense of human interest and truth in creating the Lyrical Ballads. By doing so, he sought to
evoke the reader’s willing suspension of disbelief and elicit poetic faith, allowing them to fully
engage with the imaginative world presented in the poems.
The concept of the willing suspension of disbelief in Coleridge’s essay highlights the
importance of the reader’s active participation in the poetic experience. By temporarily
setting aside their critical faculties and immersing themselves in the fictional realm, the
reader can fully appreciate literature’s imaginative and transformative power. Coleridge’s
poetic quotes and elaborations emphasise the role of poetry in expanding the mind, evoking
faith in the fictional world, and offering unique combinations of thought that resonate with
readers.
Coleridge introduces the notion of the “willing suspension of disbelief” as a crucial
element in the reader’s engagement with works of literature, particularly poetry. He argues
that for a reader to fully appreciate and connect with a fictional world, they must willingly set
aside their scepticism and temporarily accept the events and characters as real within the
context of the work. This suspension of disbelief allows the reader to enter into the imaginative
realm created by the poet or author and experience it with a sense of authenticity and
emotional investment.
Coleridge emphasises that this suspension of disbelief is not a passive act but an
active engagement on the reader’s part. It requires a conscious effort to temporarily put
aside rational objections and immerse oneself in the world of the text. By doing so, the
reader opens themselves up to the possibilities presented by the poet, embracing literature’s
imaginative and transformative power.
One of the reasons why Coleridge values the willing suspension of disbelief is its
ability to awaken and enlarge the mind. Engaging with fictional worlds stimulates the reader’s
imagination, and their capacity for creative thinking is expanded. Literature, particularly
poetry, offers a space where unapprehended combinations of thought can be presented,
challenging conventional ideas and opening up new avenues of understanding.
Coleridge’s own poetic endeavours, such as the collaborative project of the Lyrical
Ballads, were driven by his desire to evoke the willing suspension of disbelief in readers. He
aimed to create poems that blended elements of the supernatural or romantic with a semblance
of truth drawn from human nature. By infusing his poems with relatable emotions and
experiences, he sought to establish a connection with the reader, allowing them to momentarily
believe in and invest themselves in the imaginative world he presented.
The concept of the willing suspension of disbelief extends beyond the realm of poetry
and literature. It speaks to the broader role of art in general, highlighting the transformative
power of aesthetic experiences. Through the willing suspension of disbelief, readers and
viewers can engage with works of art, allowing themselves to be moved, inspired, and
transported to different realms of thought and emotion.
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 In summary, Coleridge’s concept of the willing suspension of disbelief underscores
the reader’s active participation in engaging with literature. It requires a conscious choice to
temporarily set aside scepticism and fully immerse oneself in the imaginative world presented
by the poet or author. Through this act, readers can experience the transformative power of
literature, expand their minds, and connect with profound and meaningful ideas.
Coleridge’s concept of the “willing suspension of disbelief” is not only present in his
critical writings but also reflected in his poetry. In his poems, Coleridge often creates
imaginative and fantastical worlds that require the reader to embrace the suspension of
disbelief to appreciate and engage with the poetic experience fully.
One example of this can be seen in Coleridge’s famous poem “The Rime of the
Ancient Mariner.” The poem tells the story of a mariner who embarks on a perilous journey,
encountering supernatural elements and facing the consequences of his actions. Throughout
the poem, Coleridge presents fantastical events and creatures, such as the ghostly ship, the
curse of the albatross, and the skeletal spectre of Death. The reader is invited to suspend
their disbelief and accept these elements as part of the narrative, allowing themselves to be
transported into the eerie and otherworldly realm of the poem.
Another example is Coleridge’s poem “Kubla Khan.” In this work, Coleridge creates
a vivid and dreamlike landscape, describing the magnificent palace and gardens of the
Mongol ruler Kubla Khan. The poem is filled with rich and fantastical imagery, inviting the
reader to suspend their disbelief and enter into the enchanting world the poet depicts. By
embracing the suspension of disbelief, readers can fully immerse themselves in the poem’s
mesmerising and ethereal atmosphere.
Coleridge’s poetry often combines elements of the natural world with the supernatural,
blurring the boundaries between reality and imagination. He weaves together themes of
mystery, wonder, and the unknown, prompting the reader to embrace the willing suspension
of disbelief and explore the depths of their imagination.
In Coleridge’s poetic works, the concept of the willing suspension of disbelief serves
as an invitation to readers to participate in the imaginative experience actively. By setting
aside their scepticism and engaging with the fantastical and the extraordinary, readers can
enter into a deeper understanding of the human condition, explore universal truths, and
connect with profound emotions.
Coleridge’s poetry demonstrates his belief in the power of the imagination to transcend
the limitations of reality and transport readers to new realms of thought and emotion. Readers
can embark on a journey of exploration and discovery through the willing suspension of
disbelief, engaging with the poet’s vision and experiencing the transformative effects of
poetic expression.
7.7 Oleridge’s and Wordsworth’s views on poetic diction
Coleridge and Wordsworth, although close friends and collaborators, held differing
views on poetic diction, particularly about the use of language in poetry. Wordsworth
advocated for plain and simple language, while Coleridge emphasised using more elevated
and imaginative diction.

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 Wordsworth believed in using a language that closely resembled everyday speech
and aimed to capture individuals’ natural and ordinary experiences. He championed common
language, seeking to create a sense of accessibility and connection between the poet and
the reader. Wordsworth believed that poetry should be grounded in the experiences of the
common man and that lofty or artificial language could alienate readers and obstruct their
understanding and emotional engagement.
On the other hand, Coleridge took a more complex approach to poetic diction. He
argued that poetry should employ a heightened and imaginative language that transcends
the ordinary and taps into the depths of human imagination. Coleridge believed using figurative
language, rich imagery, and unconventional syntax could evoke powerful emotions and
create a sense of wonder and awe in the reader.
While Wordsworth aimed for simplicity and directness in his poetry, Coleridge embraced
a more elaborate and ornate style, exploring the realms of the supernatural and the imaginative.
Coleridge believed that through poetic diction, the poet could create a distinct and heightened
experience for the reader, allowing them to delve into the mysteries of existence and
contemplate profound truths.
Although Coleridge and Wordsworth differed in their views on poetic diction, their
collaboration and friendship contributed to the development of the Romantic movement.
Wordsworth’s focus on simplicity and natural language resonated with the movement’s
ideals, while Coleridge’s emphasis on imagination and poetic language added depth and
complexity to their shared literary endeavours.
7.8 Glossary
1. Imagination: Coleridge distinguishes between primary and secondary imagination,
emphasising the creative power of the mind to form images and ideas.
2. Fancy: Coleridge differentiates between fancy and imagination, suggesting that
fancy is concerned with superficial and ornamental aspects, while imagination has
a deeper and more transformative quality.
3. Symbolism: Coleridge employs symbolism to convey deeper meanings and explore
abstract concepts through concrete and tangible images.
4. Organic Unity: Coleridge emphasises the importance of unity in a work of art,
where all its elements are interconnected and contribute to the overall effect.
5. Suspension of Disbelief: Coleridge discusses the idea that readers should temporarily
set aside their scepticism and engage with a work of literature, accepting its fictional
world as real for the sake of the experience.
6. Poetic Faith: Coleridge explores the concept of poetic faith, wherein readers engage
with a work of poetry and invest themselves emotionally, accepting its imaginative
world as true for the duration of the reading.
7. Genius: Coleridge reflects on the nature of genius, describing it as a combination of
innate talent and the capacity for originality and creativity.
8. Language: Coleridge examines the power of language and its ability to convey
meaning, evoke emotions, and create aesthetic experiences.
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 9. Romanticism: Coleridge is associated with the Romantic movement, emphasising
individualism, emotion, and imagination in art and literature.
10.Unity of Truth: Coleridge discusses that truth is multifaceted and can be revealed
through different perspectives, suggesting the need for a comprehensive and holistic
understanding.
7.9 Self-Assessment Questions’ Answers
1. How does Coleridge define the concept of fancy in “BiographiaLiteraria”?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge defines fancy as a faculty of the mind that deals with
perception’s superficial and decorative aspects, often focused on external appearances
rather than deeper meaning or significance.
2. According to Coleridge, what is the distinction between fancy and imagination?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge distinguishes between fancy and imagination by stating that
fancy concerns perception’s mechanical and associative aspects, while imagination involves
a more transformative and creative power of the mind.
3. How does Coleridge view the role of fancy in poetry and literature?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge sees fancy as an important element in poetry and literature,
as it creates vivid and sensory imagery that can engage the reader’s imagination and evoke
certain emotions.
4. What is Coleridge’s perspective on the relationship between fancy and reason?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge suggests that fancy is often associated with the play of
the senses and is influenced by external stimuli, while reason involves logical thinking and
deeper understanding. He sees them as distinct but interconnected faculties of the mind.
5. How does Coleridge describe the concept of imagination in “BiographiaLiteraria”?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge describes imagination as a higher faculty of the mind that
involves the creative and transformative power to go beyond immediate perceptions and
construct new and meaningful connections between ideas and experiences.
6. How does Coleridge emphasise the significance of imagination in art and poetry?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge highlights the crucial role of imagination in art and poetry,
asserting that it allows for the exploration of deeper truths, the evocation of powerful emotions,
and the creation of imaginative and visionary worlds.
7. How does Coleridge characterise the creative process of fancy?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge characterises the creative process of fancy as one that
involves the recombination of sensory impressions and the play of the imagination, producing
vivid and decorative imagery.
8. What examples does Coleridge provide to illustrate the workings of fancy in literature?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge provides examples of poets and writers who employ
fancy in their works, such as the descriptive passages of Alexander Pope or the
ornamental language used by metaphysical poets.

