UNIT –II

OSCILLOSCOPES
1 a) What are the Standard Specifications of CRO? [L2] [CO1] [4M]

A) Standard Specifications CRO:

Vertical Amplifier:

 Sensitivity: 5mv/ division -2ov/division

 Accuracy: +3
 Band width: DC-20MHz, for de coupling for 0.5HZ -20MHZ ac coupling
 Rise time: Better than 18 nano sec
 Input impedance: 1m𝛺/40pf
 max. i/p voltage: 400v (dc + ac Peak).

Horizontal Amplifier:

 Sensitivity: 100mv & 0.5v/Div.

 Band width: DC-2MHz (-3db)
 Rise time: Better than 18 nano sec
 Input impedance: 1m𝛺/50pf
 max. i/p voltage: 400v (dc + ac Peak).

Time Base:

Sweep Ranges: 0.1𝜇s/Div to 0.5s/div.

Accuracy: ±5%

Triggering:

Auto mode: Free running in the absence of a trigger signal. Triggers to the I/p signal automatically.

Level: Continuously adjustable on me +ve & -ve going slopes to trigger signal.

Source: Internal-External-Line.

Polarity: +ve (or) -ve

Input impedance: 1M𝛺/30pf.

1 b) Explain in detail the important features of CRT. [L2] [CO1] [8M]

A) CRT Features:

Electrostatic CRTs are available in a number of types & size to suit individual requirements.

The important features of these tubes are as follows

1.Size:

 Size refers to the screen diameter.

  CRTs for oscilloscopes are available in sizes of 1,2,3,5 & 7 inches.
 3 inches is most common from Portable instruments.

2. Phosphor:

 The screen is coated with a fluorescent material called Phosphor.

 This material determines the colour & Persistence of the trace, both of which are indicated by
the phosphor.
 The trace Colours in electrostatic CRTs for Oscilloscopes are Blue, Green & Blue Green,
which is used in TVs.

Blue white, Orange & Yellow are used from Radar.

 Persistence is express as short, long & medium.

 Medium Persistence trace are mostly used for general purpose application.
 Long Persistence trace are used for transistor.
 Short Persistence trace are used for Extremely high-speed phenomena

3. Operating Voltage:

 The CRT requires as heater voltage of 6.3 volts ac or dc at 600mA.

 Several dc voltages are listed below.

The voltages vary with the type of tube used.

1. Negative grid (control) voltage -14v-200v.

2. Positive anode 1 (focusing Anode) -100v-160v.
3. Positive anode 2 (Acceleration Anode) -600v-6000v.
4. Positive anode 3 (Acceleration Anode) – 200v-20,000v.

4. Deflecting Voltages:

 Either ac (or) dc voltage will deflect the beam.

 The deflection sensitivity of the tube is usually stated as the dc voltage required for each cm
of the deflection of spot on the screen.

5. Viewing screen:

 The viewing screen is the glass face plate, the inside wall of which is coated with phosphor.
 The viewing screen is a rectangular screen having graticules marked on it.
 The standard size used now a days is 8cmX10cm.
 Each centimetre in the graticules corresponds to one div.

The standard phosphor colour used now a days is blue.

2. Derive the Deflection of Sensitivity. [L3] [CO1][12M]
3.a) Describe the working principle of vertical amplifier using a neat sketch. [L2] [CO1] [6M]

A) Vertical Amplifier:

 The vertical Amplifier is the principal factor in degerming the sensitivity of an oscilloscope.
 The vertical Amplifier of a Laboratory quality oscilloscope frequency consist the two major
circuit blocks as show in the below figure 1, a Pre-Amplifier and the main vertical Amplifier
(or) main frame Amplifier.
 The Pre-Amplifier is sometimes a separate, interchangeable plug-in unit that can quickly and
easily be plugged into the mainframe of the oscilloscope.
 The vertical amplifier consists of several stages, with fixed overall sensitivity or gain
expressed in V/div. The advantage of fixed gain is that the amplifier can be more easily
designed to meet the requirements of stability and B.W. The vertical amplifier is kept within
its signal handling capability by proper selection of the input attenuator switch. The first
element of the pre-amplifier is the input stage, often consisting of a FET source follower
whose high input impedance isolates the amplifier from the attenuator.

Fig 1: Vertical Amplifier

 This FET input stage is followed by a BJT emitter follower, to match the medium impedance
of FET output with the low impedance input of the phase inverter. This phase inverter provides
two antiphase output signals which are required to operate the push-pull output amplifier. The
push-pull output stage delivers equal signal voltages of opposite polarity to the vertical plates
of the CRT.

