Page |1 M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc;B.

Ed;

SEMESTER
1

Multidisciplinary courses offered for

B.A/B.Com/BBA/BCA Majors
PRICIPLES OF CHEMICAL SCIENCES
M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY
. M.Sc; B.Ed;

S.K.S.C DEGREE COLLEGE,

PRODDATUR.
HP
M.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY M.Sc;B.Ed;
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SYLLABUS

Unit-1

Matter, atoms, molecules & nuclear chemistry

Classification of matter, Dalton atomic theory, Thomson model, Rutherford

model, Bohrs model of atom, quantum numbers, electron configuration, Aufbau
principle, Paulis exclusion principle, Hunds rule. Isotopes- isobars, nuclear decay,
band of stability, nuclear reaction types, and nuclear applications.

Unit- 2

Elements, classification and chemical bonding

Classification of elements, periodic classification of elements based on electron

configuration, classification into types, classification into metals, non-metals and
metalloids. Periodic properties- atomic radii, ionization enthalpy, electro
negativity, octet rule, ionic bond- properties of ionic compounds, covalent bond-
properties of covalent molecule.

Unit- 3

Acids, bases, salts, chemistry in daily life

Definition, types, and properties of acids, bases, salts, strength of acids and
bases, PH, importance of chemistry in daily life (food, drugs, textiles,
preservatives, soaps and detergents).

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Unit-II

ELEMENTS, CLASSIFICATION AND CHEMICAL BONDING

Classification of Elements- Definition, and Periodicity

Definition:

”An element is a pure substance consisting of only one type of atom which all have the
same numbers of protons in their nuclei”.

Classification of Elements:

Introduction:
Our surroundings are made up of basic units known as elements. Only 31 elements were
known around 1800. Later, with technological advancements, 63 more elements were
discovered. As the number of elements grew, it became necessary to classify them on a
regular basis.
There are currently 118 elements, 93 of which are found naturally, and the rest were
created in laboratories. It was difficult to study these elements independently without
first establishing a relationship between them based on their properties. As a result, these
elements are organized or classified into different categories or groups based on
similarities and differences in their properties, as well as periodicity. Because the elements
in the classification of elements are arranged in groups known as periods, this classification
system is known as the periodic classification of elements.

What is the Classification of Elements?

The grouping of elements with similar characteristics is known as the Classification of

elements. Even though each element is distinct from the others, some elements share
similarities. Based on these similarities, scientists were eventually successful in grouping
the various elements into groups or chemical families, so that, similar elements were
grouped together and dissimilar elements were separated from one another after showing
a group. Thus, the Classification of elements leads to the formation of the periodic table.

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Need for Classification of Elements

Elements are the basic units of all matter. Some of the advantages of classification of
elements are given below:

1. Classification assists us in understanding the properties of elements and their

compounds.
2. It is simpler to study, compare, and distinguish the properties of elements and
compounds from different groups.
3. The properties of elements and their compounds can be predicted based on their
position in the periodic table.

Classification of elements based on their electronic configuration:

Based on the sub shell in which differential electron enters, elements are classified into
s, p, d & f- blocks.
s-block:
1. In these elements the differentiating electron enters into s- sub shell of outer orbit.
Hence these elements are called s-block elements.

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2. This block contains two groups,1 and 2.
3. These elements are placed in left side of the periodic table.
Group 1: General outer electronic configuration is ns1 (Alkali metals)
Group 2: General outer electron configuration is ns2 (Alkali earth metals)
4. In general outer electron configuration of all s-block elements is ns1-2.
5. All is block elements are highly electropositive metals (except Hydrogen).
p-block:
1. In these elements the differentiating electron enters into a p-sub shell of outer orbit.
Hence these are called P-block elements.
2. This block contains six groups.
3. These are placed in right side of the periodic table.
Group 13: General outer electronic configuration ns2np1 (Boron family).
Group 14: General outer Electronic Configuration ns2np2 (Carbon family).
6. Group 15. General Outer Electronic Configuration ns2np3 (Nitrogen family).
7. Group 16.General outer electronic configuration ns2np4 (chalcogens).
8. Group 17. General Outer Electronic Configuration ns2np5 (Halogens).
9. Group 18, General Outer electronic configuration ns2np6 (Noble gases).
10. General outer electronic configuration of all p-block elements is ns2np1-6.
11. All non metals, metalloids and some metals are present in this block.
d-Block:
1. In these elements the differentiating electrons enters into penultimate d-subshell (nd).
Hence these elements are called as d-block Elements (or) transition elements.
2. These are arranged in four series. First three series contains only 10 elements. 4th series is
incomplete series.
3.These d-block elements are arranged in between s & p-block of the modern periodic table
3-d series: 4th period: Sc (21)to Zn (30)
4-dseries: Fifth period: y (39) to Cd (48).
5d-series: sixth period: La (57) and Hf (72) to Hg (80).
6d- series: Seventh period: starts with Ac (89)
4. General outer electronic configuration of d-block elements is (n-1) d1-10 ns1-2 .
5. They are all metals and have high melting and boiling points. All transition elements are
present d-block.
f-Block:
1. In these elements the differentiating electrons are enters into (n-1) f-subshell. Hence
these elements are called as f-block or inner transition elements.
2. These elements are unstable and radioactive.
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3. These elements are called synthetic elements. These are arranged in two series. These
are placed at the bottom of the periodic table.
4f-series: These are called Lanthanides, Ce(58) to Lu (71).
5f- series: These are called Actinides,Th (90) to (103)
1-14
7. General outer electronic configuration of f-block elements is (n-2)f (n-1)d0-1 ns2
8. They are all metals. Elements after uranium are called transuranium elements.

Periodic Classification of Elements in Periodic Table

Based on nature and characteristics, elements are classified into three main types:

(i) Metals:
These comprise 78% of all the known elements and appear on the left-hand side of
the periodic table. All the s, d, and f block elements are metals. Usually, Metals are solid
at room temperature with high melting and boiling points. Except for mercury because it is
liquid at room temperature. They are shiny, hard, malleable, ductile and good conductors of
heat and electricity.

(ii) Non-metals:
These elements lie on the top right-hand side of the periodic table. The number of
non-metal is very few. Non-metals are either solids or gases at room temperature except
bromine which is liquid with low boiling and melting point. They are bad conductors of heat
and electricity, and they are brittle solids.

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(iii) Metalloids:
These have specific characteristics common to both metals and non-metals. These
are also known as semi-metals.

Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties

Periodic properties are properties of elements directly or indirectly related to the
electronic configuration of their atoms and show gradation as they move down a group or
along a period.

1. Atomic and Ionic Radii:

The distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell containing the electrons
is known as atomic radius.

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Depending on the nature of the bonding in the atoms, atomic radii is classified into three
forms.

Variation of atomic radii in the periodic table

(a) Variation along a period: The atomic radii of elements decreases with an increase in
atomic number as we move from left to right in a period. For example, consider the atomic
radii of the elements of the second period.

Atom (Period 2) Li Be B C N O F Ne

Atomic radius (in 152 111 88 77 70 74 72 160

pico meters)

(b) Variation within a group: The atomic radii of elements increases with an increase in
atomic number as we move from top to bottom. For example, consider the atomic radii of
the members of the alkali metal group.

Alkali metals(Group 11) Atomic radius

Li 152
Na 186
K 231
Rb 244

2. Ionization Enthalpy:

It is the amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bonded electron from
an isolated gaseous atom in order to transform it into a gaseous cation (or energy). It is
denoted by ΔiH .
The following factors determine the ionization enthalpy:

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1. Atomic size: The ionization energy decreases as the atomic size increases because the
electrons are away from the nucleus and thus easy to be removed. It, therefore, increases
when the atomic size decreases.
2. Effective nuclear charge: Ionization energy increases with increased effective nuclear
charge because a heavier nuclear charge pulls electrons strongly towards themselves.