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 9. How does Coleridge differentiate between the poetic use of fancy and its everyday
application?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge suggests that while fancy in everyday life may be trivial or
superficial, in poetry, it can be elevated and transformative, capable of evoking deeper
emotions and insights.
10.What are the limitations or drawbacks associated with the excessive use of fancy in
poetry?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge notes that overindulgence in fancy without the balance of
imagination, and deeper meaning can result in mere ornamentation or shallow display,
diminishing the overall impact of a work.
11. How does Coleridge view the role of imagination in shaping our perception of reality?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge views imagination as a faculty that goes beyond the immediate
impressions of the senses, enabling us to perceive deeper truths, make connections between
seemingly unrelated things, and find significance in the world around us.
12.In what ways does Coleridge suggest that imagination differs from mere fancy?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge suggests that imagination involves the power to synthesise
and transform experiences, enabling the creation of new ideas and concepts, whereas
fancy is more concerned with the decorative and surface-level aspects of perception.
13.What is Coleridge’s view on poetic diction and its role in literature?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge believes that poetic diction should be a distinct and heightened
form of language, different from ordinary speech, as it allows poets to evoke powerful
emotions, create vivid imagery, and convey profound meanings.
14.How does Coleridge discuss the relationship between poetic diction and the
imagination?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge suggests that poetic diction, through its imaginative and
creative use of language, can tap into the deeper realms of the imagination, enabling poets
to express truths and insights that go beyond the limits of everyday communication.
15.According to Coleridge, what is the significance of the “willing suspension of disbelief”
in poetry?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge argues that the “willing suspension of disbelief” is crucial for
readers to engage fully and appreciate poetry. It involves temporarily setting aside scepticism
and actively entering into the imaginative world of the poem, allowing for a deeper emotional
and intellectual experience.
16.How does Coleridge explain the “willing suspension of disbelief” concept about the
nature of poetry?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge suggests that poetry, through its imaginative power and
language, can transport readers to fictional or fantastical realms, where they can temporarily
accept and believe in the truth and reality of the poetic world.
17.What examples does Coleridge provide to illustrate the effectiveness of the “willing
suspension of disbelief” in poetry?
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Suggested Answer: Coleridge offers examples from Greek mythology, where readers willingly
accept the existence of gods and supernatural beings, and from Shakespeare’s plays,
where audiences willingly engage with the actions and events depicted on stage, despite
their fictional nature.
18.How does Coleridge view the poet’s role in facilitating the “willing suspension of
disbelief” in the reader?
Suggested Answer: Coleridge suggests that the poet, through skilful use of language, vivid
imagery, and imaginative storytelling, can draw readers into the poetic world and create an
immersive experience that encourages the “willing suspension of disbelief.”
7.10 Suggested Readings
• Wheeler, Kathleen. Sources, Processes and Methods in Coleridge’s
BiographiaLiteraria. Cambridge University Press, 1980.
• Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. BiographiaLiteraria. 1817. Edited by Nigel Leask. J. M.
Dent, 1997.
• Corrigan, Timothy J. “BiographiaLiteraria and the Language of Science.” Journal of
the History of Ideas 41. 3 (1980).
• Stelzig, Eugene L. “Coleridge’s Failed Quest: The Anticlimax of Fancy/Imagination
in BiographiaLiteraria.” Studies in English, New Series 1 (1980).
• Hort, F. J. A. 1856. An essay on Coleridge' s philosophy. Read online at http:/
/books.google.co.uk/books?id=eZY4AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover
&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad =0#v=onepage&q&f=false.
• John Stuart Mill, On Bentham and Coleridge. With an introduction by F R Leavis,
Cambridge University Press, 1838.
• Barfield, Owen. What Coleridge Thought. Wesleyan University Press, 1971.
• Beckson, Karl E. Great Theories in Literary Criticism. Farrar, 1963.
• Beer, John B. Coleridge: The Visionary. Chatto and Windus, 1970.
• Berkerly, Richard. Coleridge and the Crisis of Reason. Macmillan, 2007.
• Bush, Ronald. The Presence of the Past: Ethnographic Thinking/Literary Politics.
Stanford University Press, 1995.

*****

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 LESSON 8
ARNOLD: THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM IN THE PRESENT TIME
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Learning Objectives
8.3 Arnold: The Function of Criticism in the Present Time
8.4 Poetry as the Criticism of Life
8.5 Concept of poetic truth and poetic beauty
8.6 Historical and Personal Estimate
8.7 Touchstone Method
8.8 Glossary
8.9 Self-Assessment Questions’ Answers
8.10 Suggested Readings
8.1 Introduction
Matthew Arnold, a prominent figure in Victorian literature and criticism, made significant
contributions to literary criticism. Born in 1822, Arnold was a poet, renowned critic, and
cultural commentator. His work revolutionised the approach to literary analysis and established
him as one of the most influential critics of his time.
Arnold’s approach to literary criticism was shaped by his belief in the importance of
culture and its role in society. He sought to elevate the standards of literature and viewed it
as a means to improve and refine society. Arnold advocated a dispassionate and objective
analysis of literary works, emphasising the need for balance, reason, and intellectual rigour.
One of Arnold’s key literary criticism concepts is “the best that has been thought and
said.” He believed that literature should embody the highest ideals of human thought and
expression and that great literature could guide moral and intellectual growth. Arnold
emphasised the importance of studying classic texts and engaging with the literary heritage
of the past to cultivate a refined and discerning literary taste.
Arnold also stressed the critic’s role as a mediator between the author and the
reader, responsible for interpreting and evaluating literary works. He emphasised the need
for critics to possess knowledge and sensibility, combining a deep understanding of literary
traditions with a keen aesthetic appreciation.
Arnold’s critical writings encompassed various topics, including poetry, drama, and
culture. He offered insightful analyses of major poets such as William Wordsworth, John
Keats, and William Shakespeare. He addressed broader cultural issues, such as the impact
of industrialisation and the decline of religious faith.
In summary, Matthew Arnold’s contributions to literary criticism lie in his advocacy for
the importance of culture, his emphasis on objective analysis and intellectual rigour, and his
belief in the transformative power of literature. His work continues to be studied and influential,
making him a significant figure in literary criticism.
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8.2 Learning Objectives
- Understanding Arnold’s perspective on the role and purpose of literary criticism:
Explore Arnold’s argument regarding the function of criticism in society and its
potential to shape cultural and intellectual development.
- Analysing Arnold’s concept of “the best that has been thought and said”: Examine
Arnold’s notion of the highest ideals in literature and the importance of engaging
with the classics for moral and intellectual growth.
- Exploring Arnold’s views on the relationship between literature and society:
Investigate Arnold’s belief in the influence of literature on the broader cultural and
social context and how criticism can help maintain and elevate the standards of
literature.
- Evaluating Arnold’s ideas on the balance between tradition and progress: Consider
Arnold’s perspective on the tension between preserving literary traditions and
embracing new forms of artistic expression, and the role of the critic in navigating
this balance.
- Assessing Arnold’s criticism of the contemporary cultural climate: Examine Arnold’s
critique of the prevalent materialism, narrow-mindedness, and lack of intellectual
curiosity in his time and his call for a more enlightened and critical approach.
- Reflecting on the relevance of Arnold’s ideas in the present day: Analyse the
enduring relevance of Arnold’s ideas in the contemporary context, considering the
function and value of criticism in shaping and enriching our cultural landscape.
- Analysing Arnold’s views on the relationship between literature and morality: Explore
Arnold’s argument that literature has a moral function and critically assess how
literature can shape and influence ethical values.
- Understanding Arnold’s concept of the “disinterestedness” of criticism: Examine
Arnold’s belief that critics should approach their work with objectivity and detachment
and consider the implications of this approach for evaluating literary works.
- Investigating Arnold’s ideas on the importance of cultural education: Explore Arnold’s
belief that a well-rounded education in the humanities is crucial for the development
of a cultured and enlightened society and evaluate the significance of this perspective
in today’s educational landscape.
- Evaluating Arnold’s perspective on the critic’s role in society: Assess Arnold’s
argument that critics play a vital role in shaping public opinion, influencing taste,
and maintaining standards of excellence in literature.
- Reflecting on the challenges and limitations of Arnold’s approach: Critically examine
the potential drawbacks and criticisms of Arnold’s ideas, such as the potential for
elitism or the exclusion of marginalised voices, and consider alternative perspectives
on the function of criticism.
- Exploring the enduring influence of Arnold’s ideas on literary criticism: Investigate
the impact of Arnold’s work on subsequent generations of critics and the ongoing
relevance of his ideas in contemporary literary discourse.
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8.3 Arnold: The Function of Criticism in the Present Time
In “The Function of Criticism in the Present Time,” Matthew Arnold explores the role
and purpose of literary criticism in society. The essay discusses the decline of religious
authority and the rise of industrialisation in the Victorian era, which Arnold believes has led
to a loss of moral and cultural guidance. He argues that literary criticism can fill this void and
play a crucial role in shaping and elevating society.
Arnold defines criticism as “a disinterested endeavour to learn and propagate the
best known and thought in the world.” He emphasises the importance of engaging with the
classics, representing the best of human thought and expression, and views them as a moral
and intellectual development guide. According to Arnold, literature should embody the highest
ideals and help cultivate a refined and discerning taste.
He criticises his time’s prevailing materialism and narrow-mindedness, calling for a
more enlightened and critical approach to culture and society. Arnold argues that criticism
should not be limited to literary works alone but should also extend to social, political, and
religious aspects of life. He asserts that the function of criticism is to analyse and evaluate
these aspects in light of the best that has been thought and said.
Arnold believes that critics should possess both knowledge and sensibility. They
should have a comprehensive understanding of literature and culture and also the ability to
appreciate and convey the aesthetic and emotional aspects of the works they critique. He
argues that the critic’s role is to mediate between the author and the reader, providing
insightful interpretations and evaluations that enhance the reader’s experience.
Throughout the essay, Arnold emphasises the importance of culture and its role in
refining society. He sees criticism as a means to maintain and elevate cultural standards,
encourage intellectual curiosity, and foster moral and intellectual growth. Arnold calls for a
dispassionate and objective approach to criticism that goes beyond personal biases and
preferences.
In summary, “The Function of Criticism in the Present Time” presents Matthew Arnold’s
belief in the power and significance of literary criticism. He advocates for a critical approach
that engages with the best of human thought and expression and contributes to society’s
moral and intellectual development. Arnold’s essay continues to influence the understanding
and practice of literary criticism.
Arnold’s distinction between creative literature and criticism: He emphasises that
while creative literature produces works of art, criticism evaluates and interprets those
works. He argues that criticism has a distinct role in providing guidance and insight into the
meaning and value of literature.
The need for a cultural touchstone: Arnold asserts that culture is a unifying force that
transcends individual interests and promotes a shared understanding of excellence. He
argues that criticism should uphold and promote the values of culture, helping society navigate
the complexities of the modern world.

