MDC For BA, BCOM

Page |1 M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc;B.
Ed;
SEMESTER
1
Multidisciplinary courses offered for

B.A/B.Com/BBA/BCA Majors
PRICIPLES OF CHEMICAL SCIENCES
M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY
. M.Sc; B.Ed;
S.K.S.C DEGREE COLLEGE,

PRODDATUR.
HP
M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc;B.Ed;
Page |2 M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc; B.Ed;
SYLLABUS
Unit-1
Matter, atoms, molecules & nuclear chemistry
Classification of matter, Dalton atomic theory, Thomson model, Rutherford

model, Bohrs model of atom, quantum numbers, electron configuration, Aufbau
principle, Paulis exclusion principle, Hunds rule. Isotopes- isobars, nuclear
decay, band of stability, nuclear reaction types, and nuclear applications.
Unit- 2
Elements, classification and chemical bonding
Classification of elements, periodic classification of elements based on

electron configuration, classification into types, classification into metals, non-
metals and metalloids. Periodic properties- atomic radii, ionization enthalpy,
electro negativity, octet rule, ionic bond- properties of ionic compounds,
covalent bond-properties of covalent molecule.
Unit- 3
Acids, bases, salts, chemistry in daily life
Definition, types, and properties of acids, bases, salts, strength of acids and
bases, PH, importance of chemistry in daily life (food, drugs, textiles,
preservatives, soaps and detergents).

Unit-1
Matter, atoms, molecules & nuclear chemistry
Chemistry:
Chemistry is the study of the structure, function, and properties of matter

and the changes it undergoes.
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space (volume). Matter is made
up of small particles known as atoms. Matter can be present in different states
(solid, liquid & gas), each of them has specific characteristics.
Classification of matter:
Classification of matter in chemistry categorizes all mixtures and substances

according to their different chemical and physical properties. Physical
characteristics include size, color, shape, temperature, boiling points, melting
points, density, and mass. These properties define the physical nature of
matter.

On the other hand, chemical characteristics define the chemical elements
present in the compound. Chemical properties also describe the changes in its
identity to form new substances.
1) Classification of matter based on the physical state:
Depends on physical status a matter is divided into three types, they are
solids, liquids, and gases.
Solids:
In solid-state, the particles are held very close to each other in an orderly
fashion. Hence there is not much freedom of movement. Solids have definite
volume and definite shape. Examples are rocks, ice, wood, etc..
Liquids:
In liquid state particles have more space among them than solid particles that
is why these particles are capable of free movement. Liquids, unlike solids, don’t
have a definite shape, but they have a definite volume. They can alter their
shape and take the volume of the container in which they are kept. Examples
are water, oil, petrol, etc
Gases:
In gaseous state, the particles are far apart as compared to those present in
liquid state. Therefore movement of particles in gases is easy and fast.
Gases have neither definite volume nor definite shape, occupies the available
space of the container in which they placed. Examples are carbon dioxide, air,
etc.
2) Classification of matter based on the chemical composition:
Broad classification of matter in chemistry include dividing them into pure

substances and mixtures
Pure substances:
These substances are made of similar atoms or molecules in a define ratio.
Therefore they have a homogeneous chemical composition. Pure substances
have a fixed structure and definite melting and boiling points.
This classification of matter that is the pure substances can be further
classified into two types.
Elements
Elements are defined as pure substances that contain a single type of atom or
molecule. They can’t be broken down further by any physical or chemical means.
At present there are about 118 elements (including metals, non-metals &
metalloids) out of which only a few are commonly found around us. Examples of
elements are silver (Ag), gold (Au), sulfur (S), hydrogen (H) etc.
Compounds
A compound is formed when more than one element combines chemically in a
fixed ratio. Pure compounds(organic/inorganic) can be chemically disintegrated
or transformed into newer substances examples of these substances are salt
(NaCl) carbon dioxide(CO2), water (H2O) etc.
Impure substances:
They are made of different types of atoms or molecules. Like pure substances
their structure is not fixed or constant. Impure substances can be segregated
into pure forms with the help of purification methods like sublimation,
filtration, crystallization, etc.
This classification of matter can be further divided into two categories based
on their composition.
Homogeneous mixture
Homogeneous mixture has the same composition throughout their volume. You
can see the individual particles in a homogeneous mixture. The amount of
substances present in every sample is a homogeneous mixture is always the
same. Examples of homogeneous mixture are oil, wine, saline, water, etc.
Heterogeneous mixture
A heterogeneous mixture, on the contrary, has varied composition throughout
its volume unlike homogeneous mixtures these mixtures don’t blend perfectly.
Therefore you can determine what substances these mixtures are composed
of examples of heterogeneous mixtures include mud water, concrete, chocolate
chip cookies, etc
Dalton’s atomic theory:
To understand the laws of chemical combination (law of conservation of mass

and law of constant proportions) in 1808 John Dalton proposed atomic theory
of matter. He explained this theory by using the following 6 postulates.
Postulates:
• All matter is made-up of very tiny particles called atoms.

• Atoms are indivisible particles which cannot be created or destroyed in a
chemical reaction.
• Atoms of same substance are identical in all respect i.e they possess same
size, shape, mass, chemical properties etc.
• Atoms of different substances are different in all respect i.e they
possess different size, shape, mass and chemical properties etc.
• Atoms combine in a ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds.
• The relative number of kinds of atoms is constant in a given compound.
Limitations:
The main failures of Dalton’s atomic theory are

• An atom was no more indivisible. It is made-up of various sub-atomic
particles like electrons, protons, and neutrons etc.
• It failed to explain how atoms of different elements differ from each
other.
• It failed to explain how and why atoms of elements combine with each
other to form compound atoms of molecules
• It failed to explain the nature of forces that bind together different
atoms in molecules.
• It failed to explain Gay lussac's law of combining volumes
• It did not make any distinction between ultimate particle of an element
that takes part in reaction (atoms) and the ultimate particle that has
independent existence (molecules).
Thomson’s atomic model:
Thomson’s atomic model was proposed by William Thomson in the year 1900.
This model explained the description of an inner structure of the atom
theoretically.

Thompson assumed that an electron is 2000 times lighter than a proton and
believed that an atom is made-up of thousands of electrons. In this atomic
structure model, here considered atoms surrounded by a cloud having positive
as well as negative charges. Thomson’s model of an atom is similar to a plum
pudding OR watermelon.
Postulates of Thomson’s atomic model:
1) An atom consists of a positively charged sphere with electrons embedded

in it.
2) An atom as a whole is electrically neutral because the negative and positive
charges are equal in magnitude.
Thompson atomic model is compared to watermelon. Where he considered,
• Watermelon seeds as negatively charged particles.
• The red part of watermelon as positively charged.
Limitations of Thomson’s atomic model:

• It failed to explain the stability of an atom, because his model of atom
failed to explain how a positive charge holds the negatively charged
electrons in an atom. Therefore, this theory also failed to account for
the position of the nucleus in an atom.
• Thomson’s model failed to explain the scattering of alpha particles by
thin metal foils.
• No experimental evidence in its support.

Rutherford‘s nuclear model of atom:
Based upon the alpha scattering experiment, Rutherford proposed

nuclear model of an atom. According to this the postulates of this model
is-
1) The atom is spherical and most part of it is empty.
2) All the positive charge and the mass of the atom are concentrated in a small
region at the center of the atom called the nucleus.
3) The nucleus is surrounded by the electrons, which move around it with high
speed in circular paths called the orbits.
4) Just as planets revolve around the sun, electrons revolve around the nucleus.
Hence this model of atom is called planetary model of atom.
5) Electrons and the nucleus are held together by the electrostatic forces of
attraction.
Drawbacks of Rutherford model:

