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ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

DEPT. of E.C.E
DTU
Introduction
Elements of Communication System:
Communication: It is the process of conveying or
transferring information from one point to
another.
(Or)
It is the process of establishing connection or link
between two points for information exchange.
Elements of Communication System:
Information source:
The message or information to be communicated
originates in information source.
Message can be words, group of words, code, data,
symbols, signals etc.
Transmitter :
The objective of the transmitter block is to collect
the incoming message signal and modify it in a
suitable fashion (if needed), such that, it can be
transmitted via the chosen channel to the
receiving point.
Elements of Communication System:
Channel :
Channel is the physical medium which connects the
transmitter with that of the receiver.
The physical medium includes copper wire, coaxial
cable, fibre optic cable, wave guide and free
space or atmosphere.
Receiver:
The receiver block receives the incoming modified
version of the message signal from the channel
and processes it to recreate the original (non-
electrical) form of the message signal.
Signal, Message, Information
Signal:
It is a physical quantity which varies with respect to
time or space or independent or dependent
variable.
(Or)
It is electrical waveform which carries information.
Ex: m(t) = Acos(ωt+ϕ)
Where, A= Amplitude or peak amplitude(Volts)
w = Frequency ( rad/sec)
ϕ = Phase (rad)
Types of Signals
• Analog or Continuous Signal
• Digital Signal
Analog or Continuous Signal: If the amplitude of
signal continuously varies with respect to time or
if the signal contains infinite number of
amplitudes, it is called Analog or continuous
signal.
Types of Signals
Digital Signal: If the signal contains only two
discrete amplitudes, then it is called digital signal.
• With respect to communication, signals are
classified into,
• Baseband signal
• Bandpass signal
Baseband signal: If the signal contains zero
frequency or near to zero frequency, it is called
baseband signal.
Ex: Voice, Audio, Video, Bio-medical signals etc.
Types of Signals
Bandpass signal: If the signal contains band of
frequencies far away from base or zero, it is called
bandpass signal.
Ex: AM, FM signals.

Message: It is sequence of symbols.


Ex: Happy New Year 2020.
Information: The content in the message is called
information. It is inversely proportional to
probability of occurrence of the symbol.

• Information is measured in bits, decits, nats.


Limitations of Communication System
• Technological Problems:
To implement communication systems, Tx, Rx, channel
are required which requires hardware.
Communication system is expensive and complex.
• Bandwidth & Noise:
The effect of noise can be reduced by providing
more bandwidth to stations but due to this less
number of stations can only be accommodated.
• Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR):Noise should be low to
increase channel capacity but it is an unavoidable
aspect of communication system.
Modulation
It is the process of varying the characteristics of
high frequency carrier in accordance with
instantaneous values of modulating or message
or baseband signal.
(Or)
It is a frequency translation technique which
converts baseband or low frequency signal to
bandpass or high frequency signal.

Modulation is used in the transmitter.


Types of Modulation
Types of Modulation
• Amplitude Modulation: Amplitude of the carrier
is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
values of modulating signal.

• Frequency Modulation: Frequency of the carrier


is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
values of modulating signal.

• Phase Modulation: Phase of the carrier is varied


in accordance with the instantaneous values of
modulating signal.
Benefits or Need of Modulation
• To reduce the length or height of antenna

• For multiplexing

• For narrow banding or to use antenna with single


or same length

• To reduce noise effect

• To avoid equipment limitation or to reduce the


size of the equipment.
Amplitude Modulation
The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating signal.
Amplitude Modulation

The carrier signal is given by,


C(t) = Ac Coswct
Where, Ac= Maximum amplitude of the carrier
signal.
W= 2πfc= Frequency of the carrier signal.
Modulating or baseband signal is given by,
X(t) = Am Coswmt
Where, Am = Amplitude of the baseband signal.
Amplitude Modulation
The standard equation for amplitude modulated
signal is expressed as,
S(t)= Ac Cos2πfct[1+ma(Cos2πfmt)]
Where, ma = Am/Ac = Modulation Index
Time Domain representation of AM:
S(t)=AcCos2πfct+μAc/2Cos[2πfc+2πfm]t+μAc/2Cos[2πfc-2πfm]t
I term: Carrier signal with amplitude Ac and frequency fc.
II. term: Amplitude= μAc/2, frequency= fc+fm , Upper sideband
frequency
III.term: Amplitude= μAc/2, frequency= fc-fm , Lower sideband
frequency
Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Domain representation of AM:
The time domain representation of AM wave is
given by,
S(t)= Ac Cos2πfct[1+ma(Cos2πfmt)]
Taking Fourier transform on both sides,
S(f) = Ac/2[δ(f-fc)+ δ(f+fc)] + Acma/2[M(f-fc)+ M(f+fc)]
Modulation Index
Modulation index or depth of modulation is given
by,
ma = [Amax-Amin/ Amax+Amin]= Am/Ac

Percentage of modulation index is,


%ma = [Amax-Amin/ Amax+Amin]X100= [Am/Ac ]X100
Types of AM with respect to modulation index:
• Under Modulation (ma <1)
• Critical Modulation (ma =1)
• Over Modulation (ma >1)
Types of AM
Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier(DSB-SC)
The equation of AM wave in simple form is given
by,
S(t) = Ac Cos wct +
Here, carrier component remains constant and
does not convey any information.
Therefore, if the carrier is suppressed, only
sidebands remain in the spectrum requiring less
power.
• DSB-SC Contains two side bands i.e USB & LSB
• Power efficiency is 100%
• % Power saving in DSB-SC w.r.t AM is 66.67%.
DSB-SC Modulation
A DSB-SC signal is obtained by multiplying the
modulating signal x(t) with carrier signal c(t).
So, we need a product modulator for the
generation of DSB-SC wave.
DSB-SC Modulation
1. Balanced Modulator:
It consists of two amplitude modulators arranged
in balanced configuration to suppress the
carrier completely.
DSB-SC Modulation
Operation:
• Carrier c(t) is applied to both the modulators.
• Message signal x(t) is applied directly to
modulator 1 and with a phase shift of 1800 to
modulator 2.
Output of modulator 1 is,
S1(t) = Ac[1+ mx(t)] cos 2πfct ---(1)
Output of modulator 2 is,
S2(t) = Ac[1- mx(t)] cos 2πfct ---(2)
These two outputs are applied to subtractor,
whose output is, 2mAcx(t) cos 2πfct---(3)
Time Domain representation of DSB-SC
Message signal is given by,
x(t) =Am cos(2πfmt) ---(1)
Carrier signal is given by,
C(t) = Ac cos(2πfct) ---(2)
DSB-SC modulated signal is given by,
S(t) = x(t) c(t) ---(3)
S(t) = 1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]--(4)
Frequency Domain representation of DSB-SC
The frequency spectrum of DSB-SC is obtained by
taking Fourier transform of s(t)
S(f) = F{[1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]}

S(f) =
This is the spectrum of DSB-SC wave.
Single Sideband-Suppressed Carrier(SSB-SC)
The modulation process in which only one side band
is transmitted and with carrier suppression is
called Single sideband suppressed carrier (SSB-
SC).
Modulating Signal m(t) = Am Cos (2πfmt) and Carrier
Signal c(t) = Ac Cos (2πfct)
SSB-SC signal can be generated by passing DSB-SC
signal through BPF. And DSB-SC signal is
generated by multiplying m(t) & c(t).
ASSB-SC(t) = Cos2π( + )t (or)
ASSB-SC(t) = Cos2π( - )t
ANGLE MODULATION

Angle modulation is a process of varying angle of the


carrier in accordance with the instantaneous values of
modulating signal.

Angle can be varied by varying frequency or phase.

Angle modulation is of 2 types.

• Frequency Modulation
• Phase Modulation
Frequency Modulation
The process of varying frequency of the carrier in
accordance with the instantaneous values of the
modulating signal.

