A PROJECT REPORT ON

TURBINES AND BOILERS

A report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
Award of Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted by
B.PAVAN SAI ME22B1008
Under the Supervision of
Sri.M.Srinivas, Deputy Executive Engineer

ANDHRA PRADESH POWER CORPORATION LIMITED

DR.NTTPS TRAINING INSTITUTE
IBRAHIMPATNAM-521456
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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I extend my gratitude to Sri P. Naveen Gowtham, Chief Engineer

(Electrical) at the Training Institute, Dr. NTTPS, for providing
excellent facilities essential for the successful completion of this
project.

I also thank Smt. K. Susheela, Superintending Engineer (Electrical) at

the Training Institute, Dr. NTTPS, for her dedication and generous
provision of resources that facilitated my work.

My thanks go to Sri Ch. Hari Babu, Executive Engineer (Electrical) at

the Training Institute, Dr. NTTPS, for his continuous encouragement
and motivation, ensuring the project was completed within the
stipulated timeframe.

I acknowledge Sri M. Sreenivasulu, Deputy Executive Engineer

(Electrical) at Dr. NTTPS, for his cooperative guidance, insightful
suggestions, and support in overcoming challenges during the project.

Finally, I appreciate all the individuals who contributed to the

completion of this project, whether through direct assistance or moral
support.

BANDREDDI PAVAN SAI

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 Certificate
This is to certify that the study project entitled
"TURBINES AND BOILERS" being submitted by
BANDREDDI PAVAN SAI(ME22B1008) of the Department
Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology,
Puducherry, to the Dr. NTTPS Training Institute,
APGENCO, as a part of the 6-week industrial training
programme, has been carried out by him under the guidance
and supervision of the undersigned.

iii
 Abstract
This project provides an extensive exploration of turbines and boilers,
emphasizing their fundamental principles, design, functionality, and applications
across various industries. Turbines, as devices that convert kinetic energy from
fluids into mechanical energy, are examined in terms of their different types,
applications, and the challenges they face. The project also looks ahead to future
advancements in turbine technology.

Steam turbines, a specific type of turbine, are analysed in detail. This

includes their components, working principles, and the pressure-velocity
diagram, as well as the various types of steam turbines, the compounding process,
and their advantages, disadvantages, and applications.

Additionally, the project delves into the construction aspects of steam

turbines, detailing key components such as the foundation, casing, anchor points,
rotors, blades, sealing systems, bearings, barring gear, valves, and couplings. The
auxiliary systems essential for the efficient operation of steam turbines, including
condensate extraction pumps, air extraction systems, air ejectors, vacuum pumps,
condensers, LP and HP heaters, deaerators, and boiler feed pumps, are also
discussed.

Boilers, integral to the operation of steam turbines, are introduced with a

focus on their types, pressure parts, and the principles of combustion. By covering
these topics comprehensively, the project aims to provide a deep understanding
of turbines and boilers, highlighting their critical roles in industrial and
commercial applications while addressing the challenges and innovations that
shape their future.

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 INDEX
S.no CONTENTS Page no
1. THEORY OF TURBINES
1.1 WHAT IS TURBINE?
1.2 UNDERSTANDING TURBINES AND THEIR FUNCTIONALITY
1.3 TYPES OF TURBINES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
1.4 INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS OF TURBINES
1.5 THE CHALLENGES FACING TURBINES
1.6 THE FUTURE OF TURBINES
2. STEAM TURBINE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 WHAT ARE STEAM TURBINES?
2.3 PARTS OF A STEAM TURBINE
2.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF STEAM TURBINE
2.5 PRESSURE-VELOCITY DIAGRAM
2.6 TYPES OF STEAM TURBINES
2.7 COMPOUNDING IN TURBINES
2.8 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STEAM TURBINES
2.9 LIMITATIONS OF STEAM TURBINES
2.10 APPLICATIONS OF STEAM TURBINES
3. CONSTRUCTION OF STEAM TURBINES
3.1 FOUNDATION
3.2 CASING OR CYLINDERS
3.3 ANCHOR POINTS
3.4 ROTORS
3.5 BLADES
3.6 SEALING SYSTEM
3.7 BEARINGS
3.8 BARRING GEAR
3.9 VALVES
3.10 COUPLINGS
4. AUXALIRIES OF STEAM TURBINES
4.1 CONDENSATE EXTRACTION PUMPS
4.2 AIR EXTRACTION SYSTEM
4.3 AIR EJECTORS
4.4 VACUUM PUMP
4.5 CONDENSER
4.6 LP AND HP HEATERS
4.7 DEAERATOR

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 4.8 BOILER FEED PUMP
5. BOILERS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 TYPES OF BOILERS
5.3 BOILER PRESSURE PARTS
5.4 PRINCIPLE OF COMBUSTION
6. CONCLUSION
7. BIBLIOGRAY

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THEORY OF STEAM TURBINES
1.1 What is a Turbine?

A turbine is a machine that plays a key role in transforming fluid or air energy into
usable work or electricity.
With a rotor system at its core, a turbine harnesses the rotational energy generated by the fluid
to produce a wide range of applications. Here we'll delve into the intricacies of turbines, their
types, and their role in various industries and energy generation.

A turbine is a highly efficient machine designed to convert the kinetic energy of a fluid, such
as steam, water, or gas, into mechanical energy. Central to its design is a rotor system that
captures and utilizes the rotational force generated by the fluid. This process is integral to
numerous applications across industries, including power generation, aviation, and marine
propulsion.

Turbines come in various types, each tailored to specific needs: steam turbines for electricity
generation, gas turbines for aircraft propulsion and power plants, and hydraulic turbines for
harnessing the energy of flowing water. Their versatility and efficiency make turbines
indispensable in modern energy production and mechanical systems.

1.2 Understanding turbines and their functionality

Turbines achieve their energy conversion through two primary mechanisms:

mechanical gearing and electromagnetic induction. They are primarily employed for
generating electricity, but their uses extend to powering mechanical systems.

Mechanical power derived from turbines traces back to ancient Greece. The earliest wind
wheels were dependent on gearing and shafts to drive machinery.

This concept of using wind or water as fluid mediums to drive turbines evolved into what we
now call windmills and waterwheels. These were instrumental in grinding grain by driving
millstones, as well as powering other mechanical processes.

1.3 Types of turbines and their applications

Turbines come in different forms, tailored for specific applications and energy sources.
These are the prominent types of turbines:

 Steam turbines
Steam turbines, widely employed in conventional power plants, generate mechanical
energy from burning oil, coal, or even nuclear power. These thermal steam turbines remain one
of the most common methods for producing electricity globally. They are renowned for their
efficiency and reliability, effectively converting thermal energy into mechanical energy.

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 Gas turbines
Gas turbines provide a versatile and efficient solution for various industrial needs. They
use combustible fuels such as natural gas or diesel to generate mechanical energy. The resulting
power is used extensively in power plants, aircraft engines, and various industrial applications.
Gas turbines are highly regarded for their compact size, quick start-up, and ability to adapt to
fluctuating loads.

 Wind turbines
Wind turbines have captured global attention as one of the pillars of green or clean
electricity generation strategies. Working on the principles of aerodynamics, wind turbines
harness the kinetic energy of wind to generate electrical power. They have gained significant
momentum in wind power applications, contributing to the shift toward sustainable and clean
energy sources and support for corporate environmental, social and governance (ESG)
initiatives. Wind turbines, which generate power as blades turn, are among the most
recognizable of the various turbines.

 Hydroelectric turbines
Hydroelectric turbines harness the potential energy of flowing water or hydraulics to
generate electricity. They play a crucial role in hydroelectric power plants, converting the
energy from river dams or tides into electric power. Hydroelectric turbines are celebrated for
their renewable nature, sustainable operation, and minimal environmental impact.

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Wind and hydroelectric turbines are sources of clean electricity -- also known as green
electricity or green power -- the most valuable form of renewable energy.

1.4 Industrial and commercial applications of turbines

Turbines find wide-ranging applications across numerous industries, including the
following:

 Power generation
Turbines, in collaboration with various power generation technologies, form the
backbone of an electricity supply. They drive generators, enabling the conversion of
mechanical energy into electricity. Power plants, both conventional and renewable, rely on
turbines to generate the enormous amounts of electricity demanded by society.

 Aerospace and aviation

The aviation industry heavily relies on turbines to power aircraft engines. Turboprop
and turbofan engines, powered by gas turbines, provide the thrust required for aircraft
propulsion. These turbine-driven engines offer high performance, fuel efficiency, and reliable
operation, making air travel more efficient and safer.

 Oil and gas industry

In the oil and gas sector, turbines play a crucial role in powering various operations.
Gas compressor stations rely on gas turbines to compress natural gas for transport across
pipelines. Refineries and petrochemical plants employ turbines for driving pumps, generators
and other essential equipment, ensuring smooth and efficient operations throughout the
industry.
Renewable energy generated by a wind farm replaces fossil fuels to reduce carbon emissions.

1.5 The challenges facing turbines

While turbines have revolutionized industries and energy production, they also face
several challenges that demand continuous innovation and improvement. Overcoming these
hurdles is crucial to their long-term efficiency, reliability and sustainability. Let's examine the
key challenges that turbines encounter and the ongoing efforts to address them.

 Efficiency optimization: Maximizing energy conversion

Efficiency is a paramount concern when it comes to turbine operation. Engineers and

researchers constantly strive to enhance the aerodynamic design of turbine blades to maximize
energy extraction from fluid or air. By improving blade profiles, reducing drag, and minimizing
energy losses, turbines can achieve higher conversion efficiencies and generate more power
from the same input.

Additionally, advancements in materials science and manufacturing techniques contribute to

increased turbine efficiency. Lightweight and robust materials, such as composites and super
alloys, allow for higher operating temperatures and better fatigue resistance.

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These improvements reduce energy losses and enable turbines to deliver enhanced performance
over extended periods.

 Environmental impact: Mitigating noise, visual and ecological concerns

Turbines, especially wind turbines, have faced criticism due to their environmental
impact. Noise pollution and visual aesthetics are a primary concern in wind energy projects,
particularly those located in populated areas.

To address this challenge, manufacturers and researchers are developing sophisticated noise
reduction technologies and implementing advanced design strategies. Innovations include the
optimization of blade shapes and the use of noise-dampening materials to minimize turbine-
generated noise levels.

Ecological factors are also considered when deploying turbines in sensitive environments.
Proper placement, thorough environmental impact assessments, and collaboration with
environmental experts are crucial to ensure minimal disruption to local habitats and wildlife.

The development of bird-friendly designs, such as improved blade visibility and tower lighting
practices, is an ongoing focus of research to further mitigate environmental impacts.

 Grid integration: Balancing supply and demand

As renewable energy sources, including wind and hydroelectric power, gain

prominence, electric grid integration poses a challenge for turbines. Their intermittent nature
and fluctuating power output require effective management to maintain a stable and reliable
electricity supply.

Balancing supply and demand is essential, especially when the power produced by turbines
exceeds the grid's immediate capacity.

To address this challenge, advanced monitoring and control systems are being developed to
optimize turbine operations and ensure seamless integration with the grid. These systems

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incorporate predictive analytics, energy storage solutions, and demand response mechanisms
to effectively regulate power output and support grid stability.

 Maintenance and reliability: Maximizing uptime

Turbines require regular maintenance and periodic inspections to ensure optimal

performance and longevity. Challenges arise due to their often remote locations, vast numbers,
and the complexity of their components. Accessing turbines for maintenance purposes can be
challenging, especially in offshore wind farms or remote areas.

To address this, the manufacturers and user organizations are investing in remote monitoring
and maintenance technologies, including advanced sensors and predictive analytics. These
tools enable early detection of potential failures or performance issues, allowing for timely
maintenance and reducing costly downtime.

Improved maintenance practices, such as condition-based monitoring and robotic inspection

techniques, ensure that turbines operate efficiently and reliably.

 Cost Competitiveness: Achieving affordability

While the costs of turbine technology have been steadily decreasing over the years,
achieving cost competitiveness remains an ongoing challenge. Reducing the overall costs
associated with turbine manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and decommissioning is
crucial to accelerating the adoption of renewable energy sources.

Technological advancements, economies of scale, and streamlined manufacturing processes

play a vital role in reducing costs. Additionally, research and development efforts focus on
identifying alternative materials, innovative designs, and enhanced manufacturing techniques
to drive down expenses without compromising quality and performance.

By overcoming these challenges, turbines can further strengthen their position as indispensable
machinery in the quest for a greener and more sustainable future.

1.6 The future of turbines

Turbines represent an essential technology in efficient energy conversion and

utilization. From power generation to aerospace and beyond, turbines continue to propel
numerous industries forward.

As the world explores renewable energy sources and seeks to minimize human environmental
footprint, turbines, especially wind and hydroelectric turbines, are gaining prominence.
Emerging technologies, such as improved aerodynamics, advanced materials and sophisticated
control systems, also strive to maximize energy conversion, optimize performance, and reduce
environmental impact.

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 STEAM TURBINE
2.1 Introduction
A steam turbine is a machine that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and
uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented
by Charles Parsons in 1884.[1][2] Fabrication of a modern steam turbine involves
advanced metalwork to form high-grade steel alloys into precision parts using technologies
that first became available in the 20th century; continued advances in durability and efficiency
of steam turbines remains central to the energy economics of the 21st century.

The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement
in thermodynamic efficiency from the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam,
which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible expansion process.

Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it can be coupled to a generator to harness its
motion into electricity. Such turbogenerators are the core of thermal power stations which can
be fuelled by fossil fuels, nuclear fuels, geothermal, or solar energy. About 42% of all
electricity generation in the United States in the year 2022 was by use of steam turbines.

Technical challenges include rotor imbalance, vibration, bearing wear, and uneven expansion
(various forms of thermal shock). In large installations, even the sturdiest turbine will shake
itself apart if operated out of trim.

Fig. 1: Steam Turbine without Cover

2.2 What are Steam Turbines?

A steam turbine is a type of prime mover that converts available energy from high-
pressure steam into mechanical power in the form of rotary motion. The dynamic action of
steam expanded by the nozzle is essential to the functioning of steam turbines.

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 Steam turbines can also be analysed as a type of heat engine which effectively works
in increasing the thermodynamic efficiency of the system by utilizing many stages in the
expansion of the steam, which results in a process that is closer to the ideal reversible expansion
process.

Modern steam turbines are made utilising sophisticated metalworking techniques that were first
made possible in the 20th century. Refer to the image below for steam turbines in real life.

2.3 Parts of a Steam Turbine

There are a few important parts which remain common in any type of modern steam
turbine or old turbines we come across. There are four important parts in a typical turbine as
shown in figure 2 below.

Fig. 2: Parts of Typical Steam Turbine

1. Nozzle: In a steam turbine or steam turbine generator, a steam nozzle is a channel or duct
with a cross-sectional area that varies gradually and is used to transform the heat energy of
steam into kinetic energy.

2. Rotor: It consists of a wheel mounted to a shaft as shown in figure 2. The rotor is positioned
on the bearing so that it can rotate smoothly and effectively. The rotor's blades are installed
along its full circle.

The rotor in a typical turbine is of two types, Drum-type and Disk-type

3. Blades: On the rotor's whole circumference, a great number of blades are erected. The
movement of blades is solely caused by the impact of steam, and their profiles do not converge.
As steam travels between the blades, this causes a decrease in steam velocity and virtually no
pressure reduction. Here, there are only two types of blades, Fixed-type and Moving-type.

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4. Casing: It is an enclosure that houses the blades, and rotor assembly, and holds the nozzle
in place. By using some sort of packing or oil seal to allow the shaft to run freely and stop
leaks, the casing is kept apart from the rotor.

There are two casings – an inner and an exterior casing.

5. Diaphragm: The pairing of one diaphragm and one wheel is called a ‘Stage’. A diaphragm
for a steam turbine stage consists of hollow guide blades, with one end of each blade attached
to the diaphragm rim and the other to the diaphragm body.
Each blade contains at least one hole for liquid phase removal from wet steam.

6. Rotor: As we already know, the shaft and the wheel are collectively called a Rotor. The
shaft in the rotor is connected to the generator to generate electricity while the wheels contain
the blades fixed to them. There are two types of rotors as shown in the figure below.

(A) Drum Type: In this type, blades are mounted on a cylindrical drum in rows. They are
supported by bearings. Bearings are machine member that supports the rotational motion. The
torque generated is transmitted through the drum wall.

(B) Disk Type: In this type, specially profiled disks are connected to the shaft. The blades are
mounted on the circumference of these shafts. Here, the torque generated is transmitted by the
shaft.

Let’s learn how these parts are connected.

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Construction of Steam Turbine

The parts of the turbine we just discussed are placed in a strategic way to get work done
with maximum efficiency. Typically, turbines are constructed of stationary parts and moving
parts. Let us start with the moving parts.

(A) Moving:

1. The shaft runs along the whole length of the turbine.

2. One end of the shaft is connected to the generator.
3. The turbine wheels or rotor are connected to the shaft.
4. These wheels consist of blades or buckets in general.
5. The shaft and the wheels are collectively called the ‘Rotor’.
6. Wheels turn as the steam passes through their rotating blades. The rotation of the wheel
turns the shaft and the generator.

(B) Stationary:

1. The rotor is supported by a bearing which is housed in a casing, or cylinder as

sometimes referred to in industries.
2. Diaphragms are positioned in the casings between the wheels.
3. The casing and the diaphragm are the stationary parts of the turbine.
4. Diaphragm has blades that are referred to as Nozzles.
5. The function of the diaphragm is to direct steam leaving one side of the rotating blades
to the next set of blades.

2.4 Working Principle of Steam Turbine

The Rankine cycle is a fundamental principle in the operation of steam turbines.

The Rankine cycle is an idealised thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine that
transforms heat into mechanical work during a phase transition. Here the frictional losses are
neglected.

By expanding through the turbine, steam energy is transferred to mechanical work. The
expansion occurs through a sequence of fixed blades (nozzles) and moving blades. It is worth
noting that,

1. The dynamic action of steam expanded by the nozzle is essential to the functioning of
steam turbines.
2. The nozzle receives high-pressure steam from the boiler, which is then expanded as
shown in the illustration below.

Fig. 3: Expansion of Steam in a Nozzle

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 1. The nozzle or blade passage is where the enthalpy of the steam is initially changed into
the kinetic energy of the steam.
2. The high-velocity steam that is created by the nozzle runs through the curved vane or
blade, causing it to change momentum as a result.
3. The steam turbine generates electricity by changing the momentum of a jet of steam as
it passes through a vane or blade.

As we have a basic understanding of the working principle, let us study it from a technical
perspective.

Losses in Steam Turbines

1. Frictional losses: Minimize mechanical friction through lubrication and maintenance

2. Steam leakage: Implement effective sealing systems and maintenance practices to
minimize steam leakage.
3. Blade losses: Utilize advanced blade designs and materials, and ensure regular blade
maintenance.
4. Condenser losses: Maintain proper vacuum levels, optimize cooling water flow, and
conduct regular maintenance.
5. Heat losses: Employ insulation and thermal shielding to minimize heat losses.
6. Wind age losses: Use aerodynamic designs and minimize clearances between rotating and
stationary components
7. Electrical losses: Optimize generator design and operation to reduce electrical resistance
and magnetic hysteresis.