3. Screening effect of the inner electrons: This is also called the shielding effect of the
inner shell electrons on the nuclear pull for outer electrons. This effect causes a decrease
in the ionization energy because outer electrons are less strongly held.
Variation of Ionic enthalpy in the periodic table
a. Variation along a period: As we move from left to right in a period, the ionization
enthalpy increases with an increase in atomic number. This is because the size of the atom
decreases with an increase in atomic number, and thus the electrons of the valence shell
are closer to the nucleus and are pulled strongly by the protons. Thus, to remove an electron
from an atom, more energy is needed.
b. Variation within a group: The ionization enthalpies keep on regularly decreasing as we
move down a group from one element to the other. This is because there is an increase in
the number of the main energy shells moving from one element to the other element and
there is also an increase in the magnitude of the screening effect due to the gradual
increase in the number of inner electrons.

3. Electro negativity:
The tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons towards
itself is called its electro negativity.

Electronegativity values also depend on the following factors:

I. Atomic size: As the atomic size increases, electronegativity decreases. This is because
the electrons are far from the nucleus, and there is a lesser force of attraction.
II. Nuclear charge: As the nuclear charge increases, electronegativity increases. This is
because an increase in nuclear charge causes electrons attraction with greater force.
Variation of Electronegativity in the periodic table
a. Down the group: The electronegativity decreases as the atomic number increases from
top to bottom. This is because An atom with a small atomic size has more attraction for the
electrons than an atom having a larger atomic size. Since the atomic size increases along
with a group, the electronegativity decreases as the atomic number increases from top to
bottom.
b. Along a period: Electronegativity increases along a period due to the increase in the
nuclear charge. This is because an atom with a small atomic size has more attraction for
the electrons than the atom having a larger atomic size (in a chemical bond). Now, across a

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period, the atomic size decreases. Therefore, electronegativity (attraction for electrons)
increases as the atomic number increases from left to right.

The Octet Rule:

The octet rule dictates that atoms are most stable when their valence shells are filled with
eight electrons. It is based on the observation that the atoms of the main group elements have
a tendency to participate in chemical bonding in such a way that each atom of the resulting
molecule has eight electrons in the valence shell. The octet rule is only applicable to the main
group elements.

The molecules of the halogens, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon are known to obey the octet rule.
In general, the elements that obey this rule include the s-block elements and the p-block
elements (except hydrogen, helium, and lithium).

The octet rule can be observed in the bonding between the carbon and oxygen atoms in a
carbon dioxide molecule, as illustrated via a Lewis dot structure below.

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The shared electrons fulfil the valency requirements of both the bonded atoms. Thus, it can
be noted that both the oxygen atoms and the carbon atom have an octet configuration in the
CO2 molecule.

Upon observing that the noble gases were chemically inert, the electronic theory of valency
was proposed by the German physicist Walther Kossel and the American chemist Gilbert Lewis.
It was based on the tendency of atoms to assume the most stable state possible.

Examples
A few examples detailing the chemical bonding of atoms in compliance with the octet rule can
be found in this subsection.

NaCl (Sodium Chloride)

• This compound features an ionic bond between the sodium ion (Na +) and the
electronegative chloride ion (Cl–).
• The chlorine atom holds 7 electrons in its valence shell and can attain an octet
configuration by gaining an electron.
• The outermost shell of sodium has one electron. If it loses this electron, the second
shell would become the valence shell (which is already filled with 8 electrons). Thus, the
Na+ ion is more stable than metallic sodium.
• The sodium cation and the chloride anion now form an ionic bond, and the resulting
molecule features octet configurations for both the participating atoms.

MgO (Magnesium Oxide)

• The bond between magnesium and oxygen in magnesium oxide is ionic in nature.
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• The magnesium atom readily loses two electrons to obtain the stable electronic
configuration of neon. This leads to the formation of the Mg 2+
• Similarly, oxygen gains two electrons to form the O2-
• The electrostatic attraction that arises between these two ions leads to the formation
of an ionic bond between them.
• Both the atoms in a molecule of MgO have stable octet configurations.

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

Not all elements and compounds follow the octet rule. Some of the exceptions to this rule are
listed below.