Relation between angle and frequency :

Consider carrier signal c(t)= Ac Cos (wct+φ)


= Ac Cos (2πfct +φ)
Where, Wc= Carrier frequency
φ = Phase

C(t) = Ac Cos[ψ(t)], where, ψ(t)= wct+φ

i.e Frequency can be obtained by derivating angle and


angle can be obtained by integrating frequency.
Frequency Modulation

Frequency modulator converts input voltage into


frequency i.e the amplitude of modulating signal m(t)
changes to frequency at the output.

Consider carrier signal c(t) =Ac Coswct


The frequency variation at the output is called
instantaneous frequency and is expressed as,
wi = wc + kf m(t)
Where, kf = frequency sensitivity factor in Hz/volt
Frequency Modulation
The angle of the carrier after modulation can be
written as,

Frequency modulated signal can be written as,


AFM(t) = Ac Cos [ψi(t)] = Ac Cos [wct + kfʃm(t)dt]

Frequency Deviation in FM:

The instantaneous frequency, wi = wc + kf m(t)


= wc + Δw
Where, Δw = kf m(t) is called frequency deviation which
may be positive or negative depending on the sign of
m(t).
Phase Modulation
The process of varying the phase of carrier in accordance
with instantaneous values of the modulating signal.

Consider modulating signal x(t) and carrier signal c(t) =


Ac Coswct

Phase modulating signal,

APM(t) = Ac Cos[ ψi(t)]

Where, ψi(t) = wct + kpm(t)

Where, kp = Phase sensitivity factor in rad/volt

APM(t) = Ac Cos[wct + kpm(t)]


Phase Modulation
Frequency deviation in PM:

Conversion between Frequency and Phase Modulation:


Modulation Index
Definition:
Modulation Index is defined as the ratio of frequency
deviation () to the modulating frequency (fm).

M.I.=Frequency Deviation
Modulating Frequency

mf =δ
fm

In FM M.I.>1

Modulation Index of FM decides −


(i)Bandwidth of the FM wave.
(ii)Number of sidebands in FM wave.
Deviation Ratio
The modulation index corresponding to maximum deviation
and maximum modulating frequency is called deviation ratio.

Deviation Ratio= Maximum Deviation


Maximum modulating Frequency

= δmax
fmax

In FM broadcasting the maximum value of deviation is limited to 75


kHz. The maximum modulating frequency is also limited to 15 kHz.
Percentage M.I. of FM

The percentage modulation is defined as the ratio of the


actual frequency deviation produced by the modulating signal
to the maximum allowable frequency deviation.

% M.I = Actual deviation


Maximum allowable deviation


Mathematical Representation of FM

(i) Modulating Signal:

It may be represented as,


em = Em cos mt (1)

Here cos term taken for simplicity


where,
em = Instantaneous amplitude
m = Angular velocity
= 2fm
fm = Modulating frequency
(ii) Carrier Signal:

Carrier may be represented as,


ec = Ec sin (ct + ) -----(2)

where,
ec = Instantaneous amplitude
c = Angular velocity
= 2fc
fc = Carrier frequency
 = Phase angle
(iii) FM Wave:

Fig. Frequency Vs. Time in FM


FM is nothing but a deviation of frequency.
From Fig. 2.25, it is seen that instantaneous frequency ‘f’ of the FM
wave is given by,
f =fc (1 + K Em cos mt) (3)
where,
fc =Unmodulated carrier frequency
K = Proportionality constant
Em cos mt =Instantaneous modulating signal
(Cosine term preferred for simplicity otherwise we
can use sine term also)
• The maximum deviation for this particular signal will occur, when
cos mt =  1 i.e. maximum.
 Equation (2.26) becomes,
f =fc (1  K Em)  (4)
 f =fc  K Emfc  (5)
So that maximum deviation  will be given by,
 = K Emfc  (6)
The instantaneous amplitude of FM signal is given by,
eFM = A sin [f(c, m)]
= A sin   (7)
where,
f(c, m)= Some function of carrier and modulating
frequencies
Let us write equation (2.26) in terms of  as,
 = c (1 + K Em cos mt)
To find ,  must be integrated with respect to time.
Thus,
 =  dt
= c (1 + K Em cos mt) dt
 =c (1 + K Em cos mt) dt
=  c (t+ KEm sin mt)
m
=ct + KEmc sin mt
m