• According to electromagnetic theory, a charged particle like electron
while revolving in an orbit should radiate energy continuously. As a result it
comes closer to nucleus and finally falls into it if it happens so, atom must
collapse.
• This model cannot explain the stability of an atom.
• If electron radiates energy continuously the atomic spectrum should have
continuous lines. But atomic spectrums of element are found to contain
discrete.
• It fails to explain electronic structure of atoms.
P a g e | 10 M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc; B.Ed;
Bohr’s atomic theory or Bohr’s model of atom:
Neils Bohr proposed a model of an atom based on atomic Spectra of

hydrogen.
He retained the basic concepts of Rutherford‘s model i.e the atom has a
positively charged nucleus at the center and the electrons revolve around the
nucleus. He applied Planck’s quantum theory for revolving electron.
The main postulates are
1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus with high velocity in circular paths
called orbits or shells.
2. As long as the electron is in particular orbit its energy is constant.
Therefore, these orbits are called stationary orbits.
3. Each stationary orbit is associated with a definite energy and is known
as energy level. These energy levels are named as K, L, M, N…. etc. or
numbered as 1, 2, 3,4.. etc.
4. When an electron jumps from higher energy level to a lower energy
level, the difference in the energy is emitted as radiation in quanta
(Energy packet).
5. When an electron jumps from lower energy level to a higher energy level
the difference in energy is absorbed as radiation in quanta.
E2– E1=hv
Where,
E1 = energy of first orbit,
E2 = energy of second orbit,
h = Planck’s constant (6.625 ×10-34 J/se),
v = frequency of radiation.
6. The angular momentum of the electron revolving in a stationary orbit is
equal to integral multiples of h/2π.
Angular momentum=MVR= nh/2π (MVR=l)
Where, n=integer (1, 2, 3, 4, etc...)
h= Planck’s constant

M= mass of electron,
V= velocity of electron,
R= radius of circular path.
Therefore the angular momentum of the electron in various orbits is
equal to 1h/2π, 2h/2π, 3h/2π, 4h/2π,… etc.
Thus, angular momentum is said to be quantized.
Limitations:
1. Bohr’s theory could not explain the Spectra of atoms having more than
one electron.
Example: helium, lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon etc..
2. This theory does not explain splitting of spectral lines into a group of
lines under the influence of magnetic field (Zeeman effect) and electric
field (stark effect).
3. This theory could not justify the quantization of angular momentum.
4. This theory could not account for the formation of chemical bonds.
5. This theory assumes electrons as a particle. This is against the wave
nature of electron proposed by Debroglie.
6. This theory gives the position and velocity of electrons accurately and
simultaneously. This is against the uncertainty principle proposed by
Heisenberg.

Quantum numbers:
The numbers used for completely characterizing each electron of an atom are
known as quantum numbers. They specify the location and energy of an electron.
These are 4
1). Principal quantum number.
2). Azimuthal quantum number.
3). Magnetic quantum number.
4). Spin quantum number.
1) Principal quantum number:

• The principal quantum number was proposed by ‘Niels Bohr’.
• It is denoted by the letter ‘n’.
• It gives the size and energy of the stationary orbit. As the ‘n’ value
increases, the size and energy of the orbital also increases.
• The designation of various stationary states are shown below
Principle quantum number (n) Name of the stationary orbit

1 K
2 L
3 M
4 N
• The number of orbitals in a given orbit or shell is equal to n2.

• The maximum number of electrons in a principal quantum number is given
by 2n2.
Principle quantum number No. of orbitals (n2) Maximum no. of
(or) orbit number(n)
electrons (2n2)
1 1 2
2 4 8
3 9 18
4 16 32

2). Azimuthal quantum number:
• Azimuthal quantum number was proposed by ‘Sommerfeld’ .
• It is represented by the letter ‘l’.
• It gives the shape of the orbital
• It represents the number of sub energy levels or sub shells present
in an orbit or shell.
The number of sub shells in your shell or orbit is equal to orbit
number.
• Forgiven ‘n’ value, ‘l’ can have 0 to (n-1).
Example;
n=1 l=0
n=2 l = 0, 1
n=3 l = 0, 1, 2
n=4 l = 0, 1, 2, 3
• The designation of sub shells and their sub energy values are shown
below
Value of ‘l’ Name of sub shell
0 s
1 p
2 d
3 f
• It is also known as angular quantum number.
3) Magnetic quantum number:

• Magnetic quantum number was proposed by ‘Lande’.
• It is denoted by the letter ‘m’.
• It gives the orientation of orbitals in space.
• It represents the number of orbitals present in a subshell. The
number of orbitals in a subshell is given by the formula (2l+1).
Where, ‘l’ is equal to azimuthal quantum number.
• For a given ‘l’ value, ‘m’ can have values from -l to +l through ‘0’.
• The designation of orientation and their magnetic quantum values
are given below:

Subshell (l) Orbital (2 l + 1) ‘m’ value

s(0) 1 0
p(1) 3 -1, 0, +1
d(2) 5 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
f(3) 7 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3
4) Spin quantum number:

• Spin quantum number was proposed by ‘Uhlenbeck’ and ‘Goudsmit’.
• It is denoted by the letter‘s’.
• It gives the spin of the electron about its own axis.
• The spin can be clockwise represented by +½ or ‘’ (or) anticlockwise
represented by -½ or ‘’ .
• The two electrons having the same sign of spin are known to have parallel
spin  (or)  .
• The two electrons having the opposite sign of spin are known to have anti
parallel or paired up spins  .
• Each orbital can accommodate 2 electrons with opposite spin.
Table: various shells, sub shells and their quantum numbers
Sub Shell Principle quantum Azimuthal quantum Name of the sub

number (n) number(l) shell
K 1 0 s
L 2 0 s
1 p
0 s
M 3 1 p
2 d
0 s
N 4 1 p
2 d
3 f

Electronic configuration:
“The arrangement of electrons in various orbitals of an atom is called the

electronic configuration”.
Electron configuration mainly represented by two methods.
1) nlx method. 2) Box method.
1) nlx method: In this method ‘n’ represents the principal quantum number, ‘l’
represents the azimuthal quantum number, and ‘x’ represents the number of
electrons in the orbital.
Example: 1S2 (for helium)
2) Box method: In this method each orbital is indicated by a square box and
the spin of the electron present in each orbital is shown by upward () or
downward ()
Example: 1S2 (for helium)
The following principles are required to describe the arrangement of

electrons in an atom,
A) Aufbau principle.
B) Hund’s principle.
C) Pauli’s exclusion Principle
D) Additional stability concept.
A) Aufbau principle:
“This principle states that electrons are added progressively to the
various orbitals in the order of increasing their energy, starting with the
orbital of lowest energy”.
The energy of an orbital is given by (n+l) value
Where, n = Principal quantum number.
l = Azimuthal quantum number.
The new electrons enter empty orbitals whose (n+l) value is minimum.
Example: 1
Orbital (n+l) value.
3S 3 + 0 = 3.
3P 3 + 1 = 4.
Therefore 3S orbital is filled first.
If both the orbitals have the same (n+l) value, then the new electron enters an
orbital whose ‘n’ value is minimum.
Example: 2
Orbital (n+l) value.
3d 3 + 2 = 5.
4P 4 + 1 = 5.
Therefore ‘3d’ orbital is filled first.
The order of increasing energies is given below;
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d,
7P, 8s.
The following figure is the molecular diagram for remembering the order of
relative energies.
B) Hund’s principle of maximum multiplicity:

“This principle states that electron pairing in any orbital(s,p,d,f) Cannot
takes place until each orbital of the same sub shell contains one electron”.
Example:1
Nitrogen (Z = 7)

It has seven electrons
The 7th electron goes to 2pz orbital.
its electron configuration is 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1
Example:2
Oxygen (Z = 8)
It has eight electrons
The eighth ectron will be paired with one of the three electrons present in 2P
orbitals.
Its electron configuration is 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1
C) Pauli’s Exclusion Principle:

“This principle states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same
set of all the four quantum numbers”. This means at least one of the quantum
Numbers ‘n, l, m, s’ should be different for any two electrons in an atom.
Consider the arrangement of electrons in K shell. It consists of only one orbital
(1s orbital).
Example: The number of possible set of quantum numbers in ‘k’ shell is 2.
n l m s
1 0 0 +½ first electron
1 0 0 -½ second electron
This restricts the number of electrons in a single orbital to two.
D) Additional stability:
“An atom gets additional stability when degenerated orbitals are half
filled or completely filled”.
Example:1
The electronic configuration of Chromium is expected to be.
Cr (Z= 24) = [Ar] 4s2 3d4
But, experimentally it is found to be.

1 5
Cr (Z= 24) = [Ar] 4s 3d
This is the stable configuration because of the presence of exactly half- filled
4s and 3d orbitals.
Example:2
The electronic configuration of Chromium is expected to be.
Cu (Z= 29) = [Ar] 4s2 3d9
But, experimentally it is found to be.

Cu (Z= 24) = [Ar] 4s1 3d10
This is the stable configuration because of the presence of exactly half- filled
4s and completely filled 3d orbitals.
Isotopes and Isobars:

As we know that atoms are made up of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
The nucleus is made-up of protons and neutrons and the electrons revolve
around the nucleus. Atomic mass is the sum of protons and neutrons, and atomic
number is equal to number of protons. In an element the number of protons is
always the same, but the number of neutrons keeps on changing.
Isotopes: Isotopes are the atoms in which the number of neutrons differs, and
the number of protons is the same. From the above definition of atomic mass
and atomic number, we can conclude that “isotopes are the elements having the
same atomic number but different mass numbers”.
For example: hydrogen (H) has three isotopes, they are-
Protium ( 1H1) , deuterium (1H2), and tritium (1H3)
All the three of them have same atomic number (i.e 1), and different mass
numbers (i.e 1, 2, 3 respectively).
Isobars: Isobars are those elements that have a different atomic number but
the same mass number. Their chemical property is different because there is
difference in the number of electrons.
40
For example: 18Ar , 19K40, 20Ca
40
are the three isobars,
All the three of them have same mass number (i.e 40), and different atomic
numbers (i.e 18, 19, & 20 respectively).
Note: isotopes have different physical properties, while isobars have identical
physical properties.
Nuclear decay:
Elements with atomic number greater than 83 are unstable and

therefore undergo radioactive decay. Due to this decay unstable elements
become more stable.
Radioactive decay results in the emission of either

• An Alpha() particle
• A beta() particle
• A gamma () ray
1) Alpha () decay: -decay involves the emission of an alpha particle i.e 2He4
( particle with 2 protons and 2 neutrons or atomic no. 2, mass no. 4).
2) Beta () decay: beta decay is the emission of a beta particle from the
nucleus of an atom. Beta decay occurs when a neutron turns in to proton and an
electron.
Neutron ---------→ proton + electron (-particle)
As result of -decay, the nucleus has one fewer neutron, but one extra proton.
Hence the atomic number (Z) increases by 1 and mass (A) stays the same

Note: in the -decay and -decay processes one atom changing in to another
type of atom. This process is called ‘transmutation’. -decay and -decays are
the examples of transmutation.
3) Gamma () decay: The gamma decay is the emission of -ray, which is high
frequency electromagnetic radiation.
A -ray is not a particle like an ,  particles. Therefore, the nucleus does

not change physically when it undergoes -decay. Since during -decay the
nucleus does not undergo transmutation.
Nuclear reactions and types:
Nuclear reactions are processes in which one or more nucleotides are produced from
the collisions between two atomic nuclei or one atomic nucleus and a subatomic particle. The
nuclides produced from nuclear reactions are different from the reactant nuclei (commonly
referred to as the parent nuclei).
Two important types of nuclear reactions are
1) Nuclear fission
2)Nuclear fusion

Nuclear fission:
Nuclear fission refers to the splitting of an atomic nucleus into two or more lighter
or small nuclei. This process can occur through a nuclear reaction or through radioactive
decay.
Nuclear fission reactions often release a large amount of energy, which is
accompanied by the emission of neutrons and gamma rays (Photons holding huge amount of
energy, nough to knock electrons out of atoms).
Nuclear fission was first discovered by the German chemist Otto Hahn and Fritz
Strassmann in the year 1938. The energy produced from fission reactions is converted into
electricity in nuclear power plants. This is done by using the heat produced from the nuclear
reactions to convert water into steam. The steam is used to rotate turbine in order to
generate electricity.
Examples:
An important example of nuclear fission is the splitting of the uranium-235 nucleus
when it is bombarded with neutrons various products can be formed from these nuclear
reactions as described in the equations below.
92
235
U + 1
n ----------→ 141
Ba + Kr + 3 1n
90
235
U + 1
n ----------→ 144
Xe + Sr + 2 1n
87
235
U + 1
n ----------→ 146
La + Br + 3 1n
97
235
U + 1
n ----------→ 137
Te + Zr + 2 1n
96
235
U + 1
n ----------→ 137
Cs + Rb + 3 1n

Another important example of nuclear fission is the splitting of the Plutonium-239
nucleus.
Nuclear Fusion:
In nuclear fusion reactions, at least two atomic nuclei combined or fuse into a single
nucleus. Subatomic particles such as neutrons or protons are also formed as products in
these nuclear reactions.
An illustration of the nuclear fusion reactions between deuterium (2H) and tritium
(3H) that yields helium (4He) and a neutron (1n) is provided above. Such fusion reactions
occur at the core of the Sun and other stars. The fusion of deuterium and tritium nuclei is
accompanied by loss of approximately 0.0188 Amu of mass (which is completely converted
into energy). Approximately 1.69 x 109 kilojoules of energy are generated for every mole of
Helium formed.

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Page |1 M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc;B.

Multidisciplinary courses offered for

S.K.S.C DEGREE COLLEGE,

Matter, atoms, molecules & nuclear chemistry

Classification of matter, Dalton atomic theory, Thomson model, Rutherford

Elements, classification and chemical bonding

Classification of elements, periodic classification of elements based on

Acids, bases, salts, chemistry in daily life

M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc;B.Ed;

Chemistry is the study of the structure, function, and properties of matter

Classification of matter in chemistry categorizes all mixtures and substances

M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc;B.Ed;

1) Classification of matter based on the physical state:

2) Classification of matter based on the chemical composition:

Broad classification of matter in chemistry include dividing them into pure

Dalton’s atomic theory:

To understand the laws of chemical combination (law of conservation of mass

• All matter is made-up of very tiny particles called atoms.

The main failures of Dalton’s atomic theory are

Thomson’s atomic model:

M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc;B.Ed;

Postulates of Thomson’s atomic model:

1) An atom consists of a positively charged sphere with electrons embedded

Limitations of Thomson’s atomic model:

M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc;B.Ed;

Based upon the alpha scattering experiment, Rutherford proposed

Drawbacks of Rutherford model:

Bohr’s atomic theory or Bohr’s model of atom:

Neils Bohr proposed a model of an atom based on atomic Spectra of

The main postulates are

M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc;B.Ed;

M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc;B.Ed;

1) Principal quantum number:

Principle quantum number (n) Name of the stationary orbit

• The number of orbitals in a given orbit or shell is equal to n2.

M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc;B.Ed;

• It is also known as angular quantum number.

3) Magnetic quantum number:

M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc;B.Ed;

Subshell (l) Orbital (2 l + 1) ‘m’ value

4) Spin quantum number:

Sub Shell Principle quantum Azimuthal quantum Name of the sub

M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc;B.Ed;

“The arrangement of electrons in various orbitals of an atom is called the

The following principles are required to describe the arrangement of

B) Hund’s principle of maximum multiplicity:

M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc;B.Ed;

C) Pauli’s Exclusion Principle:

This restricts the number of electrons in a single orbital to two.

But, experimentally it is found to be.

But, experimentally it is found to be.

Isotopes and Isobars:

For example: hydrogen (H) has three isotopes, they are-

Protium ( 1H1) , deuterium (1H2), and tritium (1H3)

Elements with atomic number greater than 83 are unstable and

Radioactive decay results in the emission of either

Neutron ---------→ proton + electron (-particle)

M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc;B.Ed;

A -ray is not a particle like an ,  particles. Therefore, the nucleus does