2.5 Pressure-Velocity Diagram

Consider the working image with the P-v diagram of a De Laval Impulse Turbine (We
shall discuss it later in the article) in figure 4 below.

Fig. 4: Pressure-Velocity variation in De Laval Turbine

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Figure 4 demonstrates a diagrammatic representation of blade arrangement with a P-v diagram
of a De Laval steam turbine considered for the explanation. The nozzle and blades are shown
in the top portion, and the steam pressure and flow rate as it passes over the nozzle and blade
channel are shown in the lower portion.

The pressure and velocity variation is explained below.

1. When the steam enters the nozzle of the turbine, the pressure of the steam is high and
the velocity is zero or negligible.
2. After the expansion in the nozzles, the pressure of the steam decreases. This is shown
by the curve PQ in the diagram.
3. The velocity increases in the expansion process of steam in the nozzle which is shown
by the curve AB.
4. Steam thus travelled impacts the blades at high velocity. This turns the blades which
turn the rotor.
5. The steam passing through the blades after the impact of rotational motion to the blades
has a decreased velocity, as shown by the curve BC, but a constant pressure, as shown
by the curve QR.

2.6 Types of Steam Turbines

How Do the Steam Turbine’s Blades Work?

The blades of a steam turbine play a critical role in converting the energy of high-
pressure steam into rotational mechanical energy. There are two main types of blades in a steam
turbine: stationary blades, also known as nozzles or diaphragms, and rotating blades, often
referred to as buckets or rotor blades.

Let us now learn about the types of steam turbines and the working of a few major types.

There are several categories in which these turbines are classified. These are based on various
operating conditions. The categories and classification of steam turbines are as follows:

 Based on the action of steam:

o Impulse Turbine
o Reaction Turbine
 Based on the steam flow direction:
o Axial flow turbine
o Radial flow turbine
 Based on the number of stages:
o Single stage
o Multi-stage
 Based on the pressure of steam at the inlet:
o Low pressure
o Medium pressure
o High pressure
o Supercritical pressure
 Based on governing method:
o Throttle governing turbine

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 o Nozzle governing turbine
o Bypass governing turbine
 Based on industrial usage:
o Stationary turbine with constant speed
o Stationary turbine with variable speed
o Non-stationary turbines

The Impulse and Reaction turbines are the most used among these different types. Let us learn
more about them.

Impulse Turbine

An impulse turbine is a type of turbine where the pressure drop only happens in the
nozzle. Here, ‘Disk-type’ rotors are used. Figure 5 depicts a diagrammatic representation of
this impulse steam turbine.

Fig. 5: Impulse Steam Turbine

As discussed above, this has two sub-types.

Simple Impulse (De Laval Turbine)

This turbine is suitable for steam at low pressures. It is a pure impact turbine with a
single turbine wheel bearing a single row of buckets to which steam is fed at the maximum
velocity feasible.

These steam jets emanate from stationary nozzles tapered to increase their cross-sectional area
toward the outlet end of the nozzle assuming that its entire available energy has been converted
into kinetic energy.

Compounded Impulse Turbine

The trend is to produce steam at high pressure and temperature, up to 100-150 bar
pressure and roughly 550∘∘C superheat, as a result of technical improvement. As a result, rather
than expanding in one step, the steam expands in numerous steps.

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2.7 Compounding in Turbines

Compounding is a successful method for utilising the complete amount of energy that
is accessible.

Let us study the three major types of turbines.

Velocity-Compounded Turbine (Curtis)

In this instance, there is a single set of nozzles and two or more rows of movable blades
organised in series. Between two rows of moving blades, a set of guide blades that are fixed
and suspended from the turbine's casing are positioned appropriately. The positioning of the
blades in fixed rows is the exact opposite of that of moving rows.

Velocity-compounded turbines are an advanced application of turbine technology,

optimizing the conversion of thermal energy into useful mechanical work across various
industrial and power generation applications.

Pressure-Compound Turbine (Rateau)

A pressure-compounded impulse turbine has several sequential simple impulse turbines

mounted on a single shaft. This arrangement consists of alternate rows of fixed nozzles and
moving rows of blades in sequence, with a row of fixed nozzles placed at the beginning of each
row of moving blades.

From high pressure to exhaust pressure, the entire pressure drop is divided into smaller pressure
drops that happen sequentially at various phases.

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Pressure-Velocity-Compounded Turbine

These turbines are the result of combining pressure and velocity in a compounding
process. This system is very well suited for the case in which the pressure range is very broad.
It is common knowledge that a two-row velocity-compounded turbine is more effective at
converting kinetic energy into useful mechanical work than a three-stage velocity-compounded
turbine.

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The building of a two-row velocity-compounded turbine, on the other hand, presents
considerable challenges due to the increased velocity experienced by each blade.

Now let us move ahead with another yet last type of important steam turbine.

Reaction Steam Turbine

In a reaction steam turbine, a jet of steam emanates from a nozzle on the rotor (the
rotating blades) and is expanded by fixed blades. The rotor's rotational force is derived from
the steam leaving the blades. Here, ‘Drum-type’ rotors are used.

Approximately 50% of the output power is created by the impact force and the remaining 50%
by the steam expansion response force. The Francis Turbine, the Kaplan-Propeller turbine,
and the Deriaz turbine are all examples of modern reaction steam turbines.

Figure 6 shows the diagrammatic representation of the reaction steam turbine.

Fig. 6: Reaction Steam Turbine

2.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Steam Turbines

The following are the advantages of steam turbines:

1. Their dependability is particularly great when prolonged high-power output is required.

2. They are less susceptible to vibrations than reciprocating engines.
3. They demand lower mass flow rates than gas turbines.
4. In comparison to reciprocating engines, modern steam turbine generators have a
relatively high power-to-weight ratio.
5. Typically, thermal efficiency is superior to reciprocating engines.

Though the advantages are notable, there are certain disadvantages associated with these steam
turbines.

1. Compared to reciprocating engines, they are less sensitive to changes in power demand.

15
 2. Their start up time is longer than that of gas turbines and reciprocating engines.
3. In part-load operations, the efficiency of a steam turbine generator or steam turbine is
inferior to that of a reciprocating engine.

2.9 Limitations of Steam Turbines

Some limitations hold back industries from extensively using these turbines.

1. Energy Losses:
1. Radiative heat loss as a result of poor insulation
2. Loss of steam pressure at controlling valves and pipes
3. Loss of mechanical friction at bearings and other surfaces
4. Steam leakage
5. Nozzle friction losses
6. Blade friction losses
2. Failure of Turbine:
1. Turbine over speeding
2. At times when the condenser vacuum is low.
3. Failure of the lubricating system
4. High turbine vibrations

How Does Steam Turbine Capture Energy?

Steam contains a significant amount of thermal energy due to its high temperature and
pressure. Steam turbines are designed to capture and utilize this energy efficiently. Here's how
so much energy is captured from steam:

1. High Pressure and Temperature: Steam turbines capture energy from steam due to its high
pressure and temperature.
2. Expansion and Velocity: Steam expands in the turbine, increasing velocity and converting
internal energy into kinetic energy.
3. Blade Design: Optimized blade design efficiently extracts kinetic energy from the high-
velocity steam flow.
4. Impulse and Reaction Principles: Impulse turbines use high-velocity steam jets for energy
transfer, while reaction turbines utilize steam expansion and reaction with blades.
5. Multiple Stages: Steam passes through multiple stages, allowing sequential extraction of
energy for improved efficiency.
6. Condensation and Reheating: Condensing steam releases additional heat energy, while
reheating maintains high energy levels, both enhancing overall efficiency.

2.10 Applications of Steam Turbines

1) Gas turbines have replaced steam turbines on fast ships and diesel engines on conventional
ships since the 1980s, except nuclear-powered ships and submarines and LNG carriers. Some
auxiliary ships are still propelled by steam.

2) Currently, the Indian Navy operates the INS Vikramaditya, a modified aircraft carrier of the
Kiev class, as well as three Brahmaputra-class frigates with modern steam turbines.

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3) The steam turbine's original function was to provide useful electrical power, though it was
later used for various purposes, especially naval propulsion. Consequently, steam turbines are
being utilised as steam turbine generators.

4) Modern steam turbines are frequently used in the field of renewable energy. Power plants,
district heating, biomass, waste-to-energy, saltwater desalination, and solar heat all fall under
this category.

5) Modern steam turbine power plants that use fossil fuels will continue to provide a link to a
sustainable future. They serve as a connecting factor to renewable energy sources, which will
eventually supply sustainable power and are growing.

6) Recent steam turbine power plants combine a combined cycle power plant with a modern
steam turbine to convert energy with an efficiency of greater than 60%. An illustration of this
is shown in the animation below.

Fig. 7: Working of Steam Turbine

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 CONSTRUCTION OF STEAM TURBINES
The design of steam turbine components is a complex task as it involves a three-
dimensional design of its parts. Numerous factors are to be considered while designing like
heat, pressure, impulsive force, sensitivity, stress, strain, vibrations, number of rotations,
efficiency, etc. Considering the design part there are various components of steam turbines like
rotor, shaft, blades, casing, bearings, valves, nozzle, seals, trip system, governor system, casing
etc.

3.1 Foundation

Turbine foundations are built upfront a structural foundation in the hull to provide a
rigid supporting base. All turbines are subjected to varying degrees of temperature-from that
existing during a secured condition to existing, during full power operation. Therefore, means
are provided to allow for expansion and contraction.

At the forward end of the turbine, there are various ways to give: treed freedom of movement.
Elongated bolt holes or grooved sliding seats are used so that the forward end of the turbine
can move fore and aft as either expansion or contraction. The forward end of the turbine may
also be mounted with a flexible I-beam that will flex either for or aft.

