Paper No.

: 01 Physical/ Biological Anthropology

Module : 20 Homo sapiens

Development Team
Prof. Anup Kumar Kapoor
Principal Investigator
Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Prof. Subho Roy

Paper Coordinator
Department of Anthropology, University of Calcutta

Dr. Shailendra Kumar Mishra

Content Writer
Department of Anthropology, University of Allahabad, Allahabad

Prof. Barun Mukhopadhyay

Content Reviewer
Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata
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Physical /Biological Anthropology

Anthropology
Homo sapiens
 Description Of Module

Subject Name Anthropology

Paper Name 01 Physical/Biological Anthropology

Module Name/Title Homo sapiens

Module Id 20

Physical /Biological Anthropology

Anthropology
Homo sapiens
 Contents of This Unit
1. Introduction
2. Homo sapiens
3. Approaches to understand modern human origin
(a) Complete replacement model
(b) Partial replacement model
(c) Regional continuity/multiregional model
(d) A critical appraisal of the models of modern human evolution
4. Major fossil discoveries of modern human
(i) Africa
(ii) Asia
(iii) Europe
(iv) Australia
5. Technology and art
(i) Upper Paleolithic technology
(ii) Upper Paleolithic arts
6. Conclusions
7. Summary points

Learning Objectives:
1. To develop an understanding about characteristic features of H. sapiens.
2. To describe various fossil finds discovered from several places in Africa, Asia, Europe and
Australia.
3. To discuss various models of the evolution of modern human.
4. To describe Paleolithic and artistic cultural traditions associated with H. sapiens.

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 Homo sapiens

INTRODUCTION

Over past few decades, scholars of several disciplines remained keen to understand emergence and
evolution of biologically and behaviorally ‘modern’ human. New discoveries and new scientific
techniques have changed the discourse about evolution of modern man. Sophisticated dating methods
and molecular approaches have brought a paradigm shift in discoveries and interpretation on human
evolution. Acknowledging abilities to exploit surrounding environment, emergence and existence of
human particularly Homo sapiens remained central issue of debate in modern academic thoughts.

Discoveries of Homo erectus from several sites in different continents inculcated interest among
scholars to trace missing links between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens. Interpretation of Petralona
skull by Stringer, Howell and Melentis showed that size of brain case, difference in skull structure
pertaining to enlarged brain size are distinguishing features from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens
(Stringer et al., 1979). Several discoveries from Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia and New world have
established antiquity of Homo sapiens fossils and associated tool technologies as well as arts.

HOMO SAPIENS: There is no general agreement about the definition of Homo sapiens. Certain
biological and cultural characteristics are attributed to the species ‘sapiens’ which includes increased
size of brain case, increased height of skull vault, smaller amount of constrictions or wasting behind
the orbits, relatively lower position of ridges on skull for the attachment of neck muscles. Associated
with this are cranial capacity of 900 to 2300 cc, rounded occiput, bent basicrania, maximum skull
breadth higher on the skull, flatter face, well defined chin and smaller incisors as distinct feature of
Homo sapiens. Postcranial features include straighter long bones with less articular surface for the
attachment of muscles, bones are thinner than in Neanderthals, sockets of femurs are farther forwarded
and less powerful grip, etc (Stein and Rowe, 2011).

Owing to changed climatic conditions during Pleistocene period Homo sapiens evolved and developed
advance tool technology and associated art traditions. Upper Paleolithic period is mainly associated to
early Homo sapiens. Several scholars believe that pictorial art originated with modern man. Although
Neanderthal and modern people emerged almost together yet pictorial art developed not before 40,000
years ago. This suggests that pictorial art is a result of environmental changes and cultural exchange
and not because of biological modifications. People before modern man might have other creative
outlets which are a matter of investigation for present day palaeoanthropologists.

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 APPROACHES TO UNDERSTAND MODERN HUMAN ORIGIN

The dominant hypotheses to understand origin of modern human are:

(a) Complete/total replacement model

(b) Partial replacement model
(c) Regional continuity model/multiregional evolution model

Complete/total replacement and regional continuity/multiregional models are two prominent however
totally opposite views from each other. The third theory i.e. partial replacement model is a
compromised view incorporating some aspects of both the models.

