Chapter 3 Time Domain Analysis

3.1 Fundamentals of Time Domain Analysis

3.1.1 Characteristics of time domain analysis

The time domain analysis method uses Laplace transform as a mathematical tool
to directly solve the time response of the control system based on the differential
equation of the system. The control performance of the system, such as stability,
accuracy, and rapidity, is then analyzed based on the expression of this response and
its time response curve.
In order to facilitate the design and analysis of the system, the control system has
a more unified basis, some typical test signals need to be used as the input signal of
the system input. Commonly used test signals are step signals, ramp signals,
parabolic signals, pulse signals and sinusoidal signals. These signals are simple
functions of time and are easy to generate experimentally for mathematical analysis
and experimental research.

Typical input signals

1.Definition of step function

To input a step function to the system is to add a constant-valued input quantity

to the system at t = 0, as shown in the figure:

Figure 3.1 Step Function

If A = 1, it is said to be a unit step function, denoted as 1(t).

The Rasch transform of the step function is:
 The Rasch transform of the unit step function is �(�) = �/�.
2.Speed function (ramp function)
The velocity function also becomes the ramp function. It is defined as

The input ramp function is actually relative to the system input to a signal that
varies at equal speed from time to time, the graph of which is shown in the figure.

Figure 3.2 Ramp Function

If A = 1, it is called the unit slope function. The Rasch transform of the slope
function is

The Rasch transform of the unit slope function is �/��

3.Acceleration function (parabolic function)
The acceleration function, also known as the parabolic function, is defined as:

The input parabolic function is equivalent to the input of a signal with equal
acceleration over time for the system, whose graph is shown in Fig.
If A = 1, it is a unit parabolic function
 Figure 3.3 Acceleration Function

The parabolic function is equal to the integral of the slope function over time,
and the Rasch transform of the parabolic function is:

The Rasch transformation of the unit parabolic function is �(�) = �/�� .

4.Pulse function
The pulse function is defined as:

The signal is shown in the figure:

Figure 3.4 Pulse Function

Unit pulse function �(�)，The mathematical expression is described as:

The Rasch transform of the unit pulse function is:

5.Sine function
The sine function is also called the harmonic function，The expression is:

Using a sinusoidal function as the input signal, the steady-state response of the
system to sinusoidal inputs of different frequencies can be obtained.
The Rasch transform of the sine input is

If the actual input to the control system is mostly gradually increasing signal
with time, then the choice of ramp function is more appropriate; if the role of the
input signal to the system is mostly sudden change in nature, then the choice of step
function is more appropriate.
It is important to note that the system characteristics reflected by the transition
process should be uniform for the same system, regardless of the typical input model
used.

Dynamic Performance
The time response of the control system can be divided into transient process
and steady-state process in terms of time sequence. The transition process refers to
the response process of the system from the initial state to the final state. The steady
state process refers to the output state of the system when time tends to infinity.
Delay time td: Time required for the response curve to reach half of its
steady-state value for the first time.
Rise time tr: The time required for the response to rise from 10% of the
steady-state value to 90% of the steady-state value; for systems, with oscillations it
can also be defined as the time required for the response to rise from zero to the
steady-state value for the first time. Rise time is a measure of response speed.
Peak time tp: The time it takes for the response to exceed its steady-state value
to reach its first peak.
 Adjustment time tS: The time it takes for the response to arrive and stay within
the steady-state value.
Overshoot �%: Percentage of the difference between the maximum deviation
of the response �(�� ) and the steady-state value �(∞).

Steady-state error ess: When the value of time t tends to infinity, the difference
between the actual value of the unit step response of the system ��� = � − � ∞
(the steady-state value) and the desired value is generally defined as the steady-state
error,
Obviously, when �(∞) = �, the steady-state error of the system

Figure 3.5 Dynamic Performance

Among the above performance indicators, the delay time �� , rise time �� and
peak time �� characterize the speed of the initial phase of the system response; the

regulation time �� characterizes the time of the system transition process and is an
indicator of the system speed; the overshoot �% reflects the smoothness of the
response process; the steady-state error ��� reflects the accuracy of the system in
reproducing the input signal.
 3.2 First-order system analysis and calculation

3.2.1 The mathematical model of the first-order system

A system described by a first-order differential equation is called a first-order
system. The differential equation of a typical closed-loop control first-order system is