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 The impact of democracy on culture: Arnold examines the challenges posed by
democracy to the cultivation of a refined culture. He argues that the rise of democracy and
equality has led to the “democratisation” of culture, where popular opinion and market
forces dominate, often at the expense of the highest artistic and intellectual standards.
The importance of disinterestedness: Arnold stresses the importance of
disinterestedness in criticism, referring to the ability to approach works of literature objectively
and impartially. He believes that critics should transcend personal biases and preferences,
focusing on the inherent value and quality of the works being analysed.
The influence of individual taste on criticism: Arnold acknowledges that individual
taste plays a role in criticism but cautions against an excessive focus on personal preferences.
He argues that criticism should balance personal taste and the objective evaluation of literary
works.
The role of criticism in cultural evolution: Arnold sees criticism as a dynamic force that
contributes to the ongoing evolution of culture. He suggests that criticism should engage with
the changing times and address the needs and aspirations of contemporary society while
still upholding the timeless values of the past.
8.4 Poetry as the Criticism of Life
Matthew Arnold believed that poetry is the criticism of life. In his view, poetry serves
as a means of evaluating and examining the complexities of human existence. Rather than
being mere entertainment or a form of escapism, poetry provides a deep and thoughtful
reflection on the fundamental aspects of life.
According to Arnold, poetry uniquely can express the deeper truths and realities of
human experience. It delves into the complexities of emotions, moral dilemmas, and existential
questions, offering insights and perspectives that go beyond the surface level. In Arnold’s
eyes, poetry has the power to capture the essence of life and present it in a distilled and
heightened form.
Arnold believed that poetry, through its imaginative and artistic expression, could
provide a critical lens through which society could understand and evaluate itself. He saw
poets as cultural critics who brought attention to social and moral issues, highlighting society’s
virtues and shortcomings. By employing the tools of language, metaphor, and imagery,
poets could convey profound truths and provoke meaningful reflections.
Furthermore, Arnold argued that poetry’s role as the criticism of life was not limited
to pointing out flaws or deficiencies. It also involved offering an ideal vision of what life could
be. Poetry, in its pursuit of beauty, harmony, and truth, could inspire individuals and society
to strive for higher ideals and a more enlightened way of living.
In summary, Matthew Arnold’s view that poetry is the criticism of life suggests that
poetry is a profound and introspective exploration of human existence. It offers insights into
the complexities of life, critiques societal issues, and presents an ideal vision of what life
could be. In Arnold’s perspective, poetry plays a crucial role in helping individuals and
society reflect upon and evaluate the meaning and purpose of their existence.
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8.5 Concept of poetic truth and poetic beauty
Matthew Arnold’s concept of poetic truth revolves around the idea that poetry can
reveal deeper truths about the human condition and the world around us. According to
Arnold, poetry goes beyond mere factual accuracy. It delves into emotional and spiritual
truths that cannot be fully captured by empirical observation or scientific analysis. Poetic
truth is concerned with capturing the essence of human experiences, emotions, and universal
themes that resonate with readers profoundly.
Arnold believed that poetry had the power to communicate these truths through its
imaginative and artistic expression. Through vivid imagery, metaphor, and symbolism, poets
could evoke deep emotions and insights, enabling readers to connect with the underlying
truths being conveyed. For Arnold, poetic truth was not limited to personal or subjective
experiences but rather sought to tap into a collective and universal consciousness.
In addition to poetic truth, Arnold also emphasised the concept of poetic beauty. He
believed poetry should strive for aesthetic excellence and elevate the language and form
used in artistic expression. According to Arnold, poetic beauty lies in the harmonious
combination of words, rhythm, and imagery, creating a sensory and emotional experience
for the reader.
Arnold argued that pursuing poetic beauty was not merely indulging in ornate language
or superficial aesthetics. Instead, he saw it as a means to enhance the impact and
effectiveness of the poet’s message. In Arnold’s view, poetic beauty had the power to
captivate the reader, evoke emotions, and communicate the deeper truths the poet sought
to convey.
Arnold’s concept of poetic truth and beauty intertwines, as he believed that pursuing
beauty was essential in effectively conveying the truths that poetry sought to reveal. By
balancing aesthetic qualities with profound insights, poets could create a powerful and
meaningful artistic experience for their readers.
In summary, Matthew Arnold’s concept of poetic truth centres around the idea that
poetry can reveal deeper truths about the human condition and universal themes. Poetic
truth goes beyond factual accuracy and taps into emotional and spiritual dimensions.
Additionally, Arnold emphasised the importance of poetic beauty, which lies in the harmonious
combination of language, form, and imagery. Through the pursuit of beauty, poets can
effectively convey the truths they seek to express, creating a profound and impactful experience
for readers.
8.6 Historical and Personal Estimate
Matthew Arnold’s historical and personal estimate concept refers to his approach to
evaluating literary works and authors. In his critical writings, Arnold emphasises the importance
of considering the historical context of a work and the individual author’s merits and
achievements.

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 Arnold believed that properly assessing a literary work requires understanding the
historical circumstances that influenced its creation. He argued that literature is separate
from its time’s broader social and cultural developments. Therefore, evaluating a work
involves considering its relation to the intellectual climate, societal trends, and artistic
conventions of the era in which it was written. Arnold believed that a work’s historical
significance and contribution to the literary tradition should be considered when evaluating
its quality and value.
At the same time, Arnold recognised the significance of an author’s talent and
achievement. He acknowledged that literary excellence is not solely determined by conformity
to historical conventions or adherence to prevailing norms. Arnold advocated for recognising
the unique contributions of exceptional authors who possess originality, creativity, and the
ability to transcend the limitations of their time.
Arnold’s historical and personal estimate concept encourages a balanced approach
to literary criticism. He believed that understanding the historical context provides valuable
insights into the intentions and influences behind a work. At the same time, an appreciation
for an author’s talent recognises their unique contributions to the literary canon. By combining
these two perspectives, Arnold aimed to create a comprehensive evaluation of literature
that recognises its social and historical significance and the artistic achievements of its
creators.
In summary, Matthew Arnold’s concept of historical and personal estimate in literary
criticism emphasises the importance of considering both the historical context and the individual
talent of authors when evaluating their works. It calls for an understanding of the social and
cultural influences that shaped a work while recognising the originality and creative
contributions of the author. By incorporating both perspectives, Arnold sought to provide a
comprehensive assessment of literature that acknowledges its historical significance and
the artistic achievements of its creators.
8.7 Touchstone Method
Matthew Arnold’s touchstone method refers to his approach to evaluating literary
works based on a standard of excellence or a “touchstone.” Arnold proposed the use of a
touchstone as a means to assess the quality and value of literature, particularly in his essay
“The Study of Poetry.”
Arnold argued that literature should be judged by its ability to achieve a high standard
of excellence. He believed that certain works possess timeless qualities that transcend the
fluctuations of taste and fashion. These works serve as touchstones or benchmarks against
which other literary works can be measured.
According to Arnold, the touchstone method compares contemporary literature to
the established classics or works of acknowledged literary excellence. Arnold sought to
determine their relative merit and value by subjecting contemporary works to scrutinise
these touchstones. The touchstone method aims to identify works with enduring qualities of
beauty, truth, and moral significance.
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 Arnold advocated for a critical approach that combines an appreciation for the best
of the past with a discerning assessment of the present. He believed that literature should
be evaluated against the touchstones of the past but also acknowledged the need to recognise
originality and creative innovation in contemporary works. The touchstone method encourages
a balanced approach that values tradition and individual talent.
Arnold’s touchstone method implies a belief in certain universal and timeless standards
of literary excellence. By using touchstones, readers and critics can develop a more objective
and informed perspective on the value and significance of literary works. It encourages a
thoughtful and discerning literature evaluation beyond personal preference or temporary
trends.
In summary, Matthew Arnold’s touchstone method involves evaluating literature by
comparing it to established classics or touchstones of literary excellence. This approach
seeks to identify works that possess enduring qualities and surpass the fluctuations of taste.
The touchstone method encourages a balanced approach that values tradition and originality,
aiming to establish objective standards of literary merit.
One of the key aspects of Arnold’s touchstone method is the belief in certain timeless
and universal standards of literary excellence. Arnold argued that there are works in the
literary canon that possess enduring qualities of beauty, truth, and moral significance. Often
regarded as classics, these works serve as touchstones against which other literary works
can be evaluated. Readers and critics can discern new works’ relative merit and value by
comparing contemporary literature to these touchstones.
Arnold’s touchstone method helps establish a sense of continuity and tradition in
evaluating literature. It acknowledges the contributions of past writers and the established
classics as a foundation for understanding and appreciating contemporary works. Drawing
on the wisdom and insights of the past, readers and critics can develop a deeper understanding
of literary excellence and place current works in a broader historical context.
At the same time, the touchstone method also recognises the importance of originality
and creative innovation in literature. Arnold did not advocate for slavish adherence to past
models or rejecting contemporary works that deviated from tradition. Instead, he emphasised
the need to balance honouring the established touchstones and recognising contemporary
writers’ individual talents and unique contributions. The touchstone method encourages a
discerning assessment that values both the past’s insights and the present’s creative
expressions.
Moreover, Arnold’s touchstone method suggests a more objective and informed
approach to literary evaluation. It encourages readers and critics to go beyond personal
preferences or temporary trends by engaging with works that have stood the test of time.
By subjecting contemporary works to the scrutiny of touchstones, readers can develop a
more critical and discerning eye, appreciating the qualities of enduring significance in literature.
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 In summary, Matthew Arnold’s touchstone method in literary criticism promotes using
established classics as benchmarks for evaluating contemporary works. It emphasises
timeless standards of literary excellence and encourages a balanced approach that values
tradition and originality. The touchstone method helps establish continuity and depth in
evaluating literature, allowing readers and critics to engage with works with enduring qualities
of beauty, truth, and moral significance.
8.8 Glossary
Criticism: Evaluating, interpreting, and assessing literary and artistic works. In Arnold’s
essay, criticism refers to the practice of engaging with and evaluating the intellectual and
cultural trends of the time.
Function: The purpose or role of criticism in society. Arnold argues that the function of
criticism is to guide and shape the development of culture and society.
Culture: A society’s collective intellectual, artistic, and social achievements. Arnold
emphasises the importance of cultivating a refined and educated culture through studying
and appreciating literature and the arts.
Philistinism: A term used by Arnold to describe a narrow-minded, materialistic, and anti-
intellectual attitude prevalent in society. Philistines are indifferent to the pursuit of
intellectual and aesthetic refinement.
Touchstones: Established classics or works of acknowledged literary excellence that
serve as benchmarks for evaluating other works. Touchstones represent the timeless
and enduring qualities of literature.
Sweetness and Light: An ideal state of intellectual and moral harmony that Arnold aspires
to in society. It signifies the harmonious balance between intellectual enlightenment and
moral goodness.
Historical Sense: The ability to understand and appreciate the historical context in which
literary and cultural works are produced. Arnold argues that a deep understanding of
historical circumstances should inform criticism.
Creative Epochs: Periods in history characterised by significant cultural and intellectual
advancements. Arnold suggests that the function of criticism is to recognise and foster
such creative epochs.
Scholar-Gypsy: A symbolic figure in Arnold’s essay representing the ideal of intellectual
freedom and the pursuit of knowledge. The Scholar-Gypsy rejects conventional societal
expectations and begins a quest for truth and intellectual enlightenment.
Hebraism and Hellenism: Two contrasting influences in Western civilisation. Hebraism
represents moral and religious discipline, while Hellenism represents intellectual and
artistic beauty. Arnold explores the tensions and harmonies between these two influences.
Provinciality: A limited and narrow perspective that needs to appreciate the broader
cultural and intellectual currents. Arnold argues that criticism should aim to overcome
provinciality and foster a more cosmopolitan understanding.

