SOLIDS

In our everyday world we see matter in three phases: Solids, liquids and gases. A matter in all
these three phases is made of atoms / molecules. There is a force that acts between the molecules
of matter called intermolecular force. The intermolecular force determines the phases of the
matter. The intermolecular force is much more in a solid than that in a gas and a liquid. That is
why, a solid has definite shape and size.
Due to internal arrangement of molecules inside them, they may be divided into two classes
namely crystalline and amorphous materials.

Crystalline Materials:
The crystalline materials are those in which atoms and molecules are arranged in a definite and
regular way throughout the body. For example, quartz, mica, sugar, copper, sulphate etc.
Properties of Crystalline Materials:
 the atoms and molecules in a crystal are arranged in a definite order.
 They are bounded by flat surfaces.
 They possess uniform chemical composition.
 They have a sharp melting point.
 Their physical properties (thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity) have different
values in different directions. That is why, they are anisotropic.
Amorphous Materials:
The term ‘amorphous’ means shapeless. The amorphous materials are those in which atoms and
molecules are arranged in an irregular manner. For example, glass, plastics, rubber, Sulphur etc.
Properties of Amorphous Materials:
 The atoms and molecules in a crystal are arranged in an irregular manner.
 The atoms and molecules are distributed randomly so they are not bounded by flat
surfaces.
 They do not possess a sharp melting point.
 Their physical properties are the same in all directions. That is why, they are isotropic.
Energy bands in solids:
The range of energy occupied by electrons in solids is called energy bands in solids.

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Valence band:
the energy band corresponding to valence electron is known as valence band. It is denoted by
V.B. in normal condition valence electron has highest energy. At absolute zero valence band is
completely filled whereas at room temperature it is completely or partially filled. In case of inert
gases, valence band is completely filled and in case of other material, it is partially filled.

Conduction band:
The energy band corresponding to free electron is known as conduction band. It is denoted by
C.B., At absolute zero temperature electrons are in valence band. When temperature goes on
increasing electrons gains electron gains kinetic energy and jumps to the higher possible orbit
and becomes free. these electrons are called free electrons. If the substance has empty conduction
band, then current through the substance is not possible. In case of an insulator conduction band
is empty.
Forbidden energy gap:
The energy gap between valence band and conduction band of solid is called forbidden energy
gap. It is represented by Eg. It signifies that how much energy is required to lift the electron from
valence band to conduction band.
Classification of solid according to band theory.
According to band theory solids are classified into three groups they are
 Conductors
 Insulators and
 Semiconductors
Conductors:
Those solids in which valence band and conduction band overlap together are known as
conductors. The energy gap between valence band and conduction band is zero. In conductor
valence band and conduction band are partially filled. Electrons in valence band considered as
electrons in conduction band. It has very small resistivity and very large conductivity. Its
resistivity varies from 10-6 Ωm to 10-3 Ωm. It has positive temperature coefficient so, its
resistivity increases with rise in temperature. Good conductors are aluminum, brass, copper, iron
etc.

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Insulators:
Those solids in which energy gap between valence band and conduction band is large is called
insulator. In an insulator valence band is completely filled and conduction band is empty at low
temperature. if temperature increases electrons jumps from valence band to conduction band. It
has very high resistivity and extremely small conductivity. Its resistivity varies from 10 10 Ωm to
1024 Ωm. It has negative temperature coefficient of resistance so; its resistivity decreases with
rise in temperature. insulators are glass, wood, plastic, rubber etc.

Semiconductors:
Those solids in which energy gap between valence band and conduction band is 1 ev is called
semiconductor. Also, semiconductor is the material whose electrical conductivity and resistivity
lies between conductors and insulators. In semiconductor partially filled valence band and empty
conduction band. semiconductor behaves as perfect insulator at absolute zero temperature. When
temperature is increased the conductivity also increases.