Its closed-loop transfer function is:

A typical first-order system is shown in the figure,�/�� is the integral link, and
� is his time constant:

Figure 3.6 First-order System

3.2.2 Unit step response of first-order system

Suppose the input of the system is a unit step function � � = � � , and its
�
Laplace transform is � � = �, then the Laplace transform of the output.

or

�
��� = � represents steady-state component;��� =− �−� represents dynamic
component
When the initial condition is zero, the change curve of the unit step response of
the first-order system is a monotonically rising exponential curve.
 The unit step response curve in the step system is a curve that starts from zero,
rises exponentially and finally tends to 1. The response curve is non oscillatory, so it
is also called aperiodic response.
As shown in the following figure:

Figure 3.7 Unit Step Response of First-Order System

Characteristic:
1). The time constant can be used to measure the value of the output of the system
2). The initial slope is �/�
3). No peak time, no overshoot; steady-state error ��� = �

Performance index:
Delay time: �� = �. ���

Rise time: �� = �. ���

Adjustment time:
 3.3 Second order system analysis

A system described by a second-order differential equation is called a

second-order system.
Many high-order systems can be approximated as second-order systems under
certain conditions.
Therefore, the second-order system has important research significance.

3.3.1 Mathematical model of second order system

The differential equation of the second-order system is

The structure diagram of the second-order system is shown in the figure:

Figure 3.8 Structure Diagram of Second-Order System

The closed-loop transfer function of the system is:

� is the open-loop magnification of the system, and � is the time constant.

�� = �/� is called the undamped self-oscillation frequency.

� = 1/� �� is called the damping coefficient (damping ratio).

The closed-loop characteristic equation of the system is

The two roots of the equation are

The unit step response of the second-order system can be obtained by taking
Laplace transform from the above formula Distribution of eigenvalues (closed-loop
poles) of second-order systems on the s-plane:

Table 3.1 Unit Step Response of Second-Order System

Underdamped
state

Critical
damping state

Over damping
state

Zero damping
state
 Negative
damping state

3.3.2 Unit step response of second-order system

Assuming that the input of the system is a unit step function,

The unit step response of the second-order system can be obtained by taking
Laplace transform from the above formula.
1.Over damping state (� > 1)
The system has two unequal negative real poles

The closed-loop transfer function is

Therefore, the overdamped second-order system can be regarded as the series

connection of two inertia links with different time constants.
In the formula

and
When the input is a unit step signal � � = �/�, the output of the system

Take the Laplace transform of �(�) to obtain the unit step response

The steady-state component is 1, and the dynamic component is two exponential

terms

Figure 3.9 Unit Step Response Curve of Over Damped Second-Order System

When the damping ratio � > �, the motion state of the second-order system is
over damped. The unit step response of the system has no oscillation, overshoot and
steady-state error.
2.Critical damping state
The system has two equal negative real roots ��,� =− ��
So

Taking the inverse Laplace transform of �(�), the unit step response of the
second-order system under critical damping is obtained

3.Underdamped state

The underdamped second-order system has a pair of conjugate complex roots

with negative real parts.
The general form of the closed-loop transfer function of the system is
The characteristic root is a pair of conjugate complex roots

�� = �� � − �� is called damping oscillation coefficient

When the input signal is unit step action

Taking the inverse Laplace transform of �(�), the unit step response of the
second-order system under underdamping is obtained

Or

In the formula

The response of the system is composed of steady-state component and dynamic

component. The value of the steady-state component is equal to 1, and the dynamic
component is an oscillating process that decays with the increase of time �.
 Figure 3.10 Unit Step Response of Second-Order Systems with Underdamping

According to the above analysis, the response of the second-order system has
different characteristics at different damping ratio.
Therefore, the damping ratio is an important characteristic parameter of the
second-order system.
If �� � is selected as the abscissa, the unit step response curve of the
second-order system with different damping ratio can be made.
The smaller ζ is, the more severe the response characteristic oscillates. As it

increases to a certain extent, the response characteristic becomes monotonous.

As shown in the figure, the curve is only related to the damping ratio

Figure 3.11 General Curve of Unit Step Response of Second-Order System

Stationarity: The greater the damping ratio �, the smaller the overshoot, the
weaker the oscillation tendency of the response, and the better the stationarity. On the
contrary, the smaller the damping ratio �, the stronger the oscillation and the worse
the stability.
When � = �, zero damping response

The response is constant amplitude oscillation with frequency �� .

Therefore, under a certain damping ratio, the larger �� , the higher the
oscillation frequency �� , and the worse the stability of the system response.
In order to make the unit step response of the system stable, it requires a large
damping ratio � and a small natural frequency �� .
Rapidity: � is too large, the system response is slow, the adjustment time �� is
long, and the rapidity is poor;� is too small. Although the initial speed of response is
fast, because of strong oscillation and slow attenuation, the adjustment time �� is also
long and the rapidity is poor.
For a certain damping ratio �, the corresponding dimensionless time response is
certain. Therefore, when � is constant, the larger �� is, the shorter the adjustment
time �� is, that is, the faster it is.
Steady state accuracy: the transient component decays to zero with the increase
of time �, and the steady-state component is equal to �. Therefore, there is no
steady-state error in the unit step response of the underdamped second-order system.

3.3.3 Performance index of unit step response of underdamped

second-order system
When the system is affected by external disturbance or the reference input
changes, the controlled quantity will change accordingly. After a period of time, the
controlled quantity will return to the original equilibrium state or reach a new given
state, which is called the transition process.
In the time domain, the overshoot �%, rise time �� , peak time �� , adjustment

time �� and oscillation number � of the system output under the action of unit step
signal are commonly expressed.
1.Rise time �� :
The time when the unit step response curve first reaches the steady-state value is
the rise time.

We conclude that
 When �� is constant, the greater the damping ratio �, the longer the rise time
�� .
When � is certain, the smaller �� , the longer �� .
2.Rise time ��

The time required for response curve �(�) to reach the first peak from zero is
called peak time.

The peak time can be obtained by deriving time t and making it zero：

The time to reach the first peak should meet

The peak time is about half of the damped oscillation period.

3.Overshoot � \ %
In the response process, the ratio of the maximum difference between the output
C(t) and its steady-state value is called overshoot.

The peak time is substituted into the unit step response expression to obtain the
maximum value of the output.

、
So

Overshoot is only a function of damping ratio.

4.Adjustment time ��
The minimum time required for the response curve to reach and stay within the
error range of �% or 2% of the steady-state value is called the adjustment time.
According to the definition of adjustment time

and

so

Rewrite condition to

We conclude that
When the damping ratio � ≤ � ≤ �. �, it can be approximately taken as

When designing a second-order system, � = �. ��� is generally taken as the

optimal damping ratio.
5.Oscillation times �
The number of oscillations � is half of the number of times that the unit step
curve �(�) of the system crosses the straight line of its steady-state value �(∞)
within the time interval of � ≤ � ≤ �� , that is

�.� �.�� �−��

If the error band of �% is taken, �� = �� ,then � = ��
�

�.� �.�� �−��

If the error band of �% is taken, �� = �� ,then � = ��
�

The number of oscillations is only related to the damping ratio �

 Figure 3.12 Performance Index of Dynamic System

3.3.4 Measures to improve the response performance of

second-order system
1. Proportional differential control

Figure 3.13 Proportional Differential Control

The open-loop transfer function of the system is

The closed-loop transfer function is

 �
In this formula, �� = � + � �� ��� is called the equivalent damping ratio.
The setting of �� � is equivalent to increasing the damping ratio, thus
weakening the overshoot and improving the stability of the system.
2.Speed measurement feedback control

Figure 3.14 Speed Measurement Feedback Control

The open-loop transfer function of the system is

The closed-loop transfer function of the system is

�
In this formula, �� = � + � �� �� is called the equivalent damping ratio.
 3.4 Stability and algebraic criterion of control
system

In the analysis and research of control system, the most important problem is the
stability of the system.
When the unstable system is disturbed by some external or internal factors, the
controlled quantity will deviate from the original equilibrium working state and
diverge with the passage of time.
Therefore, unstable systems cannot work properly. In this section, we will
discuss the definition of stability, the necessary and sufficient conditions of stability
and the basic methods of judging stability.

3.4.1 Concept of stability

Figure 3.15 Concept of Stability

Stability is the primary condition for the normal operation of the control system in
practical application. It is one of the basic tasks of automatic control theory to analyze and
judge the stability of the system and put forward the conditions and methods to ensure the
stability of the system on this basis. The ability of the system to recover from the initial
deviation state to the original equilibrium state when the disturbance effect disappears.
Stable: return to equilibrium point when the disturbance effect disappears.
Unstable: cannot return to equilibrium when the disturbance effect disappears.