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8.9 Self-Assessment Questions’ Answers
1. What is the role of estimates in the realm of criticism?
Suggested answer: Estimates in criticism refer to the assessment and evaluation of literary
and artistic works. They allow critics to gauge the worth and significance of work within the
broader context of cultural and intellectual trends.
2. How does the touchstone method aid in the evaluation of literature?
Suggested answer: The touchstone method, as proposed by Arnold, involves comparing
contemporary works to established classics or touchstones of literary excellence. This
method helps critics discern the relative merit and value of new works, drawing upon the
wisdom and insights of the past.
3. What is the function of poetry, according to Arnold?
Suggested answer: Arnold argues that the function of poetry is to offer a criticism of life, to
provide a deeper understanding and insight into the complexities of human existence. Poetry
can convey profound emotions, moral truths, and universal experiences.
4. How does Arnold view the function of criticism in society?
Suggested answer: Arnold sees criticism as vital in shaping and guiding the development of
culture and society. It serves as a moral and intellectual compass, helping to refine and
elevate the collective consciousness of a society.
5. How does Arnold define the function of literature and criticism in relation to the pursuit
of perfection?
Suggested answer: Arnold believes that literature and criticism, when pursued to attain
perfection, contribute to the ongoing refinement and cultivation of the human spirit. They
facilitate the search for intellectual and moral excellence.
6. In what ways does Arnold see criticism as bridging the gap between the present and
the past?
Suggested answer: Arnold suggests that criticism, through the touchstone method, draws
upon the timeless wisdom and enduring qualities of established classics. By engaging with
the past, criticism connects the present to a broader historical and cultural continuum.
7. How does Arnold view the relationship between poetry and philosophy?
Suggested answer: Arnold sees poetry and philosophy as complementary disciplines, each
with distinct but interconnected domains. Poetry captures the emotional and imaginative
aspects of human experience, while philosophy engages with the rational and intellectual
dimensions.
8. What is the role of criticism in promoting cultural and intellectual harmony?
Suggested answer: Arnold contends that criticism, by encouraging the pursuit of sweetness
and light, fosters a harmonious balance between intellectual enlightenment and moral
goodness. It promotes a refined and cultured society.
9. According to Arnold, what is the significance of historical estimate in criticism?
Suggested answer: Arnold argues that historical estimate in criticism allows us to place
literary works in their proper historical context, enabling a more accurate evaluation of their
value and significance.
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 10.How does historical estimate contribute to a broader understanding of literature and
culture?
Suggested answer: Historical estimate helps critics to appreciate the relationship between
literature and the historical currents of the time, providing insights into the cultural, social,
and intellectual influences that shape literary works.
11. What is the role of personal estimate in criticism?
Suggested answer: Personal estimate refers to the critic’s subjective evaluation and judgment
of a work. It allows for a nuanced assessment considering individual taste, sensibility, and
intellectual discernment.
12.How does personal estimate intersect with the historical estimate in criticism?
Suggested answer: Personal estimate, while subjective, can be informed and enriched by
an understanding of historical context. It enables critics to balance their perspectives with an
awareness of the broader literary and cultural landscape.
13.What does Arnold propose the touchstone method?
Suggested answer: The touchstone method involves comparing contemporary works to
established classics or touchstones of literary excellence. It serves as a benchmark for
evaluating the quality and value of new works.
14.How does the touchstone method help assess the enduring worth of literature?
Suggested answer: The touchstone method allows critics to measure the relative merit of
contemporary works by drawing upon the accumulated wisdom, depth, and time-tested
qualities of established classics.
15.What role does the touchstone method play in fostering literary and cultural excellence?
Suggested answer: The touchstone method encourages writers and artists to aspire to the
standards set by the touchstones of literary excellence, thereby promoting the cultivation of
refined and enduring works.
16.How does the touchstone method address the challenges of evaluating contemporary
literature?
Suggested answer: The touchstone method provides a framework for assessing the artistic
and intellectual value of contemporary works, offering a perspective rooted in the accumulated
achievements of the past.
8.10 Suggested Readings
• Dawson, Carl. Matthew Arnold: The Critical Heritage. Volume 2. The Poetry. Routledge,
2005.
• Machann, Clinton. Matthew Arnold: A Literary Life. Springer, 1998.
• Bush, Douglas. Matthew Arnold: A Survey of his Poetry and Prose. Springer, 1971.
• Adams, Bradley Donald. Antithetical Developments in the Poetry and Criticism of
Matthew Arnold. Diss. 1981.

*****
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 LESSON 9
ELIOT: “TRADITION AND INDIVIDUAL TALENT” AND
“THE FRONTIERS OF CRITICISM”

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Learning Objectives
9.3 Eliot’s “Tradition and the Individual Talent”
9.4 Eliot’s “The Frontiers of Criticism”
9.5 Eliot as Critic
9.6 Objective Co-relative
9.7 Impersonality of Poetry
9.8 Catalyst
9.9 Tradition by Eliot
9.10 Glossary
9.11 Self-Assessment Questions’ Answers
9.12 Suggested Readings
9.1 Introduction
T.S. Eliot, born Thomas Stearns Eliot in 1888, was a prominent American-born British
poet, playwright, and literary critic. He is widely regarded as one of the most influential
literary figures of the 20th century. Eliot’s literary criticism played a crucial role in shaping
modernist literature and the direction of English poetry.
Eliot’s approach to literary criticism was characterised by his deep engagement with
literary tradition, emphasis on the importance of a poet’s historical and cultural context, and
belief in the objective correlative. His criticism reflects his belief that poetry should be
intellectual, emotionally resonant, and deeply rooted in tradition.
One of Eliot’s most significant contributions to literary criticism is his essay “Tradition
and the Individual Talent,” published in 1919. In this essay, he argues that for a poet to
create truly original and significant work, they must engage with and be aware of the literary
tradition that came before them. According to Eliot, the poet’s mind should be a “catalyst”
that transforms and renews the past. He emphasises the importance of a poet’s historical
sense, which involves understanding and assimilating the works of previous poets.
Eliot also introduced the concept of the “objective correlative” in his essay “Hamlet
and His Problems” (1919). The objective correlative refers to a set of objects, events, or
circumstances in a literary work that evokes a specific emotional response. Eliot argued that
poets should use concrete and specific images to convey emotions effectively rather than
relying on vague or abstract language.
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 Furthermore, Eliot’s critical essays are known for their erudition and wide-ranging
references to literature, philosophy, and cultural history. His works display a deep knowledge
of European and Eastern literature and an understanding of religious and philosophical
traditions. Eliot’s criticism often explores the tension between tradition and modernity, and
he frequently referred to the decline of Western civilisation in his writings.
Overall, T.S. Eliot’s literary criticism revolutionised the field and profoundly impacted
subsequent generations of poets and critics. His emphasis on tradition, historical
consciousness, and the objective correlative continues to shape how we understand and
analyse literature today.
9.2 Learning Objectives
- Understanding Modernist Literary Theory: Eliot’s essays are essential to developing
modernist literary theory. By studying these essays, readers can gain a deeper
understanding of the key ideas and principles that shaped the modernist movement
in literature. These essays explore the relationship between tradition and innovation,
the role of the individual artist in the context of literary history, and the challenges
modern writers face.
- Exploring the Concept of Tradition: “Tradition and the Individual Talent” is a seminal
essay discussing tradition’s importance in creating art. By studying this essay,
readers can delve into Eliot’s concept of tradition and its significance in shaping
literary works. They can explore how Eliot believed that tradition should not be
seen as a static entity but as a dynamic force that interacts with and influences
the artist’s individual talent.
- Analysing the Objective Correlative: In “Hamlet and His Problems” and other
writings, Eliot introduces the concept of the objective correlative. This theory
suggests that the emotions and feelings of characters in a literary work should be
conveyed through specific and concrete images and objects. Studying this concept
can enhance one’s understanding of how Eliot approached the representation of
emotions in literature and the significance of imagery in conveying meaning.
- Examining the Relationship between Critic and Text: “The Frontiers of Criticism”
explores the role of the literary critic and their relationship with the text they are
analysing. Eliot discusses the challenges critics face in interpreting and evaluating
literature, emphasising the importance of a comprehensive understanding of the
cultural and historical context in which a work is produced. Studying this essay
can provide insights into Eliot’s perspective on the purpose and methodology of
literary criticism.
- Engaging with Literary Tradition: Both essays highlight Eliot’s deep engagement
with literary tradition. By studying these texts, readers can explore Eliot’s references
to various literary works, writers, and intellectual traditions. This can deepen their
knowledge of literary history and enable them to appreciate the intertextual
connections and influences that shaped Eliot’s own writing.
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 - The Influence of Eliot’s Essays on Literary Modernism: Examining how Eliot’s
essays contributed to the development and understanding of literary modernism,
including their impact on other writers and critics of the time.
- The Significance of Tradition in Eliot’s Literary Theory: Exploring Eliot’s concept
of tradition and its role in shaping his literary theory, focusing on how tradition can
be both a source of inspiration and a constraint on individual creativity.
- The Objective Correlative: Analysing Eliot’s theory of the objective correlative and
its application in his poetry and the works of other modernist writers, examining
its effectiveness in conveying emotions and creating resonance.
- The Evolution of the Critic-Text Relationship: Investigating how Eliot’s essays
redefined the relationship between the critic and the text, considering the changing
role of the critic and the challenges they face in interpreting and evaluating literature.
- Intertextuality and Allusion in Eliot’s Essays: Exploring Eliot’s use of intertextuality
and allusion in his essays, examining how he references and engages with other
literary works and traditions to support his arguments and ideas.
- Historical Context and Cultural Awareness in Eliot’s Criticism: Analysing the
significance of historical context and cultural awareness in Eliot’s essays,
understanding how he believed a comprehensive understanding of the cultural
and historical background is crucial in interpreting and appreciating literary works.
- Eliot’s Views on the Crisis of Modernity: Investigating Eliot’s reflections on the
crisis of modernity and his concerns about the decline of Western civilisation,
examining how these ideas are reflected in his literary criticism and their relevance
to contemporary discourse.
- Eliot’s Influence on Subsequent Criticism: Assessing the lasting impact of Eliot’s
essays on literary criticism and theory, examining how his ideas continue to shape
and influence the field, and exploring their relevance in contemporary literary
studies.
Studying Eliot’s essays “Tradition and the Individual Talent” and “The Frontiers of
Criticism” offers opportunities to delve into modernist literary theory, understand the concept
of tradition, analyse the objective correlative, explore the critic’s role, and engage with
literary tradition. These essays provide valuable insights into Eliot’s ideas and their broader
implications for studying and interpreting literature.
9.3 Eliot’s “Tradition and the Individual Talent”
“Tradition and the Individual Talent” is an influential essay by T.S. Eliot that delves into
the relationship between tradition and innovation in literature. The essay, published in 1919,
explores Eliot’s belief that a poet’s creativity and originality should be seen as a product of
their engagement with the entire literary tradition that precedes them.
Eliot argues that the poet’s mind should be a “catalyst” that transforms and renews
the past rather than breaking away from it entirely. He emphasises the importance of the
poet’s historical sense and the need to understand and assimilate the works of previous
poets. According to Eliot, true artistic originality arises from an artist’s deep immersion in the
collective wisdom and achievements of the past.
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 Eliot introduces the concept of the “simultaneous order” in poetry, suggesting that
every new poem exists about and in conversation with the existing body of literature. He
cautions against the fallacy of seeking complete novelty. He argues that poets should strive
for a fusion of personal experience and literary tradition, creating something unique and
connected to the larger artistic heritage.
The essay also introduces the notion of the “objective correlative,” which refers to a
set of objects, events, or circumstances in a literary work that evokes a specific emotional
response. Eliot argues that to convey emotions effectively, poets should use concrete and
specific images rather than relying on vague or abstract language. Poets can create a direct
and tangible connection between the internal emotional state and the external world by
employing objective correlatives.
In summary, Eliot’s essay “Tradition and the Individual Talent” emphasises the
importance of tradition in the creative process. He argues that true artistic originality arises
from an artist’s deep engagement with and understanding of the literary tradition. The essay
calls for a fusion of personal experience and collective wisdom, rejecting the idea of complete
detachment from tradition. Furthermore, Eliot introduces the concept of objective correlative
as a means to convey emotions effectively through concrete and specific imagery. Overall,
the essay encourages poets to embrace their place within the ongoing literary conversation,
using tradition as a foundation for their creative expression.
Eliot begins by challenging the notion that creativity in art is purely a result of individual
genius. Instead, he argues that an artist’s work is deeply influenced by and connected to the
literary tradition that came before them. He states, “No poet, no artist of any art, has his
complete meaning alone.” According to Eliot, the artist’s mind is a product of the collective
wisdom and achievements of previous generations of poets.
Eliot emphasises the importance of the poet’s historical sense, which involves
understanding and assimilating the works of past poets. He suggests that poets should be
well-read and knowledgeable about the literary canon, drawing inspiration from the great
poets of the past. By engaging with tradition, the poet gains a broader perspective and can
contribute to the ongoing development of literature.
Eliot introduces the idea of the “simultaneous order” in poetry, suggesting that every
new poem exists in relation to the existing body of literature. Each poem is in conversation
with previous works, and the poet’s task is to create something original and connected to the
larger tradition. Eliot argues against complete novelty, cautioning that poets who reject
tradition often produce superficial and imitative work.
The “objective correlative” concept is another significant aspect of Eliot’s essay. He
proposes that poets should use concrete and specific images to evoke emotions in the
reader rather than relying on vague or abstract language. The objective correlative allows
the reader to make a direct and tangible connection between the poet’s internal emotional
state and the external world. By using vivid and precise imagery, poets can create a more
powerful and evocative experience for the reader.

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 Eliot’s essay also addresses the notion of the poet’s individuality within the context of
tradition. He argues that the poet’s personal experiences and emotions are vital, but they need
to be filtered through the lens of tradition. The poet’s individuality emerges through their ability
to transform and renew the past rather than through a complete departure from it.
In summary, Eliot’s essay “Tradition and the Individual Talent” asserts that true artistic
originality arises from an artist’s engagement with and understanding literary tradition. The
essay emphasises the importance of the poet’s historical sense, the concept of the
simultaneous order in poetry, and the use of the objective correlative. Through these ideas,
Eliot encourages poets to embrace their place within the larger literary conversation and to
draw inspiration from the collective wisdom of the past while infusing their work with their
individual experiences and emotions.
9.4 Eliot’s “The Frontiers of Criticism”
“The Frontiers of Criticism” is an essay by T.S. Eliot in which he explores the role of
literary critics and the challenges they face in interpreting and evaluating literature. Published
in 1956, the essay reflects Eliot’s thoughts on the nature of criticism and its relationship with
literature.
Eliot begins by acknowledging that criticism is inherently subjective and influenced by
personal bias. He emphasises the importance of the critic’s self-awareness and the need to
recognise their limitations and prejudices. According to Eliot, good critic understands their
position and biases, striving for objectivity while acknowledging the subjective nature of their
interpretation.
Eliot highlights the significance of historical and cultural awareness in literary criticism.
He argues that a critic must deeply understand the historical and cultural context in which a
work was created to fully appreciate its meaning and significance. The critic should be able
to see the work as an expression of its time and understand how it fits within the broader
literary tradition.
Another key point in the essay is Eliot’s exploration of the relationship between the
critic and the text. He suggests that the critic should approach the text with humility, recognising
that they are not the ultimate authority on its meaning. Rather, the critic’s role is to offer
insights and interpretations that contribute to a greater understanding and appreciation of
the work.
Eliot also discusses the importance of tradition in criticism. He asserts that the critic
should be well-versed in the literary tradition and draw upon that knowledge to inform their
analysis. Understanding the historical development of literature allows the critic to place a
work in its proper context and make meaningful connections with other texts.
Furthermore, Eliot emphasises that criticism should not be limited to aesthetic
judgments. He believes precious criticism goes beyond evaluating a work’s artistic merit and
delves into its deeper themes, ideas, and cultural implications. Criticism should engage with
the intellectual and emotional aspects of a work and provide insights that contribute to the
reader’s understanding and appreciation.
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 In summary, Eliot’s essay “The Frontiers of Criticism” explores the challenges and
responsibilities of the literary critic. The essay highlights the importance of self-awareness,
historical and cultural awareness, humility, and engagement with tradition in the process of
criticism. It encourages critics to move beyond mere aesthetic judgments and offer deeper
insights that enhance the reader’s understanding and appreciation of literature.
Eliot begins the essay by addressing the subjectivity of criticism. He acknowledges
that every critic brings their biases, tastes, and perspectives to their work analysis. However,
he suggests that good critic is self-aware and recognises their limitations. This self-awareness
allows the critic to approach their analysis humbly and open to different interpretations.
Eliot emphasises the importance of historical and cultural awareness in criticism. He
argues that a critic must deeply understand the historical and cultural context in which a work
was created. This knowledge enables the critic to grasp the meaning and significance of the
work, as well as to appreciate its relationship to the broader literary tradition. By considering
the work within its historical and cultural framework, the critic can better understand the
intentions and motivations of the author.
The essay also explores the relationship between the critic and the text. Eliot suggests
that the critic should approach the text with reverence, recognising that they are not the
ultimate authority on its meaning. Instead, the critic’s role is to offer interpretations and
insights to understand the work better. The critic should dialogue with the text, respecting its
inherent complexities and allowing it to speak for itself.
Eliot emphasises the importance of tradition in criticism. He believes a critic should
possess a thorough knowledge of the literary tradition and draw upon it to inform their
analysis. Understanding the evolution of literature allows the critic to place a work in its
proper context and make meaningful connections with other texts. By engaging with tradition,
the critic can identify recurring themes, patterns, and influences that shape the work under
examination.
Furthermore, Eliot suggests that criticism should extend beyond mere aesthetic
judgments. He argues that valuable criticism goes beyond evaluating a work’s artistic merit
and delves into its deeper themes, ideas, and cultural implications. Criticism should engage
with the intellectual and emotional aspects of a work, offering insights that contribute to the
reader’s understanding and appreciation.
In summary, Eliot’s essay “The Frontiers of Criticism” highlights the challenges and
responsibilities of the literary critic. It emphasises the importance of self-awareness, historical
and cultural awareness, humility, and engagement with tradition. The essay encourages
critics to move beyond subjective biases, consider the broader context of a work, and offer
interpretations that deepen the reader’s understanding and appreciation of literature. By
doing so, critics contribute to the ongoing dialogue surrounding literary works and help
shape the field of literary criticism.

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9.5 Eliot as Critic
T.S. Eliot was not only a renowned poet but also a significant figure in literary criticism.
His contributions to criticism have profoundly impacted the field and shaped how literature
is studied and analysed. Here are some key aspects of Eliot as a critic:
Tradition and Historical Consciousness: Eliot’s approach to criticism was deeply
rooted in the concept of tradition. He believed understanding and engaging with the literary
tradition was crucial for writers and critics. Eliot emphasised the importance of historical
consciousness, urging critics to consider a work in its historical, cultural, and literary context.
This emphasis on tradition helped establish a broader perspective in evaluating literature.
Objective Correlative: Eliot introduced the concept of the objective correlative, which
he believed was essential for effectively conveying emotions in poetry and literature. He
argued that emotions should be expressed through specific, concrete images and objects
rather than relying on abstract or vague language. This concept encouraged a more precise
and tangible approach to understanding the emotional aspects of a work.
Impersonality and the Dissociation of Sensibility: Eliot’s critical ideas were shaped by
his belief in the importance of impersonality in art. He advocated for poets to detach themselves
from their emotions and experiences and to strive for a more objective, universal perspective.
He famously criticised the “dissociation of sensibility,” referring to the separation of thought
and feeling in poetry, which he saw as a decline in the quality of modern poetry.
The Function of Criticism: Eliot believed that the role of criticism was to contribute to
the ongoing dialogue surrounding literature and to deepen the reader’s understanding and
appreciation of works. He emphasised the need for critics to be knowledgeable, well-read,
and comprehend the literary tradition. He argued that critics should offer interpretations that
go beyond mere aesthetic judgments, addressing the intellectual, cultural, and historical
aspects of a work.
Literary Essays: Eliot’s critical ideas and insights were presented in a series of
influential essays, including “Tradition and the Individual Talent,” “The Frontiers of Criticism,”
and “The Function of Criticism.” These essays have become significant texts in the field of
literary criticism, offering profound reflections on the nature of literature, the artist’s role,
and the critic’s responsibilities.
Overall, T.S. Eliot’s criticism revolutionised how literature is approached and analysed.
His emphasis on tradition, historical consciousness, the objective correlative, and the function
of criticism have impacted literary criticism, shaping how we understand and interpret literature.
9.6 Objective Co-relative
T.S. Eliot’s concept of the objective correlative can be defined as a literary device or
technique used to convey and evoke specific emotions in the reader through concrete and
specific images, objects, or events. It suggests that emotions and feelings in literature are
best expressed and communicated through external, tangible, and sensory means rather
than relying on abstract or general descriptions.