Complete/ Total Replacement Model: This model was proposed by British Anthropologists
Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews (1988). This hypothesis says that Homo sapiens have evolved
in Africa around 200,000 years ago. It also proposes that anatomically modern human population
emerged only in African continent and then fully modern human migrated to Asia and Europe i.e.
transition from pre-modern to modern exclusively took place in Africa as a result of speciation process.
Thus migrated Homo sapiens could not interbreed with non-African human populations in other
continents. And populations belonging to genus Homo in other continents were different species such
as Neanderthal was H. Neanderthalensis and so on. This explanation fit well with the proposition of
complete replacement. Genetic techniques have changed the theories of human evolution. Genetic
studies used numerous contemporary human populations as a data source to precisely determine and
compare a wide variety of DNA sequence. They considered Y chromosome and mt-DNA differences
particularly informative since neither is significantly recombined during sexual reproduction. It is
noteworthy that Y chromosome follow paternal line of inheritance (from father to son) and mt-DNA
follow maternal line of inheritance (from mother to daughter) without significant deviation.
Accumulated data about populations worldwide have shown that African aborigines have far greater
diversity than population elsewhere across the globe. Apart from genetic data on contemporary human
populations, DNA samples were collected from more than a dozen of Neanderthal fossils. Further,
researchers have recently sequenced the mt-DNA of nine ancient fully modern H. sapiens from sites in
Italy, France, Czech Republic and Russia. Preliminary results from these studies also support complete
replacement model (Caramelli et al., 2003). However, more analysis is needed to confirm the results as
several questions have been raised against the findings of these studies.

Partial Replacement Model: In fact majority of the scholars are of the view that modern human
evolved in Africa and that when their population swelled up they migrated to Asia, Europe and other
parts of the globe. But, unlike complete replacement model, supporters of partial replacement
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 hypothesis argue that some interbreeding has taken place between African emigrants and resident pre-
modern populations of the regions. Thus, they opine that no speciation has occurred and resident pre-
modern populations were members of species H. sapiens. Günter Bräuer, John Relethford, and Fred
Smith are main proponents of this model (Relethford, 2001).

Regional Continuity Model/Multiregional Evolution Model: Proponents of this model suggest that
major sections of local indigenous populations in Africa, Europe and Asia continued their indigenous
evolutionary development from Middle Pleistocene form to modern human (Wolpoff et al., 2001). A
general and broad anatomical and genetic similarity among different population groups across the
globe is hard to be explained by this model. To counter this argument multiregional model theory says
that gene flow was possible during Pleistocene period and therefore anatomical and genetic similarities
among the population are quite natural. The hypothesis further argues that because of natural selection
and gene flow, evolution of several population groups in a particular region was not totally
independent. The process of mixing prevented speciation helped evolution of human as only one
species i.e. Homo sapiens however it remained quite polytypic (Smith et al., 1989). The model says
that all hominins following H. erectus are classified as a single species H. sapiens. In spite of a strong
view on regional evolution of modern human the model also accepts influence of African emigrants
throughout the world which can easily be detected.

A critical appraisal of the models of modern human evolution: Despite over popularization and
dramatic representation of their views proponents of the theories of evolution of modern human are
now conversing to a consensus view. Recent palaeoanthropological discoveries, data from sequenced
ancient DNA and sequenced data from contemporary human populations suggest that a strong
multiregional model is inadequate to explain evolution of modern human. The proponents of
multiregional theory argue that anatomically modern human in Asia, Europe and other regions has
evolved from their pre-modern ancestors with only limited interbreeding with African emigrants. It is
difficult to defend their views with available evidence across the globe. As of now there is hardly any
evidence to oppose complete replacement model but the finding of the recent discoveries suggest about
the potential for at least some amount of interbreeding of African emigrants with indigenous
populations elsewhere. Therefore both complete replacement and multiregional model are going to be
insufficient to explain the phenomenon of evolution of modern human.

MAJOR FOSSIL DISCOVERIES OF MODERN HUMAN

AFRICA: Fossils discovered from Africa are the oldest. Fossils from Omo Kibish in Ethiopia are
dated about 195,000 years old as determined by radiometric dating techniques. Marked differences in
morphological characteristics of two fossils (Omo 1 and Omo 2) discovered from this site. Fossil Omo

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 1 is definitely modern morphological characteristics as it has well defined chin whereas Omo 2 has
robust i.e. less modern morphology.

Year 2003 is benchmark in the history of modern human fossils in Africa when the discovery of Herto
fossil (one adult skull, one child skull and another incomplete skull) from Middle Awash region of
Ethiopia took place. These are best dated hominin fossils from this time period (White et al., 2003).
Using radiometric dating these fossils were estimated 160,000 to 154,000 years old. The preservation
quality and morphology of fossils clearly demonstrate their close relationship to modern humans. The
cranial capacity of these fossils is 1450 cc i.e. very similar to contemporary H. sapien populations.
They were named Homo sapiens idaltu to distinguish them from H. sapiens sapiens. In Afer language
‘idaltu’ means elder.

