Saline Soils in India

REVIEW
published: 06 October 2020

doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2020.533781
Soil Salinity and Food Security in

India
Pardeep Kumar 1* and Pradeep K. Sharma 2†
1
Department of Soil Science, Chaudhary Sarwan Kumar (CSK), Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya (HPKV), Palampur,
India, 2 Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Jammu, India
India would require around 311 million tons of food grains (cereals and pulses) during
2030 to feed around 1.43 billion people, and the requirement expectedly would further
increase to 350 million tons by 2050 when India’s population would be around 1.8
billion. To achieve food security in the country, the attempts need to focus on both area
expansion under agriculture as well as rise in crop productivity. Massive urbanization
is putting pressure on agricultural lands, resulting in shrinking of land holdings. The
possibility of area expansion under agriculture, therefore, exists in restoring the degraded
lands. Nearly 147 million ha of land is subjected to soil degradation, including 94 million
ha from water erosion, 23 million ha from salinity/alkalinity/acidification, 14 million ha
from water-logging/flooding, 9 million ha from wind erosion and 7 million ha from a
Edited by: combination of factors due to different forces. Government of India has fixed a target
Nishant K. Sinha,
Indian Institute of Soil Science
of restoring 26 million ha of degraded lands, including salt-affected soils, by the year
(ICAR), India 2030 to ensure food security for the people. Around 6.74 million ha area in the country
Reviewed by: is salt-affected. Estimates suggest that every year nearly 10% additional area is getting
Jagdish Chander Dagar, salinized, and by 2050, around 50% of the arable land would be salt-affected. Saline
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR), India soils occupy 44% area covering 12 states and one Union Territory, while sodic soils
Tibin Zhang, occupy 47% area in 11 states. The ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute and
Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
many State Agricultural Universities are engaged in studying salt-affected soils and
*Correspondence:
Pardeep Kumar
developing reclamation technologies and strategies. Several innovative technologies
[email protected] have been developed and on-farm tested. Gypsum-based sodic soil reclamation,
† Present address:
sub-surface drainage of water-logged saline lands, salt tolerant crop varieties and
Pradeep K. Sharma improved agroforestry techniques are some of the well-adapted technologies in the
VPO Aima, country. Reclamation of 2.18 million ha of salt-affected soils (2.07 million ha barren
Palampur, India
sodic soils and 0.11 million ha saline soils) has contributed more than 17 million
Specialty section: tons of food grains per annum to the country’s food basket, with additional annual
This article was submitted to income of Rs. 15.5 billion, and employment generation of 2.8 million man-days. Other
Agroecology and Ecosystem Services,
a section of the journal
technologies of management of salt-affected soils, viz. alternate land-use systems, saline
Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems aquaculture, cultivation of salt tolerant crop varieties, agro-forestry, phytoremediation,
Received: 10 February 2020 bioremediation etc. have positively impacted food and nutritional security, women
Accepted: 31 August 2020
empowerment, involvement of landless laborers and minimizing rural migration etc. The
Published: 06 October 2020
ongoing consistent research efforts for the management and reclamation of such soils
Citation:
Kumar P and Sharma PK (2020) Soil would hopefully continue ensuring food security in the country. The Government needs
Salinity and Food Security in India. to make policies favorable for implementation of reclamation technologies in the country.
Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 4:533781.
doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2020.533781 Keywords: degraded lands, salinization, saline soils, sodic soils, reclamation technologies, food security
Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 1 October 2020 | Volume 4 | Article 533781
Kumar and Sharma Soil Salinity and Food Security
INTRODUCTION TABLE 1 | Global average feed conversion efficiency per animal category and
production system.
India supports nearly 18% of the world’s human population
Animal category Feed conversion efficiency (kg dry
and 15% of the world’s livestock population on merely 2.4% mass feed/kg output)
of the world’s geographical area (Bhattacharyya et al., 2015).
Since independence, India has made significant achievement in Beef cattle 46.9
agriculture sector. Food grain production increased by about Sheep and goat 30.2
5.5 times, from merely 50 million tons in 1950 to 275 million Pig 5.8
tons in 2017, making India not only self-sufficient but net Broiler chicken 4.2
exporter of food grains. According to Tiwari (2020), with a Layer chicken 3.1
record production of rice and wheat at 116.48 and 103.60 Dairy cattle 1.9
million tons, respectively, the country registered record food
Dry mass feed includes grains (fit for consumption by human beings), forage and other
grain production of 285.17 million tons in 2018–19. While the materials (not fit for human consumption).
increase in food grain production during 1949–65 was mostly due Source: Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2010).
to area expansion under cultivation (Narain, 1977; Vaidyanathan,
1986), after mid-sixties, the adoption of a package of high
yielding inputs, including use of high yielding varieties, assured in general are shifting from staple food grains toward high-
irrigation, use of plant protection measures and credit support value horticultural and animal products (Kumar et al., 2007;
was responsible for increased production (Dantwala, 1986). It Mittal, 2007). Although it may lower per capita food grain
ushered green revolution in India. requirement, yet overall demand for food grains would increase
In spite of the technological innovations in agriculture, which for increasing population and increasing food needs of livestock
dramatically increased food production in the past few decades and poultry. The grain requirement for rearing cattle and poultry
(Godfray et al., 2010), food security globally is being challenged etc. is comparatively high because of low and variable efficiency
by several factors including climate change (Parry et al., 1999; with which various animals convert grains into protein. Table 1
Rosenzweig et al., 2004; Godfray et al., 2010), unabated land and provides global average feed conversion efficiencies for different
environmental degradation (Oldeman, 1998; Pimentel, 2006), animal categories and production systems. To produce 1 kg of
deforestation, intensive cropping, and biodiversity loss (Foley beef, pork, poultry, and herbivorous species of farmed fish (such
et al., 2005; Lotze-Campen et al., 2008; Tscharntke et al., 2012), as carp, tilapia, and catfish), it takes around 7, 4, 2, and < 2 kg of
land use change (Lotze-Campen et al., 2008; Godfray et al., 2010), grains, respectively. Currently, livestock supply 13% of energy to
fresh water scarcity (Rijsberman, 2006; Lotze-Campen et al., the world’s diet but consume one-half the world’s production of
2008), increased population pressure, increased urbanization grains to do so (Smith et al., 2013). India would require around
and huge food wastage (Parfitt et al., 2010), dietary transition 311 million tons of food grains (including pulses) during 2030,
(Rijsberman, 2006; Godfray et al., 2010), poverty and social and the requirement would further increase to 350 million tons
inequality (Elobeid et al., 2000) etc. Sustainability of rice-wheat by 2050 (Kumar et al., 2016). At the current growth rate in
cropping system in the Indo-Gangetic plains of India has been agricultural production, food security in India appears to be a
challenged, as evidenced by the stagnating rice-wheat yields and big challenge.
declining factor productivity during the last about three decades, The projections of higher food requirements due to
by the fast receding water table, climate variability, deteriorating demographic, economic, and trade liberalization are exerting
soil health, environmental pollution, and secondary salinization heavy pