Source: Blay, B. E. (2007). Elementary Statistics. Pasig City: Anvil Publishing, Inc.

Part 1: Basic Terms

1. Statistics – a science of
 collecting
 organizing
 analyzing
 interpreting numerical data.

Application: Through statistical tools, a teacher can determine the effectiveness of a particular teaching method by analyzing test
scores obtained by their students. Results of this study may be used to improve teaching-learning activities.

Areas of Statistics
a. Descriptive Statistics – concerned with describing the characteristics and properties of a group of persons, places, or things.
Example: The statement “A teacher wishes to determine the percentage of students who passed the examination” uses
descriptive statistics.
Descriptive statistics can answer the questions:
What are the characteristics of the most likeable mathematics instructors?
How many students are interested to take Calculus?
b. Inferential Statistics – deals with making inferences about the population on the basis of the information obtained from the
sample.
Example: The statement “A manager would like to predict the sales performance of a company for next year based on
previous years’ sales” uses inferential statistics.
Inferential statistics can answer the questions:
Is there a significant difference between the academic performance of I-Psy2 and I-Psy3 students in Statistics?
Is there a significant correlation between educational attainment and job performance rating?

2. Population and Sample

Population – set of all individuals or entities under consideration.
Sample – a part of a population; a representative of the population in a research study.
Example: A researcher would like to determine the percentage of female Psychology students in CCC. The population is the set
of all female students in CCC.

3. Parameter and Statistic

Parameter – any numerical value which describes a population.
Statistic – any numerical value which describes a sample.
Example: Of the 500 students enrolled in Accounting, 400 are female.
N = 500 is a parameter and n = 400 is a statistic.

4. Data – facts or set of information gathered or under study.

a. Quantitative data – numerical in nature and therefore meaningful arithmetic can be done.
Example: age
i. Discrete data – assume exact values only and can be obtained by counting.
Examples: number of students
ii. Continuous data – assume infinite values within a specified interval and can be obtained by measurement.
Examples: height
b. Qualitative data – attributes which cannot be subjected to meaningful arithmetic.
Examples: gender

5. Constant and Variable

Constant – a characteristic of a population or sample which makes the members similar to each other.
Example: gender in a class of all boys
Variable – a characteristic of a population or sample which makes the members different from each other.
Example: gender in a coed school
A researcher would like to determine the number of female Accounting students in CCC. The variable for the population is sex.

Classifications of Variables
 a. Dependent variable – a variable which is affected by another variable.
Example: test scores
Independent variable – a variable which affects the dependent variable.
Example: number of hours spent in studying
b. According to Levels of Measurement
Level 1: Nominal – do not mean anything; they just label.
Example: name
Level 2: Ordinal – used to label and rank.
Example: year level
Level 3: Interval – used to label and rank; have no true zero.
Example: IQ score
Level 4: Ratio – used to label, rank, and equal unit of interval; have a true zero.
Example: number of votes
c. Variables may also be classified as quantitative (discrete or continuous) or qualitative.

Part 2: Sampling and Data Collection

Sampling – process of selecting samples from a given population.

Slovin’s Formula – used to determine the sample size

n = sample size
N = population size
e = margin of error
Examples:
1. Find n if N = 10,000 and e = 5%; n = 385
2. Find n if N = 10,000 and e = 1%; n = 5,000
Note: Slovin’s formula is just a guide for obtaining the number of samples. You can get more than what is suggested by the formula
but not below it.