The fossil finds from Klasies River mouth and Border Cave in South Africa bears many characteristics
similar to modern humans.

ASIA: The sites yielded fossils of modern human populations which are mainly located in Israel,
China and Indonesia. In Israel, anatomically modern human fossils, almost of Neanderthal time, were
discovered from Jebel Qafzeh and Tabūn (Grun and Stringer, 1991). The fossils were dated as 120,000
to 92,000 years ago. Most of the fossil remains showed modern characteristics however few
representative fossils have pre-modern characteristics. Such early dates of the fossils raises question
against theory of complete replacement and also supports the view that modern human and
Neanderthals were together.

Significant modern human fossil sites in China are Zhoukoudian and Tianyuan caves. The sites belong
to Late Pleistocene period with dates less than 40,000 years ago. Upper cave of Zhoukoudian yielded
three skulls with cultural materials dated about 27,000 years old. Forward jutting zygomatic arch and
shovel shaped incisors similar to modern Asian populations are important evolutionary characteristics
present in one of skull. Near to Zhoukoudian another cave named Tianyuan has yielded skull, teeth and
several postcranial bones (Shang et al., 2007). The antiquity of fossil finds was ascertained around
40,000 years old. The postcranial skeleton shows mostly modern characteristics and few pre-modern
characteristics as well. Experts have noted that the fossils were found to have African origin however
some amount of inbreeding with resident indigenous populations cannot be ruled out.

The other important site is Niah cave in Borneo island of Indonesia from where skull of an adult
female was recovered. The radiocarbon dating has estimated the age of fossil to be about 41,000 years
old. The skull lacks brow ridges, forehead is high and the back of the head is rounded. The features of
Niah skull resemble modern populations of New Guinea. It was also concluded by few researchers that
populations contemporary to Niah had perhaps the first people to populate Australia.

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 EUROPE: Earliest discoveries about H. sapien fossils are made from sites in Romania, Czech
Republic, France, etc. Cranial remains of three individuals were recovered from Oase Cave in
Romania. Despite being quite robust, cranium has a clear chin and a canine fossa (Trinkaus et al.,
2003) which is similar to modern specimens. Several crania recovered from Mladeč in Czech Republic
exhibit variation among them. The average features are intermediary forms between Neanderthal and
modern man (Trinkaus et al., 2005).

Western Europe particularly southern France has been treasure trove of hominin fossils.
Palaeoanthropological research in this region has spanned more than 150 years. These fossils remained
major evidence for the theories on modern human evolution as material from other regions of the world
were not available for comparisons. Discoveries from other parts of the globe and new dating
technologies have changed the discourse of human evolution since the last few decades. The best
yielding site of modern human fossils is Cro-Magnon, a rock shelter in southwestern France. From this
site several partial skeletons were recovered that are believed to be prototypes of H. sapiens. A section
of scholars believed that Cro-Magnon people were light skinned, beardless, upright-walking
individuals who replaced Neanderthals from Europe. Cro-Magnons generally are characterized by
broad and small faces with high foreheads and prominent chins and their cranial capacity is 1590 cc.
With the help of postcranial remains their height was estimated to be 163 to 183 cm, however their
skin colour, amount of body hair is a mere guess work.

AUSTRALIA: The earliest fossils remains discovered so far come from Lake Mungo in southeastern
Australia. The fossils suggest that population in the region had modern anatomical features. Another
important site in Australia is Kow Swamp. The fossils bear several archaic features however it’s
postcranial resembles that of Austalian aborigins (Hudjashou, 2007). It is believed that human’s
migrated to Australia about 50,000 years ago and populated this continent.

TECHNOLOGY AND ART

The period of modern human evolution is essentially associated with Pleistocene environment which
remained crucial in evolution of technology and art of this population. This Upper Paleolithic culture
was distributed in Europe, Asia and Africa. The environment was changing and it helped in emergence
of Tundra in Europe. Vegetation supported growth of large herds of animals. Therefore cooperative
group hunting evolved during this period unlike individualistic hunting. The major animals for hunting
were reindeer, horse, bison, fish and so on. It seems that man might have altered the fauna of the region
by hunting and by use of fire (Jurmain et al., 2011).