Figure 3.16 Stable system

For instance, Figure A shows a stable system. In Figure B, the ball is in the range of c
and d, and the system is stable, so it can be considered as a conditionally stable system.
3.4.2 Definition and mathematical conditions of stability
Stability is a kind of restoring ability of the system itself after the disturbance
disappears. It is an inherent characteristic of the system, which only depends on the
structure and parameters of the system and has nothing to do with external effects.
Definition of stability of linear steady system:

If the linear steady system is disturbed and deviates from the original equilibrium
state ,and when the disturbance disappears, the system can gradually return to the
original equilibrium state, the system is said to be asymptotically stable (referred to
asstability for short). Otherwise, the system is said to be unstable.
Let the linearized incremental differential equation of the system be

Laplace transform the above formula to obtain

Abbreviated as

In the formula:

It is the closed-loop characteristic of the system, also known as the output

operator.

It is called input operator. �(�) is the input signal; �(�) is the output signal; �(�) is a
polynomial related to the initial state of the system.
Output �(�) can be written as

Assuming that the characteristic equation � � = 0 has � different characteristic

roots ��(� = 1,2, ···, �), then
So that

Assuming that �(�) has a mutually different pole � � � ( � = 1 , 2 , … , � ) , the

output can be developed into the following partial fractions.

Where ��0, �� ��� �� are undetermined coefficients.

Inverse Laplace transform, and get

Where the second term is the steady-state component; The first and third items
are dynamic components. Transient component, depends on �� ,determined by
structural parameters of the system.

The definition of stability is the ability of the system to recover from the initial
deviation state to the original equilibrium state when the disturbance effect disappears.

Which could be written as

Therefore, if the system is to be stable, it only needs that the dynamic component
in the formula asymptotically becomes zero with the passage of time.

In this formula, � � = � � � + � � is any constant value. So there should be

 For all �� , the limit goes to 0. Therefore, the stability of the system only depends
on the properties of the characteristic root � � .

The necessary and sufficient condition for the stability of the system is that all
roots of the characteristic equation of the system have negative real parts.
Condition 1: When �� are real number

, it’s a stable system.

In the condition 1, �� ＝�� .

Figure 3.17 Condition 1

Condition 2: when �� are complex number

, it’s a stable system.

In the condition 1, �� ＝�� ± ��� (�� ≠0)

 Figure 3.18 Condition 2
Conclusion:
The sufficient and necessary conditions for system stability are: All roots of
the characteristic equations of the system have negative real parts, or locate to the
left of the imaginary axis of the s-plane.

Figure 3.19 Roots of the stable system

3.4.3 Algebraic stability criterion

1. Hurwitz stability criterion
The general form of the characteristic equation of the system is

Coefficient of the first term in the formula >

A necessary and sufficient condition for the stability of the system: the 1.
Hurwitz determinant ��( �= 1, 2, 3, . . . , ) of the characteristic equation is all
positive
 Where the coefficient of footnote greater than n or negative footnote coefficient
is replaced by zero.
2. Lienard-Chipard stability criterion

This criterion is essentially a generalization of the Hurwitz stability criterion,

which can reduce the workload of calculating determinants.
The necessary and sufficient conditions for system stability are:
(1) The coefficients of the characteristic equation of the system are greater than zero,
that is � � > 0 ( � = 0,1,2,3…, �)
(2) The Hurwitz determinant of odd or even order is greater than zero
Note:
(1) it is a necessary condition for system stability; If ai>0 is satisfied, continue the
calculation according to (2).
Example:
Characteristic equation of closed loop system

Using Hurwitz criterion to judge the stability of the system.

Step1: Get the coefficients from the characteristic equation

Step 2: Calculate the Hurwitz determinant of each order

Conclusion: Unstable system.

3. Routh stability criterion
 If the characteristic equation of the system is

The necessary and sufficient condition for system stability is:

The calculated values of all elements in the first column of the Routh table are
greater than zero. If there are elements less than zero in the first column, the system is
unstable.
And the number of changes of numerical symbols in the first column is
equal to the number of positive real part roots of the characteristic equation of
the system.