=ct + KEmfc sin mt


m
=ct +  sinmt [...  = K Em fc]
fm

Substitute value of  in equation (7)
Thus,
eFM = A sin (ct +  sinmt )---(8)
fm
eFM = A sin (ct +mf sinmt )---(9)

This is the equation of FM.


Frequency Spectrum of FM
Frequency spectrum is a graph of amplitude versus frequency.
The frequency spectrum of FM wave tells us about number of
sideband present in the FM wave and their amplitudes.
The expression for FM wave is not simple. It is complex because it
is sine of sine function.
Only solution is to use ‘Bessels Function’.
Equation (2.32) may be expanded as,
eFM = {A J0 (mf) sin ct
+ J1 (mf) [sin (c + m) t − sin (c − m) t]
+ J1 (mf) [sin (c + 2m) t + sin (c − 2m) t]
+ J3 (mf) [sin (c + 3m) t − sin (c − 3m) t]
+ J4 (mf) [sin (c + 4m) t + sin (c − 4m) t]
+ }  (2.33)
From this equation it is seen that the FM wave consists of:
(i)Carrier (First term in equation).
(ii)Infinite number of sidebands (All terms except first term are
sidebands).
The amplitudes of carrier and sidebands depend on ‘J’ coefficient.
c = 2fc, m = 2fm
So in place of c and m, we can use fc and fm.
Fig. : Ideal Frequency Spectrum of FM
Bandwidth of FM
From frequency spectrum of FM wave shown in Fig.
2.26, we can say that the bandwidth of FM wave is
infinite.
But practically, it is calculated based on how many
sidebands have significant amplitudes.
(i) The Simple Method to calculate the bandwidth is −

BW=2fmx Number of significant sidebands --(1)

With increase in modulation index, the number of


significant sidebands increases. So that bandwidth also
increases.
(ii) The second method to calculate bandwidth is by
Carson’s rule.
Carson’s rule states that, the bandwidth of FM wave is twice
the sum of deviation and highest modulating frequency.
BW=2( +fmmax) (2)

Highest order side band = To be found from table 2.1 after the
calculation of modulation Index m where, m = /fm

e.g. If m= 20KHZ/5KHZ

From table, for modulation index 4, highest order side band is 7th.
Therefore, the bandwidth is
B.W. = 2 fm  Highest order side band
=2  5 kHz  7
=70 kHz
Types of Frequency Modulation

FM (Frequency Modulation)

Narrowband Wideband FM
FM (NBFM) (WBFM)
[When modulation index is small] [When modulation index is large]
Comparison between Narrowband
and Wideband FM
Sr. Parameter NBFM WBFM
No.
1. Modulation Less than or slightly Greater than 1
index greater than 1
2. Maximum 5 kHz 75 kHz
deviation
3. Range of 20 Hz to 3 kHz 20 Hz to 15 kHz
modulating
frequency
4. Maximum Slightly greater than 1 5 to 2500
modulation
index
5. Bandwidth Small approximately Large about 15 times
same as that of AM greater than that of
BW = 2fm NBFM.
BW = 2(+fmmax)
6. Applications FM mobile communication Entertainment
like police wireless, broadcasting (can be used
ambulance, short range for high quality music
ship to shore transmission)
communication etc.
Representation of FM
FM can be represented by two ways:
1. Time domain.
2. Frequency domain.
1.FM in Time Domain
Time domain representation means continuous variation of voltage with respect
to time as shown in Fig. .

Fig. 1 FM in Time Domain


2.FM in Frequency Domain
• Frequency domain is also known as frequency spectrum.
• FM in frequency domain means graph or plot of amplitude versus frequency as
shown in Fig. 2.29.

Fig. 2: FM in Frequency Domain


Comparison between AM and FM
Parameter AM FM

1. Definition Amplitude of carrier is Frequency of carrier is


varied in accordance with varied in accordance with
amplitude of modulating the amplitude of
signal keeping frequency modulating signal keeping
and phase constant. amplitude and phase
constant.
2. Constant Frequency and phase. Amplitude and phase.
parameters

3. Modulated signal

4. Modulation Index
m=Em/Ec

m = / fm

5. Number of Only two Infinite and depends on mf.


sidebands
6. Bandwidth BW = 2fm BW = 2 ( + fm (max))

7. Application MW, SW band broadcasting, Broadcasting FM, audio


video transmission in TV. transmission in TV.
Advantages/ Disadvantages/Applications of FM
Advantages of FM
1. Transmitted power remains constant.
2. FM receivers are immune to noise.
3.Good capture effect.
4.No mixing of signals.

Disadvantages of FM
The greatest disadvantages of FM are:
1.It uses too much spectrum space.
2.The bandwidth is wider.
3. The modulation index can be kept low to minimize the
bandwidth used.
4. But reduction in M.I. reduces the noise immunity.
5. Used only at very high frequencies.

Applications of FM
1.FM radio broadcasting.
2.Sound transmission in TV.
3.Police wireless.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Allocation of different frequency bands or carrier
frequency to different channel is called “Frequency
Division Multiplexing”. And it is used to transmit
Radio & TV signals.
Frequency Division Multiplexing

FDM Multiplexing:
•Different carrier frequencies are used for different
stations or channels.
•Modulator is used in the transmitter
Band width of FDM system,
BWFDM = N. BWCH+ (N-1) BWG

Where, N = No. of channels or stations


BWCH= Bandwidth of each channel
BWG= Bandwidth of guard band

Guard band is frequency gap between two channels


NOISE IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Noise: It is an unwanted signal which tends to
interfere with the modulating signal.
Types of noise:
Noise is basically divided into,
1. External Noise
2. Internal Noise
Classification of Noise
1.External Noise:
• Atmospheric Noise: Radio noise caused by natural
atmospheric processes, primarily lightening
discharges in thunder storms.
• Extraterrestrial Noise: Radio disturbances from
sources other than those related to the Earth.
Cosmic Noise: Random noise that originates outside the
Earth’s atmosphere.
Solar Noise: Noise that originates from the Sun is called
Solar noise.
Classification of Noise
• Industrial Noise: Noise generated by automobile
ignition, aircrafts, electric motors, Switch gears,
welding etc.
2. Internal Noise:
• Shot Noise: Random motion of electrons in the
semiconductor devices generates shot noise.
• Thermal or Johnson’s Noise: Random motion of
electrons in the resistor is called Thermal noise.
Vn = KT0BR
Where, K= Boltzmann constant, R= Resistance
T0= Absolute temperature B= Bandwidth
Noise Temperature and Noise Figure
Noise temperature(Te): It is a means for specifying
noise in terms of an equivalent temperature. It is
expressed as ,
Te = (Fn-1) T0
Where, Fn = Noise Figure, T0 = Absolute temperature
Noise figure(Fn): It is the ratio of output and input
noise of an amplifier or network. It is expressed
as, =
Where, N = Noise added by the network or
amplifier.
G = gain of an network or amplifier
Noise Temperature and Noise Figure
Noise Figure of Cascade Amplifier or Network:
Noise Figure of an cascade network or amplifier is
expressed as,
Fn =
Where, F1= Noise figure of 1st stage
G1= Gain of 1st stage
F2= Noise figure of 2nd stage
G2 = Gain of 2nd stage
Fn = Noise figure of nth stage
Gn = Gain of nth stage
Noise equivalent Bandwidth
When white noise (flat spectrum of frequencies like
white light) is passed through a filter having a
frequency response , some of the noise power is
rejected by the filter and some is passed through
to the output.
The noise equivalent bandwidth is defined in the
following picture,
Figure of Merit
Figure of Merit (FOM): It is ratio of output SNR to
input SNR of a communication system.
FOM =
Where S0= Output Signal Power &N0= Output
Noise Power
Si= Input Signal Power &Ni= Input Noise Power
Receiver model for noise calculation:
Receiver model for noise calculation
• The receiver is combination of Band Pass Filter
(BPF) and Demodulator.
• The BPF is combination of RF Tuned Amplifier,
Mixer and Local Oscillator whose band width is
equal to band width of modulated signal at
transmitter.
• Channel Inter connects transmitter & receiver.
Channel adds noise to the modulated signal while
transmitting and it is assumed to be white noise
whose Power Spectral Density is uniform.
• BPF converts white noise in to color or Band pass
noise or narrow band pass noise.
Receiver model for noise calculation
PSD of white noise and Narrow band pass noise are,