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 According to Eliot, the objective correlative bridges the writer’s inner emotions and
the reader’s understanding and experience. It allows the writer to create a direct and
tangible link between the subjective emotional state and the objective world, enabling the
reader to empathise and connect with the portrayed emotions.
The objective correlative operates on the premise that certain objects, situations, or
events can be universally associated with specific emotions. By presenting these objective
correlatives, writers provide readers with a shared frame of reference, tapping into commonly
understood associations and triggering emotional responses.
For example, in poetry, a specific image or object, such as a wilting flower, a stormy
sky, or a deserted street, can be employed as an objective correlative to convey emotions
like sadness, turmoil, or loneliness. By presenting these concrete and vivid images, the poet
lets the reader experience the intended emotions directly, evoking a visceral response.
Eliot’s concept of the objective correlative is closely linked to his belief in the importance
of using precise and sensory language in literature. He argued that vague or abstract
descriptions of emotions often fail to engage the reader fully, whereas specific and sensory
imagery creates a more immediate and powerful impact.
By employing the objective correlative, writers can transcend personal subjectivity
and tap into a more universal and relatable emotional experience. It allows for a deeper
understanding and connection between the reader and the work, enhancing the literature’s
overall emotional and aesthetic impact.
Eliot’s objective correlative is a literary technique that uses specific and concrete
images, objects, or events to evoke and convey emotions in the reader. By employing these
objective correlatives, writers create a direct and tangible connection between the internal
emotional state and the external world, enabling readers to empathise and engage with the
depicted emotions.
T.S. Eliot’s concept of the objective correlative suggests that emotions in literature
should be conveyed through specific, concrete images or objects that evoke a particular
emotional response in the reader. By using these objective correlatives, writers can create
a direct and tangible connection between the internal emotional state and the external world.
Here are some examples from the literature that illustrate the concept of the objective
correlative:
Hamlet’s Indecision: In Shakespeare’s play “Hamlet,” Hamlet experiences deep inner
conflict and indecision. Rather than explicitly stating Hamlet’s emotional turmoil, Shakespeare
uses the objective correlative to convey his state of mind. For example, Hamlet’s soliloquy
in Act III, Scene I begins with the famous lines: “To be, or not to be: that is the question.”
Here, the existential dilemma of life and death becomes the objective correlative for Hamlet’s
inner turmoil.
The Yellow Wallpaper: In Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s short story “The Yellow
Wallpaper,” the protagonist’s deteriorating mental state is represented through the symbolic
image of the yellow wallpaper in her room. As the story progresses, the protagonist becomes
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obsessed with the pattern on the wallpaper, seeing it as a reflection of her own confinement
and descent into madness. The yellow wallpaper is the objective correlative for the
protagonist’s deteriorating psychological condition.
The Wasteland: In T.S. Eliot’s poem “The Waste Land,” various fragmented and
disjointed images are used as objective correlatives to convey post-World War I society’s
fragmented and disillusioned state. For example, the image of a desolate wasteland, a
barren and decaying landscape, represents the spiritual and moral emptiness of the modern
world. Using these objective correlatives helps evoke a sense of alienation, despair, and the
loss of meaning in the modern era.
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner: Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s poem “The Rime of the
Ancient Mariner” utilises vivid and specific imagery as objective correlatives to convey the
mariner’s guilt and inner torment. For instance, the dead bodies of the ship’s crew, rotting
under the scorching sun, symbolise the weight of the mariner’s guilt and his separation from
the natural order. These images serve as objective correlatives, visually representing the
mariner’s emotional and psychological state.
9.7 Impersonality of Poetry
T.S. Eliot’s concept of the “impersonality” of poetry is a significant aspect of his
critical ideas. It refers to the idea that poets should distance themselves from their emotions,
experiences, and individuality to create a more objective and universal form of poetry. Here
is a detailed explanation of Eliot’s concept of the impersonality of poetry:
Detachment from Personal Emotions: Eliot believed that poetry should not merely
express the poet’s personal emotions or subjective experiences. Instead, he argued for
poets to detach themselves from their feelings and create a more objective portrayal of the
human condition. By distancing themselves from personal emotions, poets can create works
that are not limited to their circumstances but resonate with a wider range of readers.
Universal Perspective: According to Eliot, the impersonality of poetry allows the poet
to adopt a universal perspective that transcends individual experiences and speaks to
fundamental aspects of human existence. By depersonalising their poetry, poets can tap
into broader themes, emotions, and truths that resonate across time and cultures. This
universality enables the reader to connect with the poem on a deeper level, as they recognise
shared human experiences and emotions.
Objective Presentation: Eliot emphasised the importance of presenting ideas, emotions,
and experiences objectively. He believed that by avoiding personal biases, poetic language
could achieve greater clarity and precision. Through objective presentation, the poet can
create a more precise and accurate reflection of reality, capturing the complexities of human
existence in a way that goes beyond individual perspectives.
Tradition and Influence: Eliot’s idea of impersonality also relates to the poet’s
engagement with the literary tradition. He argued that a poet should be aware of and draw
upon the works of the past, allowing their writing to be influenced by the collective wisdom
and achievements of earlier poets. By acknowledging the influence of tradition, the poet can
contribute to an ongoing dialogue and participate in a broader literary conversation rather
than seeking originality for its own sake.
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 Emphasis on Craft and Technique: Eliot believed that the impersonality of poetry
requires a focus on craft and technique. He stressed the importance of precision, form, and
structure in poetry, as they effectively communicate ideas and emotions. By mastering the
technical aspects of poetry, the poet can create a well-crafted work that transcends personal
subjectivity and resonates with a wider audience.
In summary, Eliot’s concept of the impersonality of poetry calls for the poet to distance
themselves from personal emotions and experiences to achieve a more objective and universal
perspective. By depersonalising their work, poets can tap into broader themes and emotions
that resonate with readers across time and cultures. The emphasis on craft, precision, and
engagement with the literary tradition further enhances the effectiveness of impersonal
poetry.
9.8 Catalyst
T.S. Eliot’s concept of the “catalyst” is a significant aspect of his critical ideas,
particularly in his essay “Tradition and the Individual Talent.” In Eliot’s view, the catalyst
refers to the external influences and literary traditions that shape a poet’s work and contribute
to the creative process. Here is a detailed explanation of Eliot’s concept of the catalyst:
Influence of Tradition: Eliot believed poets are not isolated individuals but participants
in a continuous literary tradition. He argued that a poet’s work is influenced by the works of
previous poets, the cultural and intellectual milieu of their time, and the broader traditions of
literature. In this sense, the catalyst refers to the collective body of literature and the
creative ideas that serve as a stimulus for the poet’s work.
Borrowing and Transformation: According to Eliot, poets do not create in a vacuum
but draw upon existing literary works, ideas, and forms. The catalyst can take the form of
direct allusions, references, or borrowings from other poets’ works, which the poet then
transforms and incorporates into their creative expression. By engaging with the catalyst of
tradition, the poet adds new layers of meaning and resonance to their work.
Relationship with the Past: Eliot emphasised the poet’s relationship with the past and
the importance of understanding and respecting literary heritage. He argued that poets
should have a comprehensive knowledge of the works that came before them, not for
imitation or repetition, but to engage in a creative dialogue with the past. The catalyst of
tradition allows the poet to position their work within the broader context of literary history
and contribute to the ongoing evolution of literature.
Personal Transformation: The catalyst in Eliot’s concept also plays a role in the
personal transformation of the poet. By engaging with the works of other poets and the
traditions of literature, the poet’s perspective and understanding are expanded and enriched.
The catalyst catalyses the poet’s growth, allowing them to evolve and develop their creative
voice.
Relationship with the Reader: The catalyst of tradition also impacts the reader’s
experience of the poet’s work. Eliot believed that the reader’s familiarity with the literary
tradition enhances their understanding and appreciation of the poem. The reader brings
their knowledge and recognition of the catalyst to the reading experience, enabling them to
engage with the intertextuality and allusions within the work.
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 In summary, Eliot’s concept of the catalyst emphasises the influence of tradition,
literary works, and the broader cultural and intellectual context on a poet’s creative process.
The catalyst stimulates the poet’s work, shaping their ideas, forms, and language. It also
contributes to the poet’s personal and creative growth while enriching the reader’s experience
through intertextuality and allusions. The concept highlights the ongoing dialogue between
the poet, the past, and the reader, as literature evolves and builds upon its traditions.
9.9 Tradition by Eliot
T.S. Eliot’s concept of tradition is a central theme in his literary criticism and poetic
theory. For Eliot, tradition does not refer to a stagnant or rigid adherence to the past but
rather to the ongoing and dynamic dialogue between the present and the past in literature.
Here is a detailed explanation of Eliot’s concept of tradition:
Historical Sense: Eliot believed that a poet should possess a keen historical sense,
an awareness of the literary works that came before them and an understanding of the
cultural and intellectual context in which they operate. This historical sense allows the poet
to engage with the achievements, themes, and techniques of previous literary periods and
use them as a foundation for their work.
Continuity and Evolution: Eliot saw tradition as a continuum, a living and evolving
entity. He emphasised the importance of poets building upon and extending the achievements
of their predecessors rather than seeking complete originality. Tradition provides a framework
and a common language through which poets can communicate and contribute to the ongoing
development of literature.
The Dissociation of Sensibility: One of Eliot’s key concerns was the “dissociation of
sensibility” that he saw in modern poetry, a separation of thought and feeling, intellect and
emotion. He believed reconnecting with tradition could help heal this dissociation and restore
a unified poetic sensibility. By engaging with the wisdom and sensibilities of the past, poets
could bridge the gap between intellectual and emotional experience.
Borrowing and Transformation: Eliot advocated for poets to borrow from the works
of their predecessors and transform them in innovative ways. He saw creativity as assimilating
and recombining existing ideas, forms, and language. By engaging with tradition, poets can
enrich their work and contribute to the ongoing evolution of literature.
Objective Correlative: As discussed earlier, Eliot’s concept of the objective correlative
is closely tied to his idea of tradition. The objective correlative involves using specific and
concrete images or objects to evoke and convey emotions. By drawing upon and transforming
traditional symbols and images, poets can tap into shared cultural and literary associations,
creating a deeper resonance with the reader.
In summary, Eliot’s concept of tradition emphasises the historical sense, continuity,
and evolution of literature. Tradition provides poets with a framework and a rich source of
inspiration, allowing them to engage with past achievements and contribute to the ongoing
development of literature. It helps to bridge the dissociation of sensibility, encourages borrowing
and transformation, and provides a shared language and imagery through which poets can
communicate with their readers.
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9.10 Glossary
1. Tradition: Refers to the accumulated body of literary works, ideas, and practices
that have been passed down through generations. Eliot emphasises the
importance of engaging with tradition and building upon past achievements.
2. Individual Talent: Eliot explores the tension between the individuality of the poet
and their participation in tradition. He argues that the individual talent of a poet is
shaped and influenced by the works that preceded them.
3. Impersonality: Eliot’s concept of impersonality suggests that poets should detach
themselves from their emotions and experiences to create a more objective and
universal form of poetry. It involves the poet transcending their subjectivity to
speak to the broader human condition.
4. Objective Correlative: The objective correlative is a literary device used by Eliot
to evoke specific emotions in the reader through concrete and specific images,
objects, or events. It bridges the gap between the poet’s inner emotions and the
reader’s understanding by providing a tangible link.
5. Dissociation of Sensibility: Eliot refers to the dissociation of sensibility as the
separation of thought and feeling, intellect and emotion, in modern poetry. He
argues for the reconnection of these elements through engagement with tradition.
6. Metaphysical Poets: Eliot discusses the Metaphysical Poets, a group of 17th-
century English poets known for their intellectual and metaphysical style. He
highlights their use of wit, conceits, and the fusion of intellect and emotion as an
example of a tradition worth engaging with.
7. Objective Criticism: Eliot emphasises the importance of an objective approach to
literary criticism, focusing on the work rather than the author’s subjective opinions
or biographical details. He calls for a critical perspective that recognises the
autonomy of the literary text.
8. Historical Sense: Eliot argues for the necessity of a historical sense in both
writers and readers, an awareness of literary history and the cultural context in
which works are produced. This historical perspective enriches the understanding
and appreciation of literature.
9. Borrowing and Transformation: Eliot encourages poets to borrow from and
transform the works of their predecessors rather than striving for complete
originality. He sees creativity as a process of assimilation and recombination of
existing ideas and forms.
10. Critical Tradition: Eliot discusses the importance of a critical tradition, a body of
established and respected criticism that provides a framework for evaluating and
understanding literary works. He advocates for critical engagement with the past
and the ongoing development of critical discourse.