Table 3.2 Routh table

It can be seen from the Routh table that the Routh criterion and the Hurwitz
criterion are essentially the same. There is the following relationship between the
values in the first column of the Routh table and the Hurwitz determinant:
Routh Criterion Conclusion
Stable: If all entries in the first column of Routh table are greater than zero, the system is
stable.
Unstable: If a value less than zero appears in the first column of Routh table, the system is
unstable;
The number of data sign changes in the first column is equal to the number of positive
real part roots of the characteristic equation of the system, that is, the number of unstable
roots in the system.
For example:

Write Routh table:

Table 3.3

1 3 5
2 4 0

0+

0- -

5 +
Conclusion:
System Unstable, two roots with positive real parts.
4. Special case of Routh criterion
i.The first column of a row in the labor table is zero, while other items are
not zero, or not all are zero.
When calculating the first element of the row under the Routh table, infinity
will appear, making the Routh criterion invalid.
Characteristic equation:

Solution: List the Routh table

Zero appears, But denominator can not be 0.Use � substitute 0, (� : a small positive number)
 Conclusion: System Unstable, 2 positive real part roots
ii.A row in Routh table is 0
This situation shows that there are some characteristic roots with the same
absolute value but different symbols in the characteristic equation.
An auxiliary equation �(�) = 0 is constructed with the coefficients of the
upper row of all zero rows, and its derivative is obtained. The coefficients of the
obtained equation are used to replace the elements of all zero rows, and the
calculation continues according to the requirements of the Routh stability criterion
until all Routh tables are obtained.
For example:

Method: Construct a auxiliary equation �(�) based on the above row.

Calculate the derivative:

Change sign twice:

Solve the equation:

Conclusion:
The system is unstable, and have 2 positive real part roots and 2 pure imaginary roots.

Step 1:
Find whether the missing term exist, the coefficients are greater than 0.
If missing term exist or negative coefficient, the system is unstable.
Step 2:
If all coefficients of characteristic equation greater than 0, use Hurwitz criterion or
Routh criterion to determine the stability of system.
 3.5 Steady state accuracy analysis

3.5.1 Definition of error and steady state error

The error �(�) of the system is generally defined as the difference between the
desired value and the actual value.

Figure 3.20 Transfer Function of System

Generally, there are two definitions of error:

1. � � = � � − � �

2. � � = � � − � �
When the feedback channel �(�) = �, the two definitions are formally unified
as

Definition of steady state error:

The steady-state component of the stable system error signal is called the
steady-state error of the system, expressed in ��� .

3.5.2 Calculation of steady state error

Terminal value theorem:
If the Laplace transform of e(t) is e (s), and , exist, then

there is

Application conditions:
The poles of ��(�) are located in the left half plane of s.
 The total steady-state error ��� of the system can be obtained by calculating the
Laplace transform �(�) of the error under the simultaneous action of input signal
and interference.
According to the second definition:

�(�) is the feedback quantity, and its expression is

is the closed-loop transfer function of feedback �(�) to input R(s)

is the closed-loop transfer function of feedback �(�) to interference

�(�)
According to

We can conclude that

�(�) can be written as

��(�) is the error image function caused by the input signal

��(�) is the error image function caused by interference

For example
The system structure diagram is shown in the figure below. When the input
signal �(�) = �, calculate the steady-state error � ��of the system under the action
of the input signal.
 Figure 3.21 The Structure Diagram of The System

Solution:
First, identify the stability of the system. For a stable system, it is meaningful to
calculate the steady-state error.
Closed loop characteristic equation of system

According to the stability criterion

(1)Each coefficient is greater than zero，then � > �，� >− �.

(2)

So the stability condition is � < � < �

Then calculate �(�). When the interference �(�) = �

So

Input signal �(�) = �, so

Finally, the steady-state error ��� is calculated by the terminal value theorem.
Verify the use conditions of the final value theorem, assuming that the system
meets the stability conditions, � < � < �.
 There is no pole on the right half plane of s and the imaginary axis, which
satisfies the application conditions of the terminal value theorem

3.5.3 Steady state error of the system under different typical

input signals
When there is only input function, the structure diagram of the system is

Figure 3.22

The open-loop transfer function of the system is

Because the limit of � � �(�) when s tends to zero is �/�� , so

The above formula shows that the steady-state error ��� of the system is not
only related to the external action �(�), but also related to the open-loop gain � and
the number of integration links of the system �.
1.Steady state error at unit step input
 For unit step input, � (�) = �/�, the steady-state error of the system is
obtained as

Suppose �� = ��� � � � � ，�� is called steady-state position error.