Power of band pass noise P = =


Where B = Band width noise.
Communication system model for noise
calculation

• The communication system model for noise calculation


contains transmitter, channel and receiver.
• Transmitter is replaced by modulator which converts low
frequency modulating signal x(t) into high frequency
bandpass signal with the help of carrier signal.
• Channel is replaced or modelled as additive noise which
adds white noise with PSD η/2 and it contains all
frequencies.
Communication system model for noise
calculation
• Receiver is modelled as BPF followed by demodulator.
• BPF is combination of RF tuned amplifier, mixer , local
oscillator.
• Passband or badnwidth of BPF is equal to bandwidth of
modulated signal.
• BPF converts white noise into color or bandpass noise
ηB(t).
Input to BPF is s(t) + ηw(t)
Output of BPF is s(t) + ηB(t)
• Demodulator converts high frequency or bandpass signal
into low frequency or baseband signal.
Bandpass noise representation
Bandpass noise is represented by,
1. Time Domain representation
• Quadrature representation
• Envelope representation
2. Frequency Domain representation
Quadrature representation:
Bandpass noise can be represented as,
ηB(t) = ηi(t) ocs Wct ηq(t)SinWct
Where, ηB(t) = Bnadpass noise
ηi(t) = Inphase component of lowpass noise
ηq(t) = Quadrature component of lowpass noise
Bandpass noise representation
Frequency domain representation:
Bandpass noise can be represented in frequency domain
as,

Properties of ηB(t):
• ηB(t), ηi(t) , ηq(t) will have same power.
• The PSD of ηi(t) & ηq(t) is,
Figure of Merit calculation in DSB-SC

• Transmitter contains DSB-SC modulator, whose


output s(t) = m(t) coswct.
• Noise generated by the channel is considered as
white noise ηw(t) with uniform noise power
spectral density η/2 .
Figure of Merit calculation in DSB-SC
• Band pass filter’s bandwidth is equal to modulated
signal bandwidth.
• BPF allows DSB-SC signal and converts white noise
into color noise or bandpass noise ηB(t).
Therefore, o/p of the BPF is yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t).
• Synchronous detector is used to extract modulating
signal m(t) which contain multiplier followed by low
pass filter.
Input signal power is , Si = m2(t)/2, Input noise power, Ni = η. 2fm,
Output signal power, S0 = [m(t)/2]2, Output noise power, N0 = η. fm/2
Substituting these values, FOM=(S0/N0)/(Si/Ni)= 2
Figure of Merit calculation in SSB-SC
SSB-SC signal,
Output of BPF, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)
Bandpass noise, ηB(t) = ηi(t) ocs Wct ηq(t)SinWct

Input signal power is , Si = m2(t), Input noise power, Ni = η. fm


Output signal power,S0 = m2(t)/4 , Output noise power, N0 = η. fm/4
Substituting these values, FOM= (S0/N0)/(Si/Ni)= 1
Noise calculation in AM system
AM signal, S(t) = [Ac+m(t)] Coswct
Output of BPF is, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)
= [Ac+m(t)] Coswct + ηB(t)

Input signal power is , Si = [Ac2/2]+[m2(t)/2]


Input noise power, Ni = 2 η. Fm, Output signal power,S0 = m2(t)
Output noise power, N0 = 2η. Fm
Using these values, FOM= 2.
Noise calculation in FM system
Frequency modulated signal s(t) = Ac Cos [ wct + Kfʃm(t) dt]
Output of BPF is, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)
= Ac Cos [ wct + Kfʃm(t) dt] + ηB(t)

Input signal power is , Si = Ac2/2, Input noise power, Ni = 2 η. Δf


Output signal power, S0 = γ2K f2m2(t)
Substituting these values, FOM= (S0/N0)/(Si/Ni)
FOM = (3/4π2)mf3, Where mf = Δf/fm
Noise calculation in PM system
PM signal S(t) = Ac Cos[wct+ Kpm(t)]
Output of BPF is, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)
= Ac Cos[wct+ Kpm(t)] + ηB(t)

Input signal power is , Si = Ac2/2, Input noise power, Ni = 2 η. Δf


Output signal power,S0 = γ2Kp2m2(t), Output noise power, N0 = 2η.
Fm
Substituting these values and substituting m2(t)= Am2/2
2
FOM= (S0/N0)/(Si/Ni) = m (Δf/ fm)
Comparison between different
Modulation Systems with respect to FOM
ANALOG PULSE MODULATION SCHEMES
Pulse Modulation:
The process of transmitting the signals in the form of
pulses by using some special techniques.

There are two types of pulse modulation systems,


1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation
2. Pulse Time Modulation

Pulse time modulation is further divided into,


• Pulse Width Modulation
• Pulse Position Modulation
PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION(PAM)
In Pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitude of
pulses of carrier pulse train is varied in
accordance with the modulating signal.

In PAM , the pulses can be flat top type or natural


type or ideal type.

Out of these, flat top PAM is widely used because of


easy noise removal.
Advantages, Disadvantages of PAM
Advantages:
• It is the simple process for modulation and
demodulation
• Transmitter and receiver circuits are simple and easy to
construct.
Disadvantages:
• Bandwidth requirement is high
• Interference of noise is maximum
• Power requirement is high
Applications:
• Used in microcontrollers for generating control signals
• Used as electronic driver for LED lighting
SAMPLING
It is the process of converting a continuous time
signal into a discrete time signal
During sampling, sufficient number of samples of
the signal must be taken so that original signal is
correctly represented in its samples and possible
for reconstruction.
Number of samples to be taken depends on
maximum signal frequency present in the signal.
• Different types of samples are,
• Ideal
• Natural
• Flat top
SAMPLING
Sampling theorem:
A continuous time signal may be completely
represented in its samples and recovered back if
the sampling frequency fs>2fm
Nyqyist rate and Nyquist interval:
When sampling rate becomes exactly equal to 2fm
samples per second, it is called Nyquist rate
fs=2fm Hz
Maximum sampling interval is called Nyquist
interval.
Ts = 1/fs=1/2fm sec
NATURAL SAMPLING
In natural sampling, pulse has a finite width equal
to τ.
NATURAL SAMPLING
Let an analog continuous time signal x(t) sampled
at a rate fs Hz and sampling function c(t) which is
a train of periodic pulse of width τ and frequency
fs Hz
Case i: When c(t) is high

Switch S is closed and output g(t) is exactly equal to


input

g(t) = x(t)
NATURAL SAMPLING
Case ii: When c(t) is low
Switch s is open
g(t) = 0
The time domain representation of naturally
sampled signal is given by,
g(t) = x(t)
The spectrum of naturally sampled signal is given
by,
G(f) =
Pulse Width Modulation(PWM)
In PWM, the width of pulses of carrier pulse train is
varied in proportion with amplitude of
modulating signal.
PULSE POSITION MODULATION(PPM)
Modulation technique in which position of pulses
of carrier pulse train is varied in accordance with
amplitude of modulating signal.
PPM GENERATION

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