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Fermi energy:
The highest energy level occupied by an electron in the energy band at zero Kelvin (0 K) is
called Fermi level, and corresponding energy in this level is called Fermi energy. Therefore at 0
K all the states below Fermi level are occupied by electrons and all the states above the Fermi
level are empty.
Covalent bond in semiconductor:
The semiconducting solids are made up
of atoms having four electrons in their
valence shell. These four electrons are
bounded with nearby four electrons of
other atoms. These bonds are covalent
bonds and completes the octet to becomes
stable. This bond is very strong at
absolute zero temperature. When the
temperature increases to room
temperature, some of the covalent bonds
break down so that some of the electrons
becomes free and start to move then solid
start to conduct.

Hole:

When energy is applied to the

semiconductor, some electrons
jump to the conduction band by
leaving vacancy in the valence
band. This vacancy of electron in
valence band is called hole. Hole
can attract the nearby electrons in
valence band so, holes are
considered as positively charged
particles. The velocity of hole is
much smaller than velocity of
electrons. The motion of hole is
approximate to the direction of
motion of electron. The current
constructed by hole is called hole
current.
Types of semiconductors:
There are two types of semiconductors they are,
 Intrinsic semiconductor (pure semiconductor)
 Extrinsic semiconductor (impure semiconductor)
Intrinsic semiconductor:
The semiconductor in pure form is called intrinsic semiconductor. It has equal number of
electrons and holes. These semiconductors have low conductivity and high resistivity. At
absolute zero, intrinsic semiconductor behaves as perfect insulator. For example, semiconductor
made from pure silicon atom, semiconductor made from pure Germanium atom.

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Extrinsic semiconductor:
The semiconductor in impure form is called extrinsic semiconductor. When an impurity atom is
added to the pure semiconductor like in Si or Ge, Extrinsic semiconductor is formed. The
process of adding impurity or foreign atoms in the pure semiconductor is called doping. Doping
of pure silicon or Germanium with arsenic (As), indium (In), Antimony (As), Phosphorous(P)
etc. is an example of extrinsic semiconductor.
Types of extrinsic semiconductor:
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors on the basis of impurity added. They are,
 N-. type extrinsic semiconductors
 P- type extrinsic semiconductors
N- type semiconductor:
When pentavalent impurities like phosphorous(P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) etc. are added to
a pure silicon or Germanium semiconductor then formed extrinsic semiconductor is called N-
type semiconductor. The pentavalent impurities have five electrons in their valence shell and
pure semiconducting atoms have only four valence electrons. Four valence electron of impurity
atom out of five take part in covalent bonding to the surrounding semiconducting atom. The
remaining electron is free to move which has nothing to do in the bond formation and goes to the
conduction band immediately.
There are also thermally generated electrons in conduction band there by leaving holes in
valence band. The number of electrons in C.B. is greater than the number of holes in V.B. so,
electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are minority charge carriers.
In case of N-type semiconductor, pentavalent impurities can donate the electrons so these are
called donor atoms.

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P- type semiconductor:
When trivalent impurities like aluminum (Al), Boron(B), Gallium(G), Indium (In) etc. are added
to pure semiconductor, thus formed extrinsic semiconductor is called P- type semiconductor.
three valence electrons of trivalent impurities like Aluminum combine with three electrons of
nearby three silicon atoms. One electron of another nearby silicon atom has deficiency of
electron to form covalent bond. This deficiency of electron is called hole. so, there are altogether
three complete covalent bond and one incomplete covalent bond.
the hole stays in valence
band with other electrons at
very low temperature. When
temperature increases some
electron jumps to conduction
band there by leaving holes
in valence band. The number
of holes in valence band is
greater than number of
electrons in conduction
band. So, holes are majority
charge carriers and electrons
are minority charge carriers.
In case of P- type
semiconductor, impurity
atoms can accept electrons
so, these are called acceptor
atoms.

Difference between N-type and P-type semiconductor: