JUN02
JUN02
Candidate Signature
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Instructions
Use blue or black ink or ball-point pen.
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Fill in the boxes at the top of this page.
Information 9
of your spelling, punctuation and grammar will also be taken into TOTAL
account.
Examiner’s Initials
TP/0102/PHB5 6/6/2
AQA_17128_FP&TEXT 3/4/02 11:11 Page 2
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The Earth has an electric charge. The electric field strength outside the Earth varies in the same way
as if this charge were concentrated at the centre of the Earth. The axes in Figure 1 represent the
electric field strength E and the distance from the centre of the Earth r. The electric field strength at
A has been plotted.
–1
E/N C 100
80
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3
r/10 km
6400 km
A B
centre
of Earth
Figure 1
(a) (i) Determine the electric field strength at B and then complete the graph to show how the
electric field strength varies with distance from the centre of the Earth for distances greater
than 6400 km.
(3 marks)
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moment of force = Fd λD
fringe spacing =
d
λ
v = u + at single slit diffraction minimum sin θ =
b
∆f v
v 2 = u 2 + 2as Doppler shift for v << c
f = c
1
s = 2 (u + v)t Hubble law v = Hd
radioactive decay A = λN
for a spring, F = k∆ l
Properties of Quarks
F∆ l = k (∆ l )
1 1 2
energy stored in a spring = 2 2
Type of quark Charge Baryon number
1 2 1
T = up u + e 3 + 3
f 1 1
down d – 3 e + 3
2 1
u – 3 e – 3
b
area of a circle = πr 2 c cos θ = c
a
a
surface area of sphere = 4πr 2
θ tan θ =
b
b
volume of sphere = 4
3
πr 3
c 2 = a2 + b2
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Q = mc∆θ
x = A cos 2π ft
Q = ml
maximum a = (2 πf ) A
2
P = Fν
maximum v = 2πf A
useful power output
efficiency =
for a mass-spring system, T = 2π m power input
k
for a simple pendulum, T = 2π l work done on gas = p ∆V
g
1
work done on a solid = 2 F∆l
stress = F
A
Fields and their Applications
V F strain = ∆l
uniform electric field strength, E = = l
d Q
stress
kQ Young modulus =
for a radial field, E = strain
r2
1 Capacitance and Exponential Change
k =
4 πε0
in series, 1 = 1 + 1
F C C1 C2
g =
m in parallel, C = C1 + C 2
GM
g = 2 energy stored by capacitor = 1
QV
r 2
( pV ) T E = hf
T/K = × 273.16
( pV ) tr hf = + E k(max)
1
pV = 3
Nm c2 hf = E 2 – E 1
3 h
energy of a molecule = kT λ=
2 mv
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(ii) State how you would use the graph to find the electric potential difference between the
points A and B.
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(1 mark)
(2 marks)
(ii) The charge is distributed uniformly over the Earth’s surface. Calculate the charge per
square metre on the Earth’s surface.
(2 marks)
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A student sets up the system shown in Figure 2 to determine the acceleration of a cart down a ramp.
Figure 2
As the cart passes the coils an emf is induced in each coil. The outputs of the coils are monitored
using voltage sensors connected to a computer.
A
voltage
䉱 data capture input 1
X
B
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(c) (i) The length of a coil is 0.050 m. Show that the mean speed of the cart between A and B is
about 0.3 m s–1.
(2 marks)
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(ii) The distance between the centres of the two coils is 0.25 m. Determine a value for the
acceleration of the cart between the two coils.
(4 marks)
(d) Figure 4 shows a close up view of the magnet when it produces the voltage at the point marked
X on Figure 3. The magnet passes very close to the 120 turn coil so that the magnetic flux
density can be considered to be uniform. The magnetic flux density is 0.080 T.
Figure 4
(i) the rate at which the shaded area on Figure 4 is changing at this time;
(2 marks)
(3 marks)
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Potassium-42 decays with a half-life of 12 hours. When potassium-42 decays it emits – particles and
gamma rays. One freshly prepared source has an activity of 3.0 107 Bq.
(a) To determine the dose received by a scientist working with the source the number of gamma ray
photons incident on each cm2 of the body has to be known.
One in every five of the decaying nuclei produces a gamma ray photon. A scientist is initially
working 1.50 m from the fresh source with no shielding. Show that at this time approximately
21 gamma ray photons per second are incident on each cm2 of the scientist’s body.
(2 marks)
(b) The scientist returns 6 hours later and works at the same distance from the source.
(i) Calculate the new number of gamma ray photons incident per second on each cm2 of the
scientist’s body.
(3 marks)
(ii) At what distance from the source could the scientist now work and receive the original dose
of 21 photons per second per cm2.
(2 marks)
(c) Explain why it is not necessary to consider the beta particle emission when determining the dose
of radiation the scientist receives.
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(2 marks)
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In this question you will consider aspects involved in the communication of signals between two
points on the Earth’s surface such as those shown in Figure 5. Information may be sent through a
cable that conducts electrical signals or using radio waves transmitted through space using a satellite.
satellite
cable
transmitter receiver
Figure 5
(a) (i) Suggest two factors that need to be taken into account when considering the economic
advantages and disadvantages of the two methods of transmission.
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(2 marks)
(ii) Suggest two environmental or safety factors that need to be taken into account when
comparing the two methods of transmission.
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(2 marks)
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(iii) A satellite is necessary for the transmission of very high frequency radio signals, for
example, using microwaves. However, a satellite or cable is not necessary for the
transmission of signals in the long wave band such as those of wavelength 1500 m.
Explain why.
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(4 marks)
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(b) Figure 6 shows a system in which an unmodulated audio frequency signal is transmitted from
the transmitter to the receiver through a cable. The cable consists of two strands of insulated
copper wire.
Figure 6
The power output of the transmitter is 12.5 mW and the corresponding current in each wire is
then 2.5 mA. Power is lost to the surroundings due to the rise in temperature produced by this
current. For the transmitted signal to be detected the power input to the receiver must be at least
1.5 mW.
Each wire has a cross-sectional area 6.2 10–8 m2. The resistivity of copper is 1.7 10–8 ⍀ m.
(i) Calculate the resistance of 1.0 m of the copper wire used in the cable.
(2 marks)
(ii) Calculate the maximum distance between the transmitter and receiver at which the
transmission can be detected successfully.
(3 marks)
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(iii) In an attempt to improve the distance over which communication of this signal is possible a
designer connects transformers as shown in Figure 7. This system is similar to the one
used to transmit electrical energy from a power station to a consumer.
2.5 mA
copper cable
transmitter
receiver
12.5 mW
Figure 7
The ratio of the number of turns on the primary coil to the number of turns on the
secondary coil is 1:4 for the step up transformer and 4:1 for the step down transformer.
Two of the 7 marks in this question are available for the quality of your written
communication.
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(c) The satellites used in communication are in an orbit above the equator with a period of one day.
(i) Explain why such satellites are placed in an orbit with a period of one day.
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(2 marks)
(ii) Show that the radius of the orbit of such a satellite is 42 000 km.
(4 marks)
(iii) The radius of the Earth is 6400 km. The satellite has a mass of 2500 kg. Calculate the
change in gravitational potential energy of the satellite when it is lifted into the orbit of
radius 42 000 km.
(3 marks)
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(iv) Estimate the minimum delay time (i.e. the time between transmission and reception) of a
signal transmitted between two points on the Earth’s surface using a satellite.
The speed of the electromagnetic waves through free space is 3.0 108 m s–1.
(2 marks)
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The passage for answering questions 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 is printed on pages 17 and 18.
Detach pages 17 and 18 and read the passage before answering the questions.
Explain what is meant by gravitational collapse (lines 1–2) and how this raises the temperature of the
hydrogen gas.
Two of the 6 marks in this question are available for the quality of your written communication.
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(a) Assuming the plasma behaves as an ideal gas, show that the data in the passage suggests a
pressure of about 3 1014 Pa inside the Sun.
(3 marks)
(b) Suggest why this pressure does not result in the Sun exploding.
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(2 marks)
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(a) In a Type 1 reaction it is essential for another particle to be formed as well as the deuteron and
positron. State the name of this particle and explain why it must be present in the products.