3.2 Casing or Cylinders

A casing is essentially a pressure vessel which must be capable of withstanding the

maximum working pressure and temperature that can be produced within it. The cylinder is
supported at each end. The cylinder has to be extremely stiff in a longitudinal direction in order
to prevent bending and to allow accurate clearances to be maintained between the fired and
moving parts of the turbine. This determines the length between hearing centres which in turn
determines the number of stages which can be accommodated within the cylinder.

The working pressure aspects demand thicker and thicker easing and the temperature aspects
demand thicker and thinner casings Design developments took place to take care of both
pressure and temperature considerations and resulted in the following three types of casing
design.

 Single shell casing

 Multiple (double) shell casing
 Barrel type casing

SINGLE SHELL CASING:

Earlier design turbines including the 210M BI II varieties are of single shell split casing
for 1-1 1* cylinders. In this the easing thickness would be of the order of about 20cms for the
210MW turbine which will make the flange to about 40cms and the jointing bolts to about
23cms site. This poses several problems during machine slats ups and load changes.

18
MULTI SHELL CASING:

With the rise of steam conditions therefore single shell casing are of no more use for
high Pressure (HP) and Intermediate pressure (IP) casings. By using a double shell easing. The
casing thickness has been reduced to germ and blot size to 11 CMS. In 210 MW turbine H.P
cylinder

In turbines where steam temperature is very high. The HP cylinder is generally of the double
shell design. The inner shell carries the stationary Haling and diaphragms and is subject to full
steam pressure, whilst the space between the two shells subjected to the exhaust steam pressure
of the particular HP cylinder. The advantage of this arrangement is that each shell need only
be designed for a relatively small pressure difference. This permits reduced shell thickness and
allows quicker warming up without undue stress when starting up. Special expansion joints are
provided for the main stream inlet pipes to pass through the outer shell and connect on to the
inner shell.

210MW Turbines of soviet design have single casing type HP cylinders, while 210MW
BHEL/KWU turbines have barrel type tor HP cylinder.

BARREL TYPE CASING:

The barrel type of cylinder construction ensures symmetry of the wall thickness around
the axis of rotation and hence the wall thickness itself is relatively less than that used in other
type of constructions. Barrel design has also been used successfully for other turbo machine at
high pressure Pump. Because of its rotational symmetry, the barrel type casing also remains
Constant in shape and leak proof during quick changes in temperature (e.g., on start-up and
shutdown on load change and under high pressure).

HP TURBINE CASING

19
  Outer casing: a barrel-type without axial or radial flange.
 Barrel-type casing suitable for quick start up and loading.
 The inner casing — cylindrical, axially split
 The inner casing is attached in the horizontal and vertical planes in the barrel casing so
that it can freely expand radially in all directions and axially from a fixed point (HP-inlet
side).

IP TURBINE CASING

 The casing of the IP turbine is split horizontally and is of double-shell construction.

 Both are axially split and a double flow Inner casing is supported in the outer casing and
carries the guide blades.
 Provides opposed double flow in the two blade sections and compensates axial thrust.
 Steam after reheating enters the inner casing from Top & Bottom.

LP TURBINE CASING

 The LP turbine casing consists of a double flow unit and has a triple shell welded casing.
 The shells are axially split and of rigid welded construction,
 The inner shell taking the first rows of guide blades, is attached kinematically in the
middle shell.
 Independent of the outer shell, the middle shell, is supported at four points on longitudinal
beams.
 Steam admitted to the LP turbine from the IP turbine flows into the inner casing from both
side
20
3.3 ANCHOR POINTS

Taking care of thermal expansions and contractions of the machine during thermal
cycling.

The fixed points of the turbine are as follows:

 The bearing housing between the IP and LP turbines.

 The rear bearing housing of the IP turbine,
 The longitudinal beam of the I.P turbine,
 The thrust bearing in rear bearing casing of H.P turbine.

3.4 ROTORS

There are two types of turbine rotor used in large turbines which have Impulse type blading:

a) The built-up rotor also called disc rotor consisting of a forged steel shaft on which separate
forged steel discs are shrunk and keyed

b) The integral rotor in which the wheels and shaft are formed from one solid forging

The built-up rotor made up of a number of separately forged discs or wheels and hubs, of these
wheels are shrunk and keyed on to the central shaft. The outer rims of the wheels have suitable
grooves machine to allow for fixing the blades. File shaft is sometimes stepped so that wheel
hubs can be threaded along to their correct positions. Suitable clearances are left between the
hubs to allow for expansion axially along the line of the shaft.

21
Integral rotors as said before have discs and shaft machined from one solid forging, the whole
rotor being one complete piece of metal. This result in a rigid construction and troubles due to
lose wheels of the shrunk on type are eliminated Grooves are machined in the wheel rims to
take the necessary blading. These are also called solid forged rotors

The built-up rotor tends to be the cheaper of the two since he discs and shaft relatively easy to
forge and inspect for flaws and also the matching of these components can be carried out
concurrently. On the other hand, integral rotors are expensive and difficult to forge and there
is a high incidence of rejects and there is also a large amount of machinery time and waste
material involved.

In spite of the expenses involved, the advantages of integral rotors are such thin they are
invariably used for the high-pressure rotors on high temperature plant: on reheat machines in
particular they are often used for intermediate pressure and low, pressure rotors as well. This
is because of the difficulty of ensuring that the shrunk discs on intermediate and low-pressure
rotors cannot become loose, particularly at the ring high temperature end during start up when
the shaft may be relatively cool and the discs are hot.

Another source of trouble under conditions at high temperature and stress is the phenomenon
of creep which could also cause the shrink-lit to disappear after a large number of running
hours. With regard to low pressure rotors, the main problem is one of centrifugal 714 stress,
the last row wheels on the standard 500MW turbine are the largest capable of operating at 3000
rev/min the blades are 900mm in length and are mounted on the discs so as to have a mean
diameter of 2.5m. The overall diameter is therefore is 3.45m.

On large turbines using 50percent reaction, four types of rotors are used:

 The hallow drum rotor which promotes even temperature distribution because it is
designed with the thickness of material as casing. In figure illustrates the construction
of the hollow drum rotor.
 The solid drum rotor suitable for cylinders where there are lower temperatures but large
diameters, as in intermediate pressure cylinders without reheat.
 The built-up rotor previously described.
 Welded rotors which are built up from a number of discs and two shaft ends. These are
joined together by welding at the circumferences and because there are no central holes
in the discs the whole structure has considerable strength. Small holes are drilled in the
discs to allow steam to enter inside the rotor body to give uniform heating when coming
on load Grooves are machined in the discs to carry the blades and shown in the figure
this type of rotor construction.

 HP ROTOR:
 The HP rotor is machined from a single Cr-Mo-V steel forging with Integral discs.
 In all the moving wheels, balancing holes are machined to reduce the pressure difference
across them, which results in reduction of axial thrust.
 First stage has integral shrouds while other rows have shrouding's, riveted to the blades
are periphery.

22
 IP ROTOR:
 The IP rotor has seven discs integrally forged with rotor while last four discs are shrunk
fit.
 The shaft is made of high creep resisting Cr-Mo-V steel forging while the shrunk fit disc
is machined from high strength nickel steel forgings.
 Except the last two wheels, all other wheels have shrouding riveted at the tip of the blades.
To adjust the frequency of the moving blades, lashing wires have been provided in some
stages.

 LP ROTOR:
 The LP rotor consists of shrunk fit discs a shaft.
 The shaft is a forging of Cr-Mo-V steel while the discs are of high strength nickel steel
forgings.
 Blades are secured to the respective discs by riveted fork root fastening.

23
  In all the stages lashing wires are providing to adjust the frequency of blades. In the last
two rows satellite strips are provided at the leading edges of the blades to protect them
against wet steam erosion.

3.5 BLADES

 Most costly element of turbine

 Blades fixed in stationary part are called guide blades/nozzles and those fitted in moving
part are called rotating/working blades.
 Blades have three main parts
1) Aerofoil: Working part
2) Root: Portion of blade which is fixed with rotor or casing
3) Shrouds: To prevent steam leakage & to guide steam to next set of moving blades.

TYPES OF BLADES:

Most turbines use action type blading through the machine. Some designs have impulse
in the HP an IP cylinders and reaction in the LP cylinder but use of impulse or reaction cannot
always be clearly defined because both principles may be combined in the same blade,

For example, large LP blades are generally of twisted and tapered design. These blades produce
varying conditions of impulse or reaction between root and top and are called vortex blades.
The object of this design is to prevent uneven streamflow caused by centrifugal forces forcing
the steam towards blade tips. This is done by changing the throat opening from root to tip, a
915mm blade with blade with zero reaction at the root has approximately 70 per cent reaction
at the tip. Also, the inlet angle of the blade alters along its length giving smooth and efficient
steam entry

24
 Fig. Types of Blades

A) IMPULSE TYPE MOVING BLADES:

Impulse type moving blades (for MP turbine) are machined from solid bar aid the roots
and spacers formed with the blade. Tangs are told at the tips of the blades so that when fitted
in position in the wheel. Shrouding can be attached.

The shrouding is made up from sections of metal strip punched with holes to correspond with
the tangs. As there is no pressure drop across the moving blade. The sealing arrangements are
not of such great importance, as in the reaction type.

The shrouding on the impulse blading helps to guide the steam through the moving blades.
Allow lug larger radial clearance as well as strengthen the assembly

B) IMPULSE TYPE FIXED BLADING:

The fixed binding in an impulse turbine takes the form of nozzles mourned in
diaphragms. The diaphragm is made in two halves, one half being fixed to the upper half of the
cylinder and the other half diaphragm to the lower half cylinder. The diaphragms are located
in the cylinder casings by means of keys so that when expansion occurs fouling of the shaft
seals is avoided. Special carrier rings are generally used to support the diaphragms in HP
cylinder.

Because of the steam pressure difference on each side of the diaphragm seals are provided at
the bore where they shall pass through the diaphragm to prevent steam leakage alone the shaft.

C) REACTION TYPE BLADES:

25
 In reaction blading pressure drop occurs across both the fixed and moving blades. So,
very effective seal between fixed and moving binding is essential to prevent steam leakage
which would make the turbine inefficient. The leakage steamy controlled by axial clearance is
shown in figure. This type ‹ sealing is called tightening. Following are the details of reaction
type blading the HP turbine of 210 MW set.

D) MOVING AND STATIONARY BLADES

The HP turbine blading consists of several drum stages. All stages are reaction stages
with 50 percent. The stationary and moving blades of the front stages are provided with T-roots
which also determined the distance between the blades. Their cover plates are machined
integral with the blades and provide a continuous shroud after insertion. The moving stationary
blades are inserted into appropriately shaped grooves in the shaft or inner casing and are bottom
caulked with caulking material.

The insertion slot in the shaft is closed by a locking blade which is fixed either by taper pins or
grub screws. Special end blades which lock with the horizontal joint are used at the horizontal
joints of the inner casing, Grub Screws which are inserted km the joint

Fig. Blade Terminology

3.6 SEALING SYSTEM

 The function of these shaft seals is to seal the interior of the casing from atmosphere at
the end of the shaft on the admission and exhaust sides.
 The sealing between the rotating and stationary parts of the turbine is achieved by means
of seal strips caulked into seal rings of the casing and into the rotor.
 HP turbine front shaft seal is of labyrinth type while rear shaft seal is see through type.

26
  IP turbine front shaft seal is of labyrinth type due to low relative expansion while rear
shaft seal is see through type due to greater relative expansion.
 LP turbine front & rear shaft seal is of see through type due to greater relative expansion
on both sides.

LABYRINTH SEAL

 A type of mechanical seal that provides a tortuous path to help prevent leakage.
 Seal strips are caulked alternatively into the shaft and into the spring supported segmented
rings in the casing forming a labyrinth.
 The pressure gradient across the seals is reduced by conversion of
 Pressure energy into velocity energy which is then dissipated as turbulence as steam
passes through numerous compartments according to the labyrinth principle.

3.7 BEARINGS

Bearings are usually forced lubricated and have provision for admission of Jacking oil.

FRONT BEARING PEDESTAL:

The Front Bearing Pedestal is located at the turbine side end of the turbine generator
unit. Its function is to support the turbine casing and bear the turbine rotor.

HP TURBINE REAR BEARING PEDESTAL:

The Bearing pedestal is located between the HP and IP turbine. Its function is to support
the turbine casing and bear the HP IP rotor,

COMBINED JOURNAL AND THRUST BEARING.

 The magnitude and direction of axial thrust of the turbine depends on the load condition.
 The Journal bearing is elliptical sleeve bearing.
 The bearing liners are provided with a machined Babbitt face,
 Located at each end of bearing shell, babbitted thrust bad forms 2 annular surfaces.

27
  These collars and thrust pads permit equal loading of thrust bearing,
 Thrust pads are of tilting type.
 These collars and thrust pads permit equal loading of thrust bearing,
 Thrust pads are of tilting type.
 Metal temperature of the journal bearing and thrust pads is monitored by the
thermocouples.

IP REAR BEARING PEDESTAL

The bearing pedestal is located between the HP and IP turbines, its function is to support
the turbine casing and bear the HP and IP turbine rotors.

JOURNAL BEARING

 The function of the journal bearing. Is to support the turbine rotor:

 The journal bearing. Consists of the upper & lower shells, bearing cap, Spherical block,
spherical support and key.
 The bearing shell are provided with a Babbitt face. Bearing is pivot mounted on the
spherical support to prevent the bending movement on the rotor.
 A cap which fits in to the corresponding groove in the bearing shell prevents vertical
movement of the bearing shell.
 The bearing shells are fixed laterally by key.
 Each key is held in position in the bearing pedestal by 2 lateral collars.

28
LP TURBINE REAR BEARING PEDESTAL:

The bearing pedestal is situated between the LP turbine and generator. Its function is to
bear the LP rotor

3.8 BARRING GEAR

 The primary function of barring gear is rotate the turbo generator rotors slowly and
continuously,
 During start up and shutdown periods when change in rotor temperature occurs, shaft
system is rotated by double row blade wheel which is driven by oil provided by AOP
 A manual barring gear is also provided with hydraulic gear with barring speed 210/240
rpm

Fig. Bearing Gear

3.9 VALVES

2 main stop valves and 2 control valves located symmetrically

The main steam is admitted through the main steam inlet passing first the main stop valves and
then the control valves. From the control valves the steam passes to the turbine casing, Turbine
is equipped with emergency stop valve to cut off steam supply with control valves regulating
steam supply.

 EMERGENCY STOP VALVE is actuated by servo motor controlled by protection

system.

29
  Control Valves are actuated by governing system through servo motors to regulate steam
supply

Fig. Emergency Stop Valve Fig. Control Valve

3.10 COUPLINGS

The need for couplings arises from the limiting length of shaft which it is possible to
forge in one piece and from the frequent need to use different materials for the various rotors,
in view of the various conditions of temperature and stress.

Couplings are essential devices for transmitting torque, but they may also have to allow relative
angular misalignment. Transmit axial thrust, and ensure location or allow relative axial
movement. They may be classified as flexible, semi-flexible, rigid coupling.

Type of coupling used may vary manufacturer to manufacturer. For example, the 8HEL/LMW
210MW units employs a rigid coupling to connect I IP and II turbine and a semi flexible one
for connecting 113 and LP turbine; whereas, both the couplings of 210MW JIHEL/KMW set
are of rigid type.

Following are the brief descriptions three types of couplings

A) FLEXIBLE COUPLING:

Flexible couplings are capable of absorbing small aments of angular misalignment as

well as axial movement. Double flexible couplings can also, accommodate eccentricity semi
flexible coupling will allow angular bending only

30
The claw coupling which may be single or double, is robust and slides easily when transmitting
light load on heavy load however friction causes it to become axially rigid.

The Bibby coupling is satisfactory up to medium sizes and provides, in addition to the other
features torsional.

The multitooth coupling transmits torque by internal and external gear teeth of involutes form
which arc curved to accommodate angular misalignment

All these couplings require continues lubrication, normally obtained from a jet of oil feeding
into the annul recess, from which it is led centrifugally to the coupling teeth through drilled
passage-ways.

B) SEMI FLEXIBLE COUPLING:

The semi-flexible type of coupling requires no lubrication and is normally interposed

between the turbine and generator. It consists of a hollow piece having one or more
convolutions

c) RIGID COUPLING:

On large turbines the high torque to be transmitted renders the use of flexible couplings
impracticable. Consequently 'rigid couplings are employed between the turbine cylinders so
that the turbine shaft behaves as one continuities rotor. A spigot locates the two hall couplings
mid numbered.

31
 AUXALIRIES OF STEAM TURBINES
In thermal power plants, auxiliary power systems allow the steam cycle to circulate
securely and return to its thermodynamic starting point. Without auxiliary power systems, the
steam- water cycle would suffer direct collapse or dangerous and unsustainable expansion

4.1 CONDENSATE EXTRACTION PUMPS

Condensate extraction pumps are normally multistage, vertical, centrifugal pumps.

They are generally required to operate on minimum net positive suction head (NPSI-1). They
operate on few inches of suction submergence.

A vent line connects the hot well, from where the condensate pumps take suction with the
condenser. This equalizes the vapour pressure of condenser and hot well. Number of stages in
the pump is determined by the discharge pressure required for the condensate cycle. In 210MW
unit. Three condensate pumps each having 50 percent capacity provided for pumping the
condensate to generator.

Condensate water also used for:

 Sealing of glands of valves operating under vacuum.

32
  Temperature control of LP bypass steam.
 Filling siphons of main ejectors and 15-meter siphon of drain expander actuating in forced
closing non-return of turbine steam extraction lines.
 Operation of group protection device for bypassing HP heaters.
 For cooling steam dumped through steam throw oil device.

4.2 AIR EXTRACTION SYSTEM

Air extraction system is needed to extract air and other non-condensable gases from the
condenser tor maintaining vacuum Amount of air to be extracted from condenser during start
up is quite large and the extraction should be done as rapidly as possible so as to allow the
turbine to be started.

Under normal operating conditions quantity of air to be extracted is lower. It consists air
leakage into the condenser via flanges and glands also of very little no condensable gases
present in steam. To guard again its excessive water vapour extraction along with air the space
beneath the extraction baffles has been provided with its own cooling tubes in order to
condenser as such water vapour as possible and thus preventing its removal from condenser,

4.3 AIR EJECTORS

The operating medium of the air ejector can be either high pressure as liquid. In thermal
power stations steam of low pressure and temperature (Approx 7.5 kg/cm2, 2500C) is used for
the air ejector.

Steam passed through a nozzle and the pressure enter converted into velocity energy. High
velocity fluid aspirates air and other non- condensable gases from the condenser and now into
a diffuser which re-converts the velocity energy into pressure energy mixture of steam and air
is exhausted, either directly to the coolers to recover the steam in the forty of condensate

A) STARTING EJECTOR

Starting ejector is recommended to be used for accelerating the initial pulling of vacuum during
this period starting ejector operates in parallel with the main ejector. When the vacuum in the
condenser reaches 150-200 in of column, the staring ejector is switched off it may be noted
that steam along with in of and other gases are exhausted to the atmosphere. Generally starting
Ocado is single stage and has high steam consumption.

B) MAIN EJECTOR

The main ejector with a standby unit is usually provided for normal operation. The main ejector
is a multi-stage type: the number of stages depends on the cooling water condition, Steam at
suitable pressure is passed through a converging-diverging the (it vile and the pressure energy
of steam is converted into velocity energy. This high I-velocity steam jet entrains air and non-
condensable gases and then enters a chi-fusel air where velocity energy is converted back into
pressure cut into Cite steam & air mixture 1744 is then cooled in the first stage shell by
condensate.
33
Steam is thus condensed, that in the operating system is partly recovered and the mixture
volume is reduced, allow in the second stage nozzle and its steam consumption to be reduced
in the second stage air cooler can be allowed by a third stage nozzle and its after cooler drains
are usually returned to the condenser via suitable loop, condensate as a cooling medium is taken
from the extraction pump discharge through recirculation arrangement to avoid overheating of
the ejector at low loads.

An air measuring device for measurement of discharge from the condenser may be regularly
fixed at the air exit of the ejector. It measures dry air discharge while the condenser and ejectors
are in operation.

4.4 VACUUM PUMP

An impeller is fitted in a cylindrical casing which is arranged off Centre to the shaft.
The working liquid forms 3 rotating ring which pulsates in the pockets between the blades as
the impeller revolves.

When the liquid moves outwards the gas is drawn through the intake ports in the port plates:
when move inwards the gas a compressed out through the discharge ports is the plates

4.5 CONDENSER

A condenser is defined as closed vessel in which exhaust steam from steam turbine in
condensed by cooling water and vacuums maintained. This results in an increase in work done
and efficiency of the steam power plant and use of condensate as feed water to the boiler.

Condenser improves the efficiency of the power plant by decreasing the exhaust pressure of
the steam below atmospheric pressure, as it lowers the exhaust temperature.

Condenser provides a source of pure feed water to the boiler and thus helps in reducing the
burden on the water softening plant to a great extent. Steam condenser is one of the mast
essential components of a thermal power plain.

The functions of condenser are:

 To provide lowest economic heat rejection temperature air the steam

 Saving on steam required per unit of electricity.
 To convert exhaust steam to water for reuse thus saving on feed water requirement
deceleration or make-up water introduced in the condenser.
 To form a convenient point for introducing make-up water

CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM CONDENSERS:

The condensers are mainly classified into four types:

 Mixing or jet type condenser,

34
  Non mixing type or surface condenser
 Non-conventional direct contact condenser.
 Evaporate condenser.

MIXING OR JET TYPE CONDENSER:

In mixing type condensers, the exhaust steam from prime mover and cooling water
come into direct contact with each other. The condensate coming out of the mixing type
condenser cannot be used as boiler feed water because it is not free from salts and pollutants.

These types of condensers are generally preferred where the good quality water is easily
available in ample quantity.

Fig. Jet Type Condenser Fig. Direct Contact Condenser

NON-CONVENTIONAL DIRECT CONTACT CONDENSER

This is a new concept in power industry where condensate is used to condense the
exhaust steam in the condenser. In this arrangement external condensate part of the condensate
coming out of condenser and the same is used again in the condenser in the form of spray and
the condenser is mixing type.

35
NON-MIXING TYPE OR SURFACE CONDENSER:

In non-mixing type of condensers, steam and cooling water do not come in direct
contact with each Alley. The cooling water passes through the number of tubes attached to
condenser shell and steam surrounds the tubes. These types of conducers are universally used
in all high-capacity modern steam power plants, as the condensate coming out from the
condenser used as feed for the boiler.

Fig. Surface Condenser

EVAPORATIVE CONDENSER:

The evaporation condensers are preferred where acute shortage of cooling water exists.
In this type of condensers water is sprayed through the nozzles over pipe carrying exhaust
steam and forms a thin film over it. The air is drawn over the surface of the coil with the help
of induce Fans

Fig. Evaporative Condenser

36
4.6 LP AND HP HEATERS

Regenerative system is provided to improve the thermal cycle efficiency by increasing

feed water temperature in regenerative feed water heating part of steam is bled (extracted) after
partial expansion in the turbine and is used to heat or the feed water going to steam
generator(boiler).

In this process the latent heat of liquefaction bled (extracted) steam is also utilized in heating
feed water. Which otherwise would have been dumped into the condenser. There by increasing
the cycle efficiency.

4.7 DEAERATOR

A steam generating boiler requires that the boiler feed water should be free of air and
other dissolved gases, particularly corrosive ones, in order to avoid corrosion of the metal.
Generally, power stations use a deaerator to provide lot- the removal or air and other dissolved
gases from the boiler feed water. A deaerator typically includes vertical domed Deaerator
section free of air and other dissolved gases, parocutem avoid corrosion of the metal. Generally,
power stations use a deaerator to provide lot- the removal or air and other dissolved gases from
the boiler feed water. A deaerator typically includes vertical domed Deaerator section mounted
on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel which boiler feed water storage tank

Fig. Deaerator

4.8 BOILER FEED PUMP

Boiler Feed Pump (BFP) is a multistage pump provided for pumping feed water to economizer.
The multistage pump consists of a number of impellers mounted on a driving shall in series.

37
The water is drawn into the eve of the first impeller at the suction end of the pump and due to
the rotation of the impeller and its shape & construction; water is thrown out at the rim.
Between the Impeller arc fixed diluter vanes which direct the water to the suction eye of the
next impeller.

After leaving the last impeller the water passes out through the pump discharge in multistage
pump the impellers are arranged on the shaft with the inlets all on the same direction.
Arrangement causes a thrust in the direction of the suction end of the pump when t the pump
is running. To balance out this thrust it is necessary to employ a balance valve at the delivery
end of the pump

Fig. Boiler Feed Pump

38
 BOILERS
5.1 INTRODUCTION

Steam is extensively used for various applications such as power production, industrial
processes, work interaction, heating etc. With the increasing use of steam in different
engineering systems the steam generation technology has also undergone various
developments starting from 100 B.C. when Hero of Alexandria invented a combined reaction
turbine and boiler.

Boiler, also called steam generator is the engineering device which generates steam at constant
pressure. It is a closed vessel, generally made of steel in which vaporization of water takes
place. Heat required for vaporization may be provided by the combustion of fuelling furnace,
electricity, nuclear reactor, hot exhaust gases, solar radiations etc.

Earlier boilers were closed vessels made from sheets of wrought iron which were lapped,
riveted and formed into shapes of simple sphere type or complex sections such as the one shown
in Figure. It is the Wagon boiler of Watt.

Fig. Wagon boiler of Watt

39
5.2 TYPES OF BOILERS

Boilers are of many types. Depending upon their features they can be classified

 Based upon the orientation/axis of the shell:

 According to the axis of shell boiler can be classified as vertical boiler and horizontal
boiler.
 Vertical boiler has its shell vertical.
 Horizontal boiler has its shell horizontal.
 Inclined boiler has its shell inclined.
 Based upon utility of boiler:
 Stationery boiler, such boilers are stationery and are extensively used in power plants,
industrial processes, heating etc.
 Portable boiler, such boilers are portable and are of small size. These can be of
Locomotive boiler, which are exclusively used in locomotives. Marine boiler, which
are used for marine applications.
 Based on type of firing employed:
 According to the nature of heat addition process boilers can be classified as,
 Externally fired boilers, in which heat addition is done externally i.e., furnace is outside
the boiler unit. Such as Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler etc.
 Internally fired boilers, in which heat addition is done internally i.e., Furnace is within
the boiler unit. Such as Cochran boiler, Babcock Wilcox boiler etc.
 Based upon the tube content:
 Based on the fluid inside the tubes, boilers can be,
 Fire tube boilers, such boilers have the hot gases inside the tube and water is outside
surrounding them. Examples for these boilers are, Cornish boiler, Cochran boiler,
Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler etc.
 *Water tube boilers, such boilers have water flowing inside the tubes and hot gases
surround them. Examples for such boilers are Babcock-Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler,
La-Mont boiler, Benson boiler etc.
 Based on type of fuel used:
 Solid fuel fired boilers, such as coal fired boilers etc.
 Liquid fuel fired boilers, such as oil-fired boilers etc.
 Gas fired boilers, such as natural gas fired boilers etc.
 Based on circulation:
 According to the flow of water and steam within the boiler circuit the boilers may be
of following types,
 Natural circulation boilers, in which the circulation of water/steam is caused by the
density difference which is due to the temperature variation.
 Forced circulation boilers, in which the circulation of water/steam is caused by pump
i.e., externally, assisted circulation
 Based on extent of firing:
 Fired boilers, in which heat is provided by fuel firing.
 Unfired boilers, in which heat is provided by some other source except fuel firing such
as hot flue gases etc.
 Supplementary fired boilers, in which a portion of heat is provided by fuel firing and
remaining by some other source

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FIRE TUBE BOILERS

Fire tube boilers are those boilers in which hot gases (combustion products) flow inside
the tubes and water surrounds them. Water extracts heat for its phase transformation from the
hot gases flowing inside the tubes, thus heat is indirectly transferred from hot gas to water
through a metal interface.

Fig. Fire Tube Boiler

WATER TUBE BOILERS

Water tube boilers are extensively used for steam generation. With the passage of time
and coming up of another types of boilers the fire tube boilers have lost their charm to some
extent due to limitations in terms of steam pressure. Fire tube boilers are used for applications
having small steam requirement. Different types of fire tube boilers have been discussed ahead

Water tube boilers are those boilers in which water flows inside the tubes and hot gases
surround them. This type of boilers came up as a solution to the problem of explosion faced in
fire tube boilers when the pressure and steam generation capacity were increased. In such
boilers the shell behaved as heated pressure vessel subjected to internal pressure which setup
tensile stresses (hoop stress) in walls.

Water tube boilers may be further classified based on type of tubes employed.

1. Straight water tube boilers

2. Bent water tube boilers.

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Straight water tube boilers are those in which tubes carrying water are straight from one end to
the other end. At the two ends headers are provided.