3 b) With neat sketch, explain in detail about Horizontal amplifier. [L2] [CO2] [6M]

The horizontal amplifier in CRO deals only with the sweep frequency signals. Hence its band width
requirements are not critical as that of the vertical amplifier. The horizontal amplifier handles signals of
considerable amplitudes. However the gain of this amplifier must be large. The reason is the low deflection
sensitivity of the horizontal deflecting plates. The gain of this amplifier must be sufficient that it produces the
required sweep over the screen. The block diagram of the horizontal amplifier is shown below in figure 1.
 Fig 1: Horizontal Amplifier

The horizontal amplifier consists of an input signal amplifier which is a single ended amplifier. This
receives its input form the mode switch. The mode switch presents either the output of the internal sweep
generator, or the external horizontal input signal. The CRO can be used with external signal in X-Y mode
instead of the usual Y-t mode, in the external position of the mode switch. The output of the input signal
amplifier is given to a paraphase amplifier which drives the push pull output amplifier. The push pull output
amplifier presents the positive and negative going ramp voltages of the required amplitude to the two
deflecting plates. (Horizontal). This ensures simultaneous application of voltages to the deflecting plates.
Along with the sweep voltage an offset voltage also is presented to the input signal amplifier. This D.C offset
voltage positions the spot on the screen of the cathode ray tube.

4 a) Sketch the horizontal deflection systems and explain it’s working principle. [L2] [CO3] [6M]

Ans) Horizontal Deflection System:

The horizontal deflecting system (Fig 1) consists of a Time Base Generator and an output amplifier.

 The UJT is used to produce the sweep. When the power is fi rst applied, the UJT is off and the CT
charges exponentially through RT. The UJT emitter voltage VE rises towards VBB and when VE reaches
the peak voltage VP, as shown in Fig.

Fig 1: Horizontal Deflection System

 The emitter to base ‘1’ (B1) diode becomes forward biased and the UJT triggers ON. This provides a
low resistance discharge path and the capacitor discharges rapidly.
  The emitter voltage VE reaches the minimum value rapidly and the UJT goes OFF. The capacitor
recharges and the cycle repeats. To improve sweep linearity, two separate voltage supplies are used, a
low voltage supply for UJT and a high voltage supply for the RT CT circuit.
 RT is used for continuous control of frequency within a range and CT is varied or changed in steps for
range changing. They are sometimes called as timing resistor and timing capacitor respectively.
 The sync pulse enables the sweep frequency to be exactly equal to the input signal frequency, so that
the signal is locked on the screen and does not drift.

4 b) Sketch the Vertical deflection systems and explain it’s working principle. [L3] [CO3][6M]

The vertical deflecting system of a cathode ray oscilloscope has critical requirements. The functions and
requirements are listed below: The vertical deflecting system has to provide the following facilities :

1. Amplify and reproduce the input signal. The amplifier must have good fidelity That is it must amplify the
input signal within the limits of its bandwidth, without effecting the amplitude, frequency and phase.

2. It has to isolate the cathode ray tube from the input signal. That is it has to act as a buffer.

3. It must have provisions for the different modes of operation.

The functional block diagram of the vertical deflecting system of a general purpose oscilloscope is shown in
figure
The vertical deflecting system consists of the following elements:

1. Probe.
2. Selector for input signal.
3. Attenuator to adjust the gain of amplifier.
4. The vertical amplifier that amplifies the signal.

Fig 1: Block diagram of Vertical deflection system

1. The Probe:

It connects the vertical amplifier to the circuit in which the waveform is to be observed on CRO. There are
many types of probes. The general-purpose probe shown in the block diagram. This passive probe has a
resistor which acts as the attenuator for the signal. The capacitor is to act as the compensator. These two
components are used in the probe Tip of the probe connects the circuit. Ground connection is established
through a clip connector. The other end of the probe will be connected to the vertical input terminals of the
cathode ray oscilloscope using a BNC connector or the like.
2. Input Selector:

The input selector is nothing but a single pole three-way switch. Its pole is connected to the input terminals of
the vertical amplifier.
3.Input Attenuator in Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
The input attenuator consists of number of RC potential dividers controlled on the CRO front panel. This
control is done by the VOLTS/DIV selector. This selector will be calibrated in terms of the deflection factor
(V/div). The sequence of attenuation commonly used with the CROs is 1-2-5.

4.The Vertical Amplifier: The vertical amplifier has to amplify the signal it receives from attenuator.

5.a) Describe the working principle of a Sweep Trigger Pulse generator using a neat sketch.
[L2] [CO1][6M]

Ans) Sweep trigger Pulse:

 The continuous sweep is of limited use in displaying periodic signals of constant frequency and
amplitude.
 A triggered sweep can display such signals, and those of short duration, e.g. narrow pulses. In triggered
mode, the input signal is used to generate substantial pulses that trigger the sweep.
 As shown in Fig 1. resistance R3 and R4 form a voltage divider such that the voltage VD at the cathode
of the diode is below the peak voltage VP for UJT conduction.
 When the circuit is switched on, the UJT is in the non-conducting stage, and CT charges exponentially
through RT towards VBB until the diode becomes forward biased and conducts; the capacitor voltage
never reaches the peak voltage required for UJT conduction but is clamped at VD.
 If now a –ve pulse of suffi cient amplitude is applied to the base and the peak voltage Vp is
momentarily lowered, the UJT fi res. As a result, capacitor CT discharges rapidly through the UJT
until the maintaining voltage of the UJT is reached; at this point the UJT switches off and capacitor
CT charges towards VBB, until it is clamped again at VD. Figure shows the output waveform.

Fig 1: Sweep Trigger Pulse generator

5 b) Draw the block diagram of Delay line circuit and explain its working. [L2] [CO1] [6M]

Ans)

Figure indicates the amplitude of the signal with respect to time and the relative position of the sweep generator
output signal.

The diagram shows that when the delay line is not used, the initial part of the signal is lost and only part of
the signal is displayed. To counteract this disadvantage the signal is not applied directly to the vertical plates
but is passed through a delay line circuit, as shown in Fig. This gives time for the sweep to start at the
horizontal plates before the signal has reached the vertical plates. The trigger pulse is picked off at a time to
after the signal has passed through the main amplifier. The sweep generator delivers the sweep to the
horizontal amplifier and the sweep starts at the HDP at time to + 80 ns. Hence the sweep starts well in time,
since the signal arrives at the VDP at time to + 200 ns.

6.a) Draw and explain the block diagram of CRO Probe. [L1] [CO2][4M]

CRO probes should have the following characteristics.

 High impedance
 High bandwidth
The block diagram of CRO probe is shown in below figure.

Fig 1: Block diagram of CRO Probe

As shown in the figure, CRO probe mainly consists of three blocks. Those are probe head, co-axial cable and
termination circuit. Co-axial cable simply connects the probe head and termination circuit.
6 b) Write a short note on CRO Probes. [L1] [CO2][8M]

Types of CRO Probes

CRO probes can be classified into the following two types.

 Passive Probes

 Active Probes

Passive Probes: If the probe head consists of passive elements, then it is called passive probe.

Figure: 1 (a) 10:1 Probe (b) Equivalent circuit of 10:1 Probe

As shown in the figure 1 (a), the probe head consists of a parallel combination of resistor, R1 & variable
capacitor C1. Similarly, the termination circuit consists of a parallel combination of resistor R2 and capacitor
C2.

The above circuit diagram is modified in the form of bridge circuit and it is shown in below figure.

The capacitor is adjusted so that the elements of the bridge are balanced. Under conditions of balance we have

Therefore, X and Y are equipotential and the effect of the probe is equivalent to placing a potential divider
consisting of R1 and Rin across the input circuit. The attenuation of the signal is 10 : 1, i.e. (R1 + Rin)/R1 =
10 : 1 over a wide frequency range. Therefore, it is called a compensated 10 X 1 probe.
 Therefore, the input capacitance of a CRO can range from 15–50 pf. C1 should be adjusted from 13–47 pf.

The C1 adjustment is done by connecting the probe tip to a square wave of 1 kHz and observing the CRT
display. When the CRT display has optimum response, the C1 value is deemed to be appropriate.

Active Probes:

If the probe head consists of active electronic components, then it is called active probe. The block diagram
of active probe is shown in below figure.

Figure 2: Active Probe

 As shown in the figure, the probe head consists of a FET source follower in cascade with BJT
emitter follower.

 The FET source follower provides high input impedance and low output impedance. Whereas, the
purpose of BJT emitter follower is that it avoids or eliminates the impedance mismatching.

 The other two parts, such as co-axial cable and termination circuit remain same in both active and
passive probes.

7.a) Describe the working principle of a Triggered sweep CRO with a neat sketch. [L2] [CO1][8M]

Ans) Trigger sweep CRO:

 The continuous sweep is of limited use in displaying periodic signals of constant frequency and
amplitude.
 A triggered sweep can display such signals, and those of short duration, e.g. narrow pulses. In triggered
mode, the input signal is used to generate substantial pulses that trigger the sweep.
 As shown in Fig. resistance R3 and R4 form a voltage divider such that the voltage VD at the cathode
of the diode is below the peak voltage VP for UJT conduction.
 Figure 1 (a) Triggered sweep circuit; (b) Output waveform

 When the circuit is switched on, the UJT is in the non-conducting stage, and CT charges exponentially
through RT towards VBB until the diode becomes forward biased and conducts; the capacitor voltage
never reaches the peak voltage required for UJT conduction but is clamped at VD.
 If now a –ve pulse of suffi cient amplitude is applied to the base and the peak voltage Vp is
momentarily lowered, the UJT fi res. As a result, capacitor CT discharges rapidly through the UJT
until the maintaining voltage of the UJT is reached; at this point the UJT switches off and capacitor
CT charges towards VBB, until it is clamped again at VD. Figure shows the output waveform.

7 b) Write a short notes on Delayed Sweep [L1][CO2][4M]

Delayed sweep is a technique that adds a precise amount of time between the trigger point and the beginning
of the scope sweep. When the scope is being used in the sweep mode, the start of the horizontal sweep can be
delayed, typically from a few μs to perhaps 10 seconds or more.

Delayed sweep operation allows the user to view a small segment of the waveform, e.g. an oscillation or
ringing that occurs during a small portion of a low frequency waveform.

The most common approaches used by oscilloscope manufacturers for delayed sweep operations are, the
following.

1. Normal triggering sweep after the desired time delay, which is set from the panel controls.
2. A Delay Plus Trigger mode, where a visual indication, such as light, indicates that the delay
time has elapsed and the sweep is ready to be triggered.
3. Intensified sweep, where the delayed sweep acts as a positional magnifier.
8. With the neat sketch, explain the working principle of Dual beam oscilloscope. [L2][CO1][12M]

The dual trace oscilloscope has one cathode ray gun, and an electronic switch which switches two signals to
a single vertical amplifier. The dual beam oscilloscope uses two completely separate electron beams, two sets
of VDPs and a single set of HDPs. Only one beam can be synchronized at one time, since the sweep is the
same for both signals, i.e. a common time base is used for both beams. Block diagram of a Dual Beam CRO
as shown figure 1. Therefore, the signals must have the same frequency or must be related harmonically, in
order to obtain both beams locked on the CRT screen, e.g. the input signal of an amplifier can be used as
signal A and its output signal as signal B.

Figure 1: Dual Beam CRO

9.a) Explain the procedure of signal’s Amplitude, Frequency and Phase measurement using a
Lissajous method using neat diagrams. [L2] [CO2][6M]
Measurement of Amplitude:

For amplitude measurements, you count the number of vertical divisions occupied by the signal’s vertical
signal and then multiply by the vertical scale.
Measurement of Frequency:
 Lissajous figure will be displayed on the screen, when the sinusoidal signals are applied to both
horizontal & vertical deflection plates of CRO.
 Hence, apply the sinusoidal signal, which has standard known frequency to the horizontal
deflection plates of CRO.
 Similarly, apply the sinusoidal signal, whose frequency is unknown to the vertical deflection plates
of CRO
Let, fH and fV are the frequencies of sinusoidal signals, which are applied to the horizontal & vertical
deflection plates of CRO respectively.
The relationship between fH and fV can be mathematically represented as
 𝑓𝑣 𝑛𝐻
=
𝑓𝐻 𝑛𝑣

From above relation, we will get the frequency of sinusoidal signal, which is applied to the vertical deflection
plates of CRO as.

 The fv = fh pattern stands still and is a single circle or ellipse. When fv = 2fh, a two loop horizontal
pattern is obtained as shown in Fig 1.

Fig 1: Lissajous patterns for integral frequencies

Measurement of Phase Difference:

> A Lissajous figure is displayed on the screen when sinusoidal signals are applied to both horizontal &
vertical deflection plates of CRO.
> Hence, apply the sinusoidal signals, which have same amplitude and frequency to both horizontal
and vertical deflection plates of CRO.
> For few Lissajous figures based on their shape, we can directly tell the phase difference between the
two sinusoidal signals.
> If the Lissajous figure is a straight line with an inclination of 45∘-45∘ with positive x-axis, then
the phase difference between the two sinusoidal signals will be 0∘-0∘. That means, there is no phase
difference between those two sinusoidal signals.
9 b) Describe in detail the construction and working of a Digital Storage Oscilloscope.[L2] [CO1][6M]

There are certain disadvantages of storage cathode ray tube due to which there is need of digital storage
oscilloscope. The block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope is shown in the Fig 1.

Figure 1: Digital Storage Oscilloscope

 The input signal is applied to the amplifier and attenuator section.

 The oscilloscope uses same type of amplifier and attenuator circuitry as used in the
conventional oscilloscopes.
  The attenuated signal is then applied to the vertical amplifier.
 To digitize the analog signal, analog to digital (A/D) converter is used.
 The output of the vertical amplifier is applied to the A/D converter section.
 The successive approximation type of A/D converter is most of tenly used in the digital storage
oscilloscopes.
 ‘The sampling rate and memory size are selected depending upon the duration & the waveform
to be recorded.
 Once the input signal is sampled, the A/D converter digitizes it.
 The signal is then captured in the memory.
 Once it is stored in the memory, many manipulations are possible as memory can be read out
without being erased.

10.a) Write the advantages of Digital Storage Oscilloscope. [L1] [CO1][4M]

 Basic advantage of digital operation is the storage capacity, Stored information can be repeatedly read
out, Processing capability and analysis of the output.

 The Voltage and Time scales can be easily changed after the waveform has been recorded,which allows
expansion of the selected portion.

 The cursor can be positioned at any desired point on the waveform and time & voltage values are
displayed digitally on the screen.

 Split screen capabilities enable easy comparison of two signals.

10 b) Explain the operation of Digital frequency Meter/ counter and write its applications.
[L2][CO2][8M]

Ans) Digital Frequency Meter/counter:

Fig 1: Principle of digital frequency measurement.

 The signal waveform is converted to trigger pulses and applied continuously to an AND gate, as shown
in Fig 1.
 A pulse of 1 s is applied to the other terminal, and the number of pulses counted during this period
indicates the frequency.
  The signal whose frequency is to be measured is converted into a train of pulses, one pulse for each
cycle of the signal. The number of pulses occurring in a definite interval of time is then counted by an
electronic count

Fig 2: Basic Circuit of a Digital Frequency Meter

 The unknow frequency signal is fed to the Schmitt trigger. The signal may be amplifier before
being applied to schmitt trigger.
 In a Schmitt trigger, the signal is converted into a frequency wave with a very fast rise & fall
times, then differentiated & clipped.
 As a result, the o/p from a schmitt trigger is a train of pulses, One pulse, for each cycle of the
signal.
 The o/p pulse from the schmitt trigger are fed to a start/stop gate when gate opens (start) the i/p
pulse pass through this gate and are fed to an electronic counter which starts registering the input
pulse.
 When the gates are closed (stop) the input of pulse to counter cases & it stops counting.
 The counter displays the no. of pulse that have passed through it in the time interval between the
start & stop. If this interval is knows, the pulse rate & hence the frequency of the i/p signal can be
known.
 The frequency of the unknow signal is given by f=N/t.

Where,

f = frequency of unknown signal.

N = Number of counts displayed by counter.

t = time interval b/w the start & stop of gate.

Block Diagram of Digital frequency Meter/ counter as shown fig 3..

Figure 3: Block Diagram of Digital frequency Meter/ counter

Unknown Frequency Source: It is used to measure the unknown value of input signal frequency.
Amplifier: It amplifies low-level signals to high-level signals.
Schmitt Trigger: The main purpose of the Schmitt trigger is to convert the analog signal into a digital signal
in a pulse train form. It is also known as ADC and basically acts as a comparator circuit
And Gate: The generated output from AND gate is obtained only when the inputs exist at the gate. One of
the terminals of the AND gate is connected to Schmitt Trigger output, and another terminal is connected to
a flipflop.
Counter: It operates based on the clock period, which starts from “0”. One input is taken from the output of
the AND gate. The counter is constructed by cascading many flip flops.
Crystal Oscillator: When a DC supply is given to a crystal oscillator (frequency of 1MHz) it generates a
sinusoidal wave.
Time-Based Selector: Depending on reference the time period of signals can be varied. It consists of a clock
oscillator which gives an accurate value. The clock oscillator output is given as input to Schmitt trigger which
converts sinusoidal wave into a series of a square wave of the same frequency.

Applications:

 It is used for testing radio equipment.

 It is used for measuring the temperature & other physical values.

 It is used for measuring vibration, strain.