• An ion, atom, or a molecule containing an unpaired valence electron is called a free

radical. These species disobey the octet rule. However, they are very unstable and tend
to spontaneously dimerize.
• Since the first shell can only accommodate two electrons, elements such as lithium,
helium, and hydrogen obey the duet rule instead of the octet rule. For example, lithium
can lose an electron to have a stable configuration in which the valence shell holds two
electrons.
• Due to the presence of a d-orbital, the transition elements do not obey the octet rule.
The valence shells of these atoms can hold 18 electrons.
• Aromatic compounds involve a delocalization of pi electrons. These electrons
obey Huckel’s rule

Ionic Bond or Electrovalent Bond

Ionic Bond:
“The electrostatic force of attraction which holds the two oppositely charged
ions together is called the ionic bond”.
• A chemical bond is formed between two atoms by the complete transfer of one or more
electrons from one atom to the other as a result of which the atoms attain their
nearest inert gas configuration.

• An ionic bond or electrovalent bond is an electrostatic attraction where

one atom donates an electron to another atom. The transfer results in the atom that
loses an electron become a positively charged ion or cation, while the atom gaining the
electron becomes a negatively charged ion or anion. But, the net charge on an ionic
compound is zero (neutral). This type of chemical bond occurs between atoms with very
differently electronegativity values, such as metals and nonmetals or various molecular

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ions. Ionic bonding is one of the main types of chemical bonding, together with covalent
bonding and metallic bonding.

Examples of Ionic Bonds

The classic example of an ionic bond is the chemical bond that forms between sodium and
chlorine atoms, forming sodium chloride (NaCl). Sodium has one valence electron, while chlorine
has seven valence electrons. When a sodium atom donates its lone electron to chlorine, the
sodium gains a +1 charge, but becomes more stable because its electron shells are complete.
Similarly, when chlorine accepts an electron from sodium, it gets a -1 charge and completes
the octet of its valence electron shell. The resulting ionic bond is very strong because there
is no repulsion between neighboring electrons.

Properties of Ionic Compounds

• Ionic Compounds have high boiling and melting points as they’re very strong and require a lot
of energy to break.

• The electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions lead to the
formation of ions.

• Ionic compounds form crystals.

• These compounds are brittle and break into small pieces easily.

• Electrovalent compounds usually dissolve in water and are insoluble in solvents like oil, petrol,
kerosene, etc.
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• Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in a solid-state but they do conduct electricity
in the molten state.

• In comparison to molecular compounds, ionic compounds have higher enthalpies of fusion and
vaporization.
Covalent Bond
Covalent bond:
“A Covalent bond is formed by a shared pair of electrons from both the participating
atoms”. The atoms will reach stability in their outer shell, comparable to noble gas atoms, as a
result of this electron pair sharing.

This process when an element shares its electrons with another element (same or different)
to acquire a stable electronic configuration, it is called covalence.

For example, in H2, both the hydrogen atoms will share one electron each to acquire a stable
electronic configuration, so its covalencey is 1.

Atoms with high ionization energy and low electron affinity are not able to lose or gain
electrons easily. Due to this reason such elements share electrons to achieve noble gas
configuration and attain stability. Such association through the sharing of electrons is known
as the Covalent Bond.

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Formation of covalent bonds

Covalent bonding can be achieved in two ways:

• Sharing of electrons between atoms of the same kind e.g., H2,Cl2, etc.

• Sharing of electrons between atoms of different kind e.g., CH 4, H2O, etc.

Properties of Covalent Compounds:

1. The covalent compounds exist as gases or liquids or soft solids.

2. The melting and boiling points of covalent compounds are generally low.

3. Covalent compound are insoluble in water but dissolve in organic solvents.

4. They are non-conductors of electricity in solid, molten or aqueous state.

5. They are soft in nature and relatively flexible

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Ionic Bond Vs Covalent Bond

Ionic Bond Covalent Bond

The ionic bond is the attraction between The covalent bond is a bond formed when two
positive and negative ions in a crystal and atoms share one or more electron pairs. Each
compounds held together by ionic bonds are atom contributes an equal number of electrons
called ionic compounds. towards the bond formation.

If the difference of ionization potential Atoms with higher ionization potential are unable
between the two atoms is more ionic to lose their valence electrons and hence prefer
compounds are formed. to form covalent bonds by sharing of electrons.

Atoms with greater electronegativity If the electronegativities of the combining

difference lead to the formation of an ionic atoms do not differ much then the bond formed
bond. between them is likely to be covalent.

Example: NaCl Example: HCl

THE END

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