Generally, water comes down from drum into down header and after passing through tubes get
heated and evaporated to steam which is carried back to drum through up-comer header or
riser. Circulation of water is caused by the density difference as density of feed water is more
than density of hot water/wet/dry steam due to lower temperature of feed water.

Bent water tube boilers are those in which bent tubes are employed for carrying water. Bent
water tubes are advantageous over straight water tubes in many respects. Bent tubes offer better
access into boiler and ease of inspection and maintenance. Also, tube arrangement can be
modified so as to maximize heating surface and exposure of tubes to hot gases.

Circulation is better in case of bent tube boilers as compared to straight tube, since the
orientation of tubes in case of former is general at inclination from vertical while for later it is
horizontal Stirling boiler is one such boiler. In water tube boilers the heat distribution generally
occurs amongst economizer tubes, evaporator tubes, super heater tubes. Hottest gases are
designed to come in contact with super heater tubes. The evaporator tubes are in between super
heater and economizer tubes.

5.3 BOILER PRESSURE PARTS

Boiler pressure parts means which are being operated at a pressure greater than
1kg/cm2. They absorb heat from the fuel in the form of radiation and convection in order to
heat the fluid circulating inside the tubes. They have to withstand the high temperatures in the
furnace. So, the pressure parts are made with special type of materials

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The pressure parts are

1. Boiler Drum
2. Economizer
3. Water Drum
4. Super Heater
5. Reheater
6. Steam Cooled pipes
7. Down comers
8. Ring headers
9. Raiser tubes
10. Radiant roof tubes etc.

5.4 PRINCIPLE OF COMBUSTION

The primary function of oil and coal burning systems in the process of steam generation
is to provide controlled efficient conversation of the chemical energy of the fuel into heat
energy, which is then transferred to the heat absorbing surfaces of the steam generator.

COMPOSION OF AIR:

The supply of oxygen for combustion is obtained from air. This is as important as the
supply of fuel.

The average composition of air is

79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by volume
77% nitrogen and 23% oxygen by volume

Nitrogen does not burn but passes through the combustion chamber to chimney unchanged
excepting its temperature.

IGNITION:

Fuel must be ignited before it can burn. Raising the temperature of the fuel to its ignition
temperature brings about combustion. This temperature varies with different fuels.

EXCESS AIR:

The amount of air required to burn any fuel can be calculated if the amount of the
elements present in the fuel are known. This excess air (Secondary Air) is supplied to ensure
complete combustion of fuel.

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The following factors plays important role in efficient combustion are

1. Time
2. Temperature
3. Turbulence

Maximum combustion efficiency depends on

1. Design of the boiler

2. Fuel used

Skill in obtaining combustion with the minimum amount of excess air: Thermal efficiency of
a boiler is measured by the amount of heat transferred to the boiler by each kg of fuel used and
is expressed as a percentage of the total heat energy in one kg of fuel.

WATER CIRCULATION SYSTEM

The flow of water and steam within the circuit is called circulation. Adequate
circulation must be provided to carry away the heat from the furnace. If circulation is caused
by density difference, the boiler is said to have natural circulation.

Fig. Natural Circulation Water Tube Boiler

If it is caused by a pump, it had forced or controlled circulation. Down comers located outside
the furnace, and the riser is inside it.

Nearly saturated water falls by gravity from the drum through the down comer into the bottom
header. From the header water flows up along the riser where it partially boils with the
formation of the bubbles and then back into the steam drum.
44
The density of steam-water mixture in the riser is less than that of saturated water in the
downcomer, and as a result of this density difference a circulation current is set up within the
downcomer-riser circuit. The feed water from the economizer enters the drum and saturated
steam is taken out of the drum to the superheater.

Higher is the density difference, more will be the pressure head available for natural circulation.
However, the density differential decreases as pressure increases. It is observed in the figure
that the difference in specific volume or difference in density (pf-pg.) of saturated liquid and
saturated vapour decreases with increase in pressure. At the critical pressure, they can be no
water circulation.

45
Risers Installed all around the four walls of the furnace act as a cooling tube or a water wall
and carry away the heat from the furnace at the same rate at which heat is released in it by the
burning of the fuel, For this reason, adequate circulation must be provided in the circuit.

If the circulation is not adequate, the rate at which heat is carried away will be less than the rate
of heat release, and the difference will be stored in the metal of the riser tubes leading to their
overheating and ultimately rupturing when the tube temperature exceeds the melting point of
the metal.

If the pressure of the steam exceeds 180 bar, the density difference becomes so small that
natural circulation cannot be relied upon and then forced circulation is used where a pump
circulates saturated water through all the risers around the furnace walls

There is term called "Circulation ratio used in this connection, it is defined as

Circulation ratio =Flow rate of saturated water in downcomers\Flow rate of Steam

released from the drum

The circulation ratio in a natural circular boiler varies from one riser tube to another.

The circulation in any tube should not be less than 6. I.e. Too much steaming is not desired in
a riser tube and circulation ratio needs to be maintained above 6. From heat transfer
consideration a wetted surface is always desired and nucleate boiling should always persist.

Bubbles originate on the heated surface, if there is high rate of heat transfer to the riser, there
will be too much bubble formation with the result that the bubbles may coalesce and first form
an unstable vapour film which continually collapses and reforms. With a still higher heat
transfer, the vapour film may be stable.

46
Since a vapour film has much lower thermal conductivity than a liquid film, it will offer a large
thermal resistance, almost blanketing the surface where it forms, as a result of which heat
absorbed and carried away will be much less than the heat transferred to the wall. The
difference will be stored in the metal of the tube with the increase in its internal energy.

Consequently, the temperature of the meatal may exceed the melting and the tube may rupture
allowing tube leakage.

STEAM DRUM

Riser's discharge into the drum a mixture of water, steam, foam and sludge. Steam must
be separated from the mixture before it leaves the drum. Any moisture carried with steam to
the superheater tubes contains dissolved salts, In the superheater, water evaporates and the salts
remain deposited on the inside surface of the tubes to form a scale, which is difficult to remove,
this scale reduces the rate of heat absorption, ultimately leading to the failure of the superheater
tubes by overheating and rupture.

The superheater tubes are exposed to the highest steam pressure and temperature on the inside
and the maximum gas temperature on the outside. They are made of the costliest material.
Some of the Impurities in the steam may be vaporized silica, which may cause turbine blade
deposits.

No vapour bubble should flow along with saturated water from the drum to the downcomers.
This will reduce the density difference and pressure head for natural circulation. The bubbles
tending to flow to upward may also impends the flow in the down comer and thus effect
circulation. The drum has to secure moisture-free steam going to superheater and bubble-free
water going to the downcomes.

Water is adequately treated prior to feeding it to the boiler as make-up. Still, it has some
impurities in the form of total dissolved solids (TDS), these solids are expressed in ppm. One
ppm has one part impurity in million parts of water, by mass.

47
Saturated water from the economizer is continuously entering the drum. Steam is separated in
the drum and is taken to the super heater. So, the solid content of water (TDS) in the drum goes
on increasing. To maintain a certain pem in the drum, blowdown is necessary. Blowdown may
be intermittent or continuous. In utility boilers, continuous blowdown is preferred for proper
control of solid concentration and for energy recovery from it, if possible.

Fig. (A) Gravity Separation (B) Drum Internals

Solids precipitate at the drum bottom and are removed along with some hot pressurized water
by opening the blowdown valve at the drum bottom. Trisodium phosphate or tannin is injected
into the drum periodically in suitable doses to help precipitate salts at the drum bottom.

48
BOILER MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES

Boiler mountings and accessories have been defined earlier and shown on the different boilers.

Mountings are used for safe operation of boiler. Different mountings are

i. Water level indicator

ii. Safety valves
iii. High steam and low water safety valves
iv. Fusible plug
v. Pressure gauge
vi. Stop valve
vii. Feed check valve
viii. Blow off cock
ix. Manhole and mud box

Accessories are used for increasing efficiency of the boiler. Various boiler accessories are:

1) Super heater 2) Economizer

3) Air Preheater 4) Feed Pump

WATER LEVEL INDICATOR:

It is used for knowing the level of water in boiler as water level inside boiler should not
go below a certain limit. It has two tubes one is front glass tube while other is metal tube. Water
level is seen through glass tube which is made strong enough to withstand high steam pressure
and temperature.

49
Two control cocks are provided for regulating steam and water passage from boiler to glass
tube.

For blow off purpose a blowing cock is also provided as shown. In case of breakage of glass
tube, the possibility of accident is prevented by providing two balls. As glass tube breaks the
rush of water and steam carries the two balls with it and closes the openings far glass tube, thus
water and steam flowing out can be prevented. Numbers of other types of water level indicators
are also available.

SAFETY VALVE:

Its function is to prevent the steam pressure from exceeding a limiting maximum
pressure value.

Safety valve should operate automatically by releasing excess steam and bring pressure down
within safe limits. These are of different types such as 'dead weight safety valve', lever safety
valve' 'spring loaded safety valve' etc.

It has a large vertical pipe on the top of which a valve seat is fixed. Valve rests upon this valve
seat. A weight carrier is hung on the top of valve upon which cast iron rings enclosed in cast
iron cover are placed in weight carrier as dead weight.

When the pressure of steam exceeds the total weight of valve, it is lifted and falls back as steam
pressure gets reduced

50
It has a large vertical pipe on the top of which a valve seat is fixed. Valve rests upon this valve
seat. A weight carrier is hung on the top of valve upon which cast iron rings enclosed in cast
iron cover are placed in weight carrier as dead weight. When the pressure of steam exceeds the
total weight of valve, it is lifted and falls back as steam pressure gets reduced

FUSIBLE PLUG:

It is a safety device used for preventing the level of water from going down below a
critical point and thus avoid overheating. Fusible plug is mounted at crown plate of combustion
chamber.