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9.11 Self-Assessment Questions’ Answers
1. Question: What is the role of tradition in the creative process?
Suggested Answer: Tradition plays a crucial role in the creative process by providing a
foundation and a framework for individual talent to build upon and contribute to the ongoing
development of literature. It offers a wealth of ideas, forms, and techniques poets can
assimilate, transform, and extend in their work.
2. Question: How does Eliot define the concept of impersonality in poetry?
Suggested Answer: Eliot defines impersonality as the poet’s ability to distance themselves
from their emotions and experiences to create a more objective and universal form of
poetry. It involves transcending individual subjectivity to speak to the broader human condition
and tap into shared emotions and experiences.
3. Question: What is the significance of the objective correlative in Eliot’s poetry?
Suggested Answer: The objective correlative is a device Eliot uses to evoke specific emotions
in the reader through concrete and specific images or events. It is a tangible link between
the poet’s inner emotions and the reader’s understanding, bridging the gap between the
subjective and the objective.
4. Question: How does Eliot view the relationship between the poet and the literary
tradition?
Suggested Answer: Eliot sees the poet as an individual talent and a participant in the
ongoing literary tradition. He emphasises the poet’s engagement with the works of the past,
borrowing from and transforming them to contribute to the evolving dialogue within the
literature. The poet’s relationship with tradition shapes their work and positions them within
the broader context of literary history.
5. Question: What is the role of the historical sense in Eliot’s concept of literature?
Suggested Answer: According to Eliot, the historical sense is crucial for writers and readers.
It involves an awareness of literary history, cultural context, and the works that have come
before. The historical sense enriches the understanding and appreciation of literature, enabling
writers to build upon the achievements of the past and readers to contextualise and interpret
works effectively.
6. Question: How does Eliot view the relationship between thought and feeling in modern
poetry?
Suggested Answer: Eliot identifies a dissociation of sensibility in modern poetry, a separation
of thought and feeling. He calls for reconnection of these elements through engagement with
tradition and a rejection of excessive intellectualism or excessive emotionalism. The fusion
of thought and feeling is essential for a unified and effective poetic sensibility.
7. Question: What does Eliot mean by “frontiers of criticism”?
Suggested Answer: The “frontiers of criticism” refer to the boundaries and limits of critical
discourse and interpretation. Eliot encourages exploring and expanding these frontiers,
pushing the boundaries of traditional critical approaches, and engaging with new perspectives
and methodologies to deepen the understanding and evaluation of literary works.
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 8. Question: How does Eliot advocate for the importance of literary tradition in shaping
the individual talent of a poet?
Suggested Answer: Eliot argues that the individual talent of a poet is not developed in
isolation but is shaped by the works and ideas of previous poets. Engaging with literary
tradition provides a foundation and a source of inspiration, enabling the poet to build upon
the achievements of the past and contribute to the ongoing evolution of literature.
9. Question: What role does Eliot assign the reader to interpret and appreciate a literary
work?
Suggested Answer: Eliot sees the reader actively participating in the reading experience.
Readers’ familiarity with literary tradition and ability to recognise allusions and intertextuality
enhance their understanding and appreciation of a work. The reader brings their knowledge
and perspective to the text, engaging in a dialogue with the poet and the broader literary
context.
10.Question: How does Eliot view the relationship between tradition and innovation in
literature?
Suggested Answer: Eliot believes that tradition and innovation are not mutually exclusive but
intertwined. While tradition provides a foundation and a framework, innovation allows for the
extension and transformation of existing ideas and forms. Poets can draw upon tradition to
create new and original works that contribute to the ongoing development of literature.
11. Question: What is Eliot’s stance on the importance of objectivity in literary criticism?
Suggested Answer: Eliot emphasises the importance of objectivity in literary criticism, focusing
on the work rather than the author’s subjective opinions or biographical details. He argues
for a critical perspective that recognises the autonomy of the literary text, allowing for a
deeper and more meaningful analysis of its themes, techniques, and significance.
12.Question: How does Eliot define the role of the poet in society?
Suggested Answer: Eliot sees the poet as both a representative of their time and a contributor
to society’s cultural and intellectual heritage. The poet’s engagement with tradition and their
ability to capture and express the collective human experience allows them to speak to
society’s broader concerns and aspirations, offering insights and reflections that resonate
with readers across time.
9.12 Suggested Readings
• Williamson, George. A Reader’s Guide to T. S. Eliot. Bookseller, 1952.
• Unger, J., editor. T.S. Eliot: A Selected Critique. Rinehart and Company, 1948.
• Gardiner, Hele. The Art of T. S. Eliot. Faber and Faber, 2002.
• Sen S. T. S. Eliot: The Critic. Unique Publishers, 2014.
• Leavis, F. R. “T.S. Eliot’s Stature as a Critic.” Commentary XXVI (1958).

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 • Jewel, Spears Brooker. Mastery and Escape: T.S. Eliot and the Dialectic of
Modernism. University of Massachusetts Press, 1996.
• Grant, Michael, ed. T. S. Eliot: The Critical Heritage. Routledge & Kegan Paul,
1982.
• The Cambridge Journal of Anthropology 25. 2 Creativity or Temporality? (2005).
• T. S. Eliot, “The Frontiers of Criticism.” On Poetry and Poets. Faber and Faber,
1957.
• Murphy, Russel Eliott. Critical Companion to T. S. Eliot: A Literary Reference to His
Life and Work. Facts on File, 2007.
• Lobb, Edward. T. S. Eliot and the Romantic Critical Tradition. Routledge, 2015.
Questions
1. What is the role of catharsis in tragedy?
2. What are the characteristics of a tragic hero, according to Aristotle?
3. What is the concept of rasa according to Bharatamuni? How does it relate to
emotions and aesthetic experiences?
4. What are Dryden’s comparisons between the ancients and the moderns regarding
poetic genius?
5. How does Dryden compare the French and English plays regarding dramatic
structure?
6. How does Coleridge explain the “willing suspension of disbelief” concept about the
nature of poetry?
7. What role does the touchstone method play in fostering literary and cultural
excellence?

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 M. A. 3rd Semester Examination
English
Literary Criticism
Paper-IX Course Code DSC MENG 301 (Compulsory)
Time Allowed: 3 Hours
M Marks: 75
The candidates shall limit their answers precisely within the answer book (40 pages) issued
to them, and no supplementary/continuation sheet will be issued.
Note: Attempt Question No. One which is compulsory, and any other three questions.
1. Attempt any six items (in about 100 words each)
a. Hamartia (Aristotle)
b. Sublime (Longinus)
c. Three Unities
d. Poetic Diction
e. Fancy (Coleridge)
f. Dryden’s views on Tragicomedy
g. Historical Estimate (Arnold)
h. Disinterestedness (Arnold).
i. Poet’s Mind as a Catalyst (Eliot)
j. Metre in Poetry (Wordsworth)
k. The anti-romanticism of T.S. Eliot
i. Decorum in Neoclassical criticism
1. Discuss Aristotle’s concept of mimesis. How does he differ from Plato? OR
Discuss Aristotle’s contribution to Western literary criticism. Is he outdated? Discuss.
2. “Dryden was a liberal classicist who did not follow the rules slavishly. OR
How far would you agree with “An Essay of Dramatic Poesy”? Dryden broke away
from the prejudices of his age.
3. What has Coleridge to say on the function of Imagination in Poetry? OR
Discuss Coleridge as a Romantic critic.

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4. Examine Arnold’s views on the nature and function of criticism. OR
Give an account of Arnold’s touchstone method of determining the excellence of
poetry. Would you agree that it is a valid tool for evaluation?
5. What does Eliot mean by the word “Tradition? Summarize and discuss Eliot’s views
on individual talent in relation to tradition.” OR
Explain what Eliot meant by “Objective correlative?” Can it in any way be related to
Eliot’s Impersonality theory of Poetry?
6. Write an essay on the major difference between Neoclassical and Romantic criticism.
OR
What do you understand by the term “the creative process?” Compare and contrast
the views of any two major critics on this issue.

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 M.A. ENGLISH
ASSIGNMENTS QUESTIONS
SEMESTER III
Total Marks: 20 for M.A. (CBCS)
15 for M.A. (OS)
Note:
1. Students enrolled will attempt any four of the following questions in each
course.
2. Students enrolled in M.A. English (Old Syllabus) will attempt any three of the
following questions in each course.
3. Each question will be answered in about 250 words and carries five marks.
4. Only handwritten answers will be evaluated.
5. Assignment questions are given for only courseswe offereach semester.
6. Course XII is for the old syllabus, and Course XII-i is for M. A. English
(CBCS).
.Course IX: Literary Criticism
1. Explain Aristotle’s concept of an ideal tragic hero.
2. Discuss Dryden’s comparison of English and French drama.
3. Explain the concept of ‘meter’ and ‘diction’ in BiographiaLiteraria by Coleridge.
4. Discuss the main ideas in Arnold’s “The Function of Criticism in the Present
Time”.
5. Elaborate on T.S. Eliot’s views on the Historical Sense of”Tradition and
Individual Talent”.
Course X: Modern British and American Poetry.
1. Narrate how the storm outside is reflected in the poet’s mind in the poem “A
Prayer for My Daughter” by Yeats.
2. Discuss the main ideas in Eliot’s The Waste Land.
3. Give the significance of the title of the poem “The Unknown Citizen”
4. Write a critical analysis of the poem “A Passage to India” by Walt Whitman.
5. Discuss various themes in the poem “Mending Wall” by Robert Frost.

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Course XI: Modern British Drama
1. Discuss the significance of the title of the play Arms and the Man by G.B.
Shaw.
2. How is the idea of capitalism expressed in Oscar Wilde’s An Ideal Husband?
3. Discuss the theme of martyrdom in Eliot’s Murder in the Cathedral.
4. What are the various themes in Sergeant Musgraves’s Dance by John Arden?
5. Discuss the role of the chorus in T. S. Eliot’s Murder in the Cathedral.
Course XII/XII-i: World Fiction
1. Write a charactersketch of Raskolnikov in Dostoevsky’s Crime and
Punishment.
2. Discuss the main ideas in Hemingway’s Old Man and the Sea.
3. Describe the narrator’s search for her identity in Atwood’s Surfacing.
4. Discuss the post-colonial concerns in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart.
5. Elaborate on the significance of the Hanuman House in V.S. Naipaul’s A House
for Mr Biswas.

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M.A. IIIrd Semester Course Code : DSC- MENG 301
English (Compulsory)

LITERARY CRITICISM

Lesson 1-9

By : Priyanka Vaidya

INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION

AND OPEN LEARNING HIMACHAL PRADESH UNIVERSITY,
GYAN PATH, SUMMERHILL, SHIMLA-171005

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 CONTENTS

Lesson Title Page No.

LESSON 1 AN OUTLINE OF THE EVOLUTION OF LITERARY CRITICISM 2

LESSON 2 ARISTOTLE 10
LESSON 3 ARISTOTLE 20
LESSON 4 ARISTOTLE 27
LESSON 5 BHARAT MUNI: NATYASHASTRA (CHAPTER 6) 34
LESSON 6 JOHN DRYDEN: ESSAY OF DRAMATIC POESY 48
LESSON 7 COLERIDGE: BIOGRAPHIA LITERARIA (CHAPTERS 13-18) 58
LESSON 8 ARNOLD: THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM IN THE PRESENT TIME 70
LESSON 9 ELIOT: “TRADITION AND INDIVIDUAL TALENT” AND “THE 80
FRONTIERS OF CRITICISM”
ASSIGNMENT 95

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