Upper Paleolithic Technology: The Upper Paleolithic is generally characterized by stone blades
which were very efficient tools. Blades are made over stone flakes. The sides of flakes are roughly

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 parallel with sharp edges. The ratio of height to breadth is more than 2:1. Flakes to prepare blades were
removed from carefully prepared cores (Stein and Rowe, 2011). Capability to make blades shows
efficiency of man to use natural resources. With the blades an array of tools were prepared for
specialized purposes unlike Lower Paleolithic period where handaxe was used as general tool. By
adding simple tools in different ways complex tools were prepared. During Upper Paleolithic bones,
antlers, horns and ivory were also used to prepare more efficient tools as these raw materials had many
advantages over stones. Use of bone resulted into development of burin which had a point that
withstands tough pressure. Compound projectile tools having different parts were the reason for the
success of Upper Paleolithic Culture. In such tools, wooden’s hafts were used to mount blades and to
provide extra force during hunting. Spear and harpoon were other important tools during Upper
Paleolithic period. Eyed needle was another important tool which was made form bone or ivory and
was perhaps used for stitching warm clothes (Jurmain et al., 2011).

Upper Paleolithic Arts: During Upper Paleolithic Period variety of artistic methods and styles were
developed. Evolution of paintings and engravings took place during this period, as a result, colourful,
stylized, realistic and geometric arts were evolved. Modeling of clay as well as paintings and
engravings on big surfaces such as cave wall to small objects such as antlers were done. Famous statue
includes Venus figurine with pronounced buttock and breast which represents fertility or motherhood.
These figurines were made on various materials (Stein and Rowe, 2011). Scholars have concluded that
artistic works of Upper Paleolithic People were combination of events of daily life chores and
expression of spirituality. The earliest artistic work of Upper Paleolithic was dated about 32000 years
old. Upper Paleolithic arts were reported from France, Italy, Spain, etc. (Jurmain et al., 2011).

Tool making traditions is Upper Paleolithic mainly included Chatelperronean, Aurignatian,

Gravettianas, Solutrean and Magdalenian. In Europe, archeological sites from France have yielded
almost all five types of traditions of Upper Paleolithic period. Chatelperronean appeared about 32000
years ago and had a combination of industries. Aurignatian tradition was mainly associated with Cro-
Magnon man. It came just after Chatelperronean. Around 28000 years ago people started making tools
on bones and antlers and ivory. Gravettian is known for predominant use of bones as raw material for
tool making. Solutrean is more sophisticated tradition compared to earlier ones. Magdalenian tradition
was generally associated with Neanderthal man. Almost similar blade industries were reported from
regions such as Middle East, India, Siberia other than European countries (Stein and Rowe, 2011).

CONCLUSION

To know about our own evolution always remained a hunch of palaeoanthropologists. Fossil
discoveries and analytical research have established that antiquity of modern human goes back to
195,000 years in Africa. Fossil evidence suggests that human reached Asia around 100,000 years ago,
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 about 50,000 years back in Europe and around 35,000 years back in Australia. From last few decades
debates are going on about the date and location of the origin of behaviourally and anatomically
modern human population. In general, two opposite models have been proposed i.e. complete
replacement and regional continuity. A third view is a rapprochement between both the models i.e.
partial replacement. Complete replacement model argues that modern human fully evolved in Africa
and then migrated to other regions of the world and replaced population residing there such as
Neanderthals in Europe. Regional continuity model says that indigenous ancestors of different regions
of the world evolved into modern human such as Neanderthals which gave rise to European
population. The proponents of partial replacement model suggest that African emigrants though
replaced indigenous populations in various regions of the world however some amount of
interbreeding also took place. Evolution of modern human is also associated with cultural evolution i.e.
evolution of refined tool traditions and arts. Almost everywhere early fossils of modern human
remained associated with Upper Paleolithic Culture. Blades and burins were the characteristic tools
along with compound tools made by mounting basic tools on suitables haft. Such tools were efficient
in cooperative hunting of the big animals abundant during that period. Cave arts, beautiful figurine,
engravings, colorful, stylized and geometrical artistic works are important characteristics of Upper
Paleolithic Period. With gradual evolution these cultural traditions reached their zenith i.e. civilization
in later era.

SUMMARY POINTS

· Research to trace evolutionary history of behaviorally and physically modern human started in
Europe about hundred years back. Later it extended to other parts of the globe.
· Fossils of early modern human were discovered from Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia and even in
New World.
· Based on fossil evidence and molecular data two schools of thought (complete replacement and
regional continuity) were proposed to explain origin and peopling of modern human across the
world. An intermediary model was also proposed by certain scholars.
· Evolution of modern human is also associated with evolution of tool and artistic traditions. With
few variations, evidence has been collected from different areas of the globe including cave arts to
symbolic arts and figurines to statues.

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