Fusible plug has gun metal body and a copper plug put with fusible metal at interface of copper
plug and gun metal body. As water level goes down the heat available from furnace could not
be completely utilized for steam formation and so the overheating may cause melting of fusible
metal.

Fusible metal is a low melting point metal. Thus, upon melting of lining the copper plug falls
down and water falls from this opening into furnace and thus quenches fire.

Fig. FUSIBLE PLUG

PRESSURE GAUGE:

It is mounted at front top. Generally, Bourdon type pressure gauge are being used for
pressure measurement. Pressure is continuously monitored so as to avoid occurrence of over
shooting of boiler pressure.

51
Although safety devices to protect boiler against pressure rising beyond a limit are provided
but pressure gauges are also used for monitoring pressure.

STOP VALVE:

It regulates the flow of steam from the boiler as shown in Fig below. This is generally
mounted on highest part of boiler shell and performs function of regulating the flow of steam
from boiler. Stop valve generally has main body of cast steel, valve, valve seat and nut etc. are
of brass. Stop valve can be easily operated by rotating the hand wheel which causes lifting or
lowering of spindle, thus causing opening or closing of valve

Fig. Stop Valve

52
FEED CHECK VALVE:

It is a non-return valve at the end of delivery pipe from feed water pump and is placed
on boiler shell slightly below normal water level. It has a check valve whose opening and
closing are regulated by the position of spindle. By hand wheel rotation the position of spindle
can be altered suitably.

Feed check valve permits unidirectional flow of water from feed pump to be boiler shell.

Under normal running the pressure of feed water coming from pump is more than pressure
inside the boiler and so the feed water continues to enter the shell. While during the nonworking
of feed pump the pressure in boiler shell is more and so the check valve gets closed.

Fig. Feed Check Valve

BLOW OFF COCK:

It is used for periodical cleaning by discharging the water and sediments from bottom
of boiler. Figure below shows the blow off cock. Blow offcock is fitted to the bottom of boiler
shell. Blow off cock has a plug of conical type put into the mating casing. Plug position is
altered for opening and closing the flow. Plug has rectangular opening which when comes in
line with inlet and outlet passage then blow off cock is open and when opening is not in line
then cock is closed. Plug is rotated by spindle.

53
Blow off cock also helps in regulating the salt concentration as frequent draining helps in
throwing out the salt deposited over period of time. Opening blow off cock removes deposited
sediments in boiler.

Fig. Blow off Cock

SUPERHEATER:

Its purpose is to super heat steam and is a type of heat exchanger in which steam flows
inside tubes and hot gases surround it. Figure 1.18 shows the smooth tube hairpin type super
heater (Cudgen's superheater) and convective and radiant superheater.

In hair pin superheater the steam generated is passed through Isolating valve to U- shaped steel
tubes.

Superheated steam leaves superheater through tube connected to steam stop valve. Hot gases
from fire tube are diverted over superheater tubes by damper as shown. These hot gases upon
passing over steel tubes leave boiler through bottom flue. The convective and radiant
superheater as shown has two set of tubes picking up heat through convection and radiation.

ECONOMIZER:

It is also a heat recovery device in which feed water is heated from heat available with
exhaust gases. Thus, hot feed water available from economizer lowers the fuel requirement in
combustion. It is also a type of heat exchanger having exhaust gas and feed water as two fluids.
General arrangement in economizer is shown in Fig. 1.19.
54
 Fig. Economiser

Economizer also helps in removal of dissolved gases by preheating of water and thus minimizes
tendency of corrosion and pitting. Hotter feed water also reduces thermal strain in boiler parts.
Economizer is located in the boiler structure so as to expose the economizer surface to hot
gases. Its location varies with the boiler designs.

Typical economizer called green's economizer as shown in Fig. 1.19 has vertical pipes of cast
iron fitted with two headers at bottom and top respectively. Feed water passes through bottom
header, economizer tubes and then headed to boiler. Thus, economizer is simply a heat
exchanger where heat is transferred from hot flue gases to water inside the tubes through metal
Interface. Top header is also provided with a safety valve so as to avoid explosion due to
excessive pressure of water developing inside economizer tubas. Bottom heater is also provided
with a blow off valve so as to throw out the sediments deposited in feed water.

Economiser is also provided with scrapers fitted to clean pipes from the deposition of soot
carried by the flue gases. Continuous scrapping s always desired so as to maximize heat transfer
rate, Economizer also has a bypass provided so that flue gases can be diverted when economizer
is out of full or part operation due to failure or cleaning purpose or feed water temperature
control

AIR PRE-HEATER:

It is the last heat exchanger in the boiler flue gas circuit.

To achieve boiler's maximum efficiency, Maximum useful heat must be removed from the gas
before it leaves through the chimney. It is done by APH, However, certain minimum
temperature (140-C) has to be maintained in the gas to prevent the cold end corrosion
Boiler's efficiency is Increased 10% by using the APH

55
 RECUPERATIVE AIR PRE-HEATERS:
 In recuperative type of air preheaters, the two fluids (air and flue gases) are separated by
neat transfer surface, one fluid (air) flowing constantly on one side and other fluid (flue
gases) on other side of the surface.
 Recuperative type of air preheater is further classified into tubular type and plate type.

 TUBULAR AIR PRE-HEATER:

 It consists of large number of tubes rolled into sheets. The flue gases flow through tubes
and air is passed over the outer surface of tubes in a direction apposite to that of flue gases
flow.
 The heat transfer takes place from flue gases to air to be supplied to the furnace. The
horizontal baffles are provided to increase contact which will help for high heat transfer.
A soot hopper is lifted to the bottom of casing to collect soot.

Fig. Tubular Air Pre-Heater

56
 PLATE TYPE AIR PRE-HEATER:
 It consists of rectangular flat plates spaced between from 1.25cm to 1.25cm apart formed
alternative flue gases and air passages
 This type of air pre-heater is more expensive for installation and maintenance compared
to tubular type.

Fig. Plate type Air Pre-Heater

 REGENERATIVE AIR PREHEATERS

 Regenerative air preheaters have an energy storage medium called the matrix which is
alternatively exposed to the hot and cold fluids.

They are classified into

 Ljungstorm air preheater

 Rothemuhle air preheater

FEED PUMP:

Feed pump is used for sending water into boiler at the pressure at which steam
generation takes place. It is generally of three types I.e., centrifugal pump, reciprocating pump
and injectors. A reciprocating type feed pump is shown in Fig. below.

In boilers the pumps raise feed water pressure to the value mere than the highest operating
pressure of boiler. Pumps also have capability to deliver feed water in excess to the maximum
evaporation rate of boiler.

This excess capacity of feed pump is generally 15-20% of maximum continuous rating and is
required to meet one or more of following situations. Sometimes excessive steam demand may
occur.

57
 Fig. Reciprocating type Feed Pump

Since boilers are to be blown out frequently to remove depositions and salts, therefore excess
capacity is required.

Malfunctioning of boiler may cause carrying away of water with steam, thereby causing water
shortage in boiler.

Over a period of time pump capacity decreases and so excess pump capacity is desired.

58
 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, turbines and boilers play critical roles in various industries, particularly in power
generation and industrial processes. Turbines are devices that convert the energy of a moving
fluid, such as steam, gas, or water, into mechanical energy that can be used to generate
electricity or perform other types of work. Bailers, on the other hand, are vessels designed to
produce steam by heating water, which is then used to drive turbines or perform other heating
or power applications.

Turbines are commonly used in power plants, where they are driven by steam produced in
boilers. The high-pressure steam from the boiler enters the turbine, causing its blades to rotate,
which in turn drives a generator to produce electricity. Turbines can also be powered by other
fluids, such as gas or water, depending on the specific application. They are used in various
sectors, including thermal power plants, hydroelectric power plants, wind farms, and even
aircraft engines.

Boilers are essential for generating the necessary steam used in turbines. They provide a
controlled environment for heating water to its boiling point, creating high-pressure steam. The
steam produced can be used for electricity generation, heating systems, industrial processes, or
other applications where heat or steam is required. Boilers come in different types, such as fire-
tube boilers, water-tube boilers, each with its own advantages and applications.

Together, turbines and boilers form an interconnected system for efficient energy conversion.
The heat generated in boilers is utilized by turbines to produce mechanical energy or electricity.
This combined system is widely employed in power generation, helping to meet the ever-
increasing global energy demands. In conclusion, turbines and boilers are integral components
in energy production and industrial processes. Their ongoing advancements and integration
with renewable energy sources are essential for achieving a sustainable and efficient energy
future.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Woodruff, E. B., Lammers, H. B., & Lammers, T. F. (1998). Steam-plant operation
(Vol. 795). New York: McGraw-Hill.
http://www.kimmelsteam.com/docs/EconomyofSteamEngines-SteamPlantOperation-
Woodruff.pdf
2. Cengel, Y. A., Boles, M. A., & Kanoğlu, M. (2011). Thermodynamics: an
engineering approach (Vol. 5, p. 445). New York: McGraw-hill.
3. Jakfar, Amin, Misbakhul Fatah, and Ike Dayi Febriana. "Modifying Kaplan Turbines with
Variations in Draft Tube To Generate Electric Power." AEEJ: Journal of Automotive
Engineering and Vocational Education 4, no. 1 ( June 15, 2023): 17–28.
http://dx.doi.org/10.24036/aeej.v4i1.194.
4. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322932948_Development_of_High-
Powered_Steam_Turbines_by_OAO_NPO_Central_Research_and_Design_Institute_for_
Boilers_and_Turbines
5. https://www.steamforum.com/pictures/tbaux.pdf
6. https://testbook.com/mechanical-engineering/steam-turbines

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