�→�
�
Steady state position error can be expressed as ��� = .
�+��
Therefore, under the unit step input, the given steady-state error depends on the
position error coefficient of the system.
For type 0 system, � = �

For type 1 systems (or systems higher than type 1), � ≥ �

Because there is no integration link in the type 0 system, its steady-state error to
the step input is a certain value, and the size of the error is inversely proportional to
the open-loop amplification coefficient � of the system.
The larger � is, the smaller ��� is. As long as � is not infinite, there is always
an error in the system.
For the actual system, the steady-state error is usually allowed, but it is not
allowed to exceed the specified index.
In order to reduce the steady-state error, the open-loop amplification factor of
the system can be increased if the stability conditions allow. If the steady-state error
of the system to the step input is required to be zero, the system of type 1 or
higher must be selected.
2.Steady state error of unit slope input
�
For unit slope input � � = ��, the system error is
 Suppose�� = lim � � � � � ，�� is called steady-state position error.
�→0

Then the steady-state velocity error can be expressed as

Therefore, under the unit slope input, the given steady-state error depends on the
velocity error coefficient.
For type 0 systems, � = �

For type 1 systems，� = �

For type 2 systems (or systems higher than type 2)

The calculation shows that under the action of unit slope input, the steady-state
error of type 0 system is ∞, while the steady-state error of type 1 system is a certain
value, and the error is inversely proportional to the open-loop amplification factor.
In order to make the steady-state error not exceed the specified value, the
� value of the system can be increased.
The steady-state error of type 2 or higher system is always zero.
Therefore, for the unit slope input, in order to make the steady-state error of the
system a certain value or zero, it must be � ≥ �, that is, the system must have enough
integration links.
3.Steady state error of unit parabola input
 �
For unit parabolic input � � = , the steady-state error of the system is
��

Suppose �� = ��� �� � � � � , �� is the steady-state acceleration error

�→�

coefficient.
�
Steady state error can be expressed as ��� =
��
For type 0 system, � = �

�
Steady state error can be expressed as ��� = � = ∞
�

For type 1 system, � = �

For type 2 system, � = �

For type 3 systems (or systems higher than type 3)

The above calculation shows that under the input of unit parabola. The
steady-state error of type 0 and type 1 systems is ∞.
The steady-state error of type 2 system is a certain value,the error is inversely
proportional to the open-loop amplification factor.
For type 3 or higher systems, the steady-state error is zero. However, it is
difficult to make the system stable at this time.
Under the action of various typical input signals, the given steady-state errors
of different types of systems are shown in the table below.
Acceleration
Step
Ramp input input
System static error input
category coefficient

Table 3.5 Systematic error under the action of input signal

To sum up, the steady-state error coefficients �� , �� ,,and �� . The ability of the

system to reduce and eliminate the steady-state error is described, which can
represent the steady-state characteristics of the system.
Increasing the open-loop amplification factor � or increasing the number of
integral links in the open-loop transfer function can reduce or eliminate the
steady-state error of the system. However, these two methods are limited by the
stability of the system.
For example
The system structure is shown in the figure. Known input signal

Calculate the steady-state error ��� of the system (the error is defined
as e=r-c).

Figure 3.23

Solution
First, judge the stability of the system

Then, the steady-state error is calculated

There is an integral link in the open-loop transfer function, so it is a type I
system, and the open-loop gain � = �, then when �(�) = �(�),���� = �.

System steady state error

3.5.4 Relationship between steady-state error and system

structure under interference �(�)

Figure 3.24

Steady state error under interference

 Figure out the value of �� �
�
According to � � = �

The results show that the steady-state error of the system under interference is
related to �1 before the interference action point. The larger �� is, the smaller the
steady-state error ���� is

3.5.5 Methods to improve the steady-state accuracy of the

system
1. Compensate according to interference

Figure 3.25

Closed loop transfer function of output �(�) to interference �(�)

If ∅�·� � can be made zero, the influence of interference on the output can be
eliminated.
According to the numerator is zero

The condition for full compensation of interference is

2. Compensate according to the command signal

 Figure 3.26

The error is defined as

So

In order to make � � = �, it should be ensured that

We conclude that