Sampling Techniques
1. Probability sampling – method of sampling that utilizes some form of random selection; samples are chosen in such a way that
each member of the population has a known though not necessarily equal chance of being included in the samples.
Advantages:
 It avoids biases that might arise if samples were selected based on the inclination of the researcher.
 It provides the basis for calculating the margin of error.
a. Simple random sampling – samples are chosen at random with members of the population having an equal chance of being
included in the samples.
Examples: lottery, generation of random numbers
b. Systematic random sampling – samples are randomly chosen following certain rules set by the researcher. This involves
choosing the kth member of the population, with k = N/n, but there should be a random start.
Example: Choose a sample of size 10 from N = 500 using systematic random sampling.
Solution: k = 50; random start = 30; samples: 30, 80, 130, 180, 230, 280, 330, 380, 430, and 480.
c. Stratified random sampling – this method is used when the population is too big to handle, thus dividing N into subgroups,
called strata, is necessary. Samples per stratum are then randomly selected, but considerations must be given to the sizes
of the random samples to be selected from the subgroups.
Note: A process that can be used is proportional allocation. This procedure chooses sample sizes proportional to the sizes
of the different strata.
Example: See attached photocopy.
d. Cluster random sampling – sometimes called area sampling because it is usually applied when the population is large. In
this technique, groups or clusters instead of individuals are randomly chosen. In cluster sampling, members of the sample
are drawn by group or cluster and then a sample from each group or cluster are selected individually.
Example: A researcher wants to determine the average daily expenses of families living in Calamba. Assuming that there are
200 barangays in Calamba. He can draw a random sample of 20 barangays using simple random sampling and then get a
certain number of families from each of the 20 barangays.
2. Non-probability sampling – each member of the population does not have a known chance of being included in the sample.
Instead, personal judgment plays a very important role in the selection.
Note: Non-probability sampling is one of the sources of errors in research.
a. Convenience sampling – this type is used because of the convenience it offers to the researcher.
Example: Collection of data through the telephone
b. Quota sampling – this is very similar to the stratified random sampling. The only difference is that the selection of the
members of the samples in stratified sampling is done randomly.
Example: To get the most popular TV show, each field researcher is given a quota of say 100 viewers per area.
c. Purposive sampling – choosing the respondents on the basis of predetermined criteria set by the researcher.
Example: Suppose the research is all about the level of maturity of teenage parents in a particular school. Of course only
teenage parents in that school will be the respondents.

Data-Gathering Techniques
1. Direct or interview method – researcher has direct contact with the respondents.
Example: A researcher interviews respondents regarding their stand on a particular issue.
Advantage: more accurate responses since clarification can be done easily
Disadvantages: costly and time-consuming
2. Indirect or questionnaire method – researcher gives a questionnaire to the respondents either by personal delivery or by mail.
Example: A researcher makes a survey regarding the opinion of CCC students on the implementation of the dress code.
Advantage: saves time, money and effort since large number of samples can be reached
Disadvantage: retrieval problem (some respondents will simply ignore the questionnaire)
Some Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire
a. It should contain a short letter to the respondents which includes:
 purpose of the survey
 assurance of confidentiality
 name of the researcher or writer of the questionnaire
b. There is a descriptive title for the questionnaire.
c. It is designed to achieve objectives.
d. The directions are clear.
e. It is designed for easy tabulation.
f. It avoids the use of double negatives.
g. It phrases questions well for all respondents.
Types of Questionnaire
a. Open – this type has unlimited responses.
b. Closed – this type limits the scope of responses.
c. Combination – this type is a combination of open and closed types of questionnaire.
Types of Questions
a. Multiple choice – allows respondent to select answer/s from the list.
b. Ranking – asks respondent to rank the given items.
c. Scales – asks respondent to give his degree of agreement to a statement
Example: Likert-scale
5 – strongly agree
4 – agree
3 – neutral
2 – disagree
1 – strongly disagree
Note: Likert-type questions are used if the researcher wants to know the feelings or opinions of the respondents regarding
any issue of interest.
d. Open-ended – essay type
3. Registration method – governed by laws.
Example: If a researcher wants to know the number of registered cars, he just has to go to LTO.
Advantage: most reliable since it is governed by laws
Disadvantage: data are limited to what are listed in the document
4. Experimental method – used to find out cause and effect relationships.
Example: A researcher wants to know if cooperative learning will increase the academic performance of the students.
Advantage: can go beyond plain description of a set of data
Disadvantage: has many threats to internal or external validity