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Thermonuclear energy
Stars are initially formed by gravitational attraction between hydrogen atoms. The gravitational collapse
raises the temperature of the gas so that eventually the atoms ionise forming a plasma which consists only
of nuclei and free electrons. When the temperature is high enough the power is then produced by nuclear
fusion.
The inside of the Sun is thought to be at a temperature of at least 1 108 K and it is radiating energy at a 5
rate of 3.9 1026 W. The high temperature and the large number of atoms per cubic metre (about
2 1029) produces a very high pressure inside the plasma. It is thought that the power is generated by a
cycle of reactions called a hydrogen cycle. In this cycle there are 3 types of reaction, illustrated in Figure 8.
H
D
Tr
He
H
H
H
H
D
Tr H
H
H
Figure 8
Type 1 Two hydrogen nuclei (11H) combine to form a deuteron (21H) with the emission of a positron,
making available 6.7 10–14 J of energy. 10
Type 2 A deuteron combines with a hydrogen nucleus to produce a tritium nucleus (31H) and
8.8 10–13 J of energy.
Type 3 Two tritium nuclei combine to form helium and two hydrogen nuclei and 2.1 10–12 J of
energy.
In each cycle two Type 1 and two Type 2 reactions occur. The net effect is the combination of four 15
hydrogen nuclei to produce a helium nucleus and two positrons. Each positron is annihilated when it
combines with an electron present in the plasma. This process releases more energy in the form of two
gamma ray photons each of energy 1.6 10–13 J.
Scientists are attempting to copy the thermonuclear process of the Sun in a fusion reactor. The most likely
successful reaction is the interaction of a deuteron with a tritium nucleus. This is a reaction that produces a 20
helium nucleus and a neutron and releases 2.9 10–12 J of energy. The raw materials of fusion reactors are
more readily available than those used in fission reactors. Deuterons are the nuclei of deuterium.
Deuterium is readily available since 0.015% of hydrogen obtained from water is deuterium. The tritium is
produced using lithium which is also fairly abundant.
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In order for a deuteron and tritium nucleus to combine they need to touch. To do this they need to have 25
about 7 10–14 J of kinetic energy which is sufficient to overcome the coulomb repulsion of the charges on
the nuclei. This means that they have to be as close together as the sum of their radii, 1.5 10–15 m and
1.7 10–15 m respectively. It is therefore necessary for the sum of their kinetic energies to be equal to the
electrical potential energy of the nuclei at this separation. This can only occur when the plasma is at a very
high temperature. 30
In the proposed system for a practical reactor the plasma will be contained by magnetic fields in a doughnut
shaped channel, called a torus. Other coils will induce high currents in the plasma. These currents will
produce the high temperature necessary to initiate the fusion process. The reaction should then become
self-sustaining. A lithium blanket will be used to absorb energy liberated by the plasma and the lithium will
then be transferred to the heat exchanger. This in turn will heat water to produce the steam used in the 35
production of electricity. The whole apparatus will have to be shielded by a material to absorb neutrons.
The shielding material will become radioactive when the reactor operates. The solid radioactive shielding
is less dangerous than the radioactive by-products of a fission reactor because these by-products can be
leaked into the environment.
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(a) (i) Calculate the total energy liberated in one hydrogen cycle.
(3 marks)
(ii) Determine the mass change during one complete hydrogen cycle.
(2 marks)
(b) Calculate the number of helium nuclei being produced in the Sun each second.
(1 mark)
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(a) For this question you will need the following additional data.
(i) Show that 7 10–14 J is sufficient for a deuterium and tritium nucleus to touch and undergo
fusion.
(3 marks)
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(ii) Calculate the temperature at which the mean kinetic energy of the nuclei is sufficient for
fusion to take place.
(2 marks)
(iii) Explain why, in practice, fusion may take place at a temperature well below that you have
calculated in part (ii).
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(b) Explain what is meant by the reaction being self-sustaining (line 34).
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(2 marks)
(c) Give two reasons mentioned in the article that make the search for a practical fusion reactor
desirable.
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(2 marks)
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END OF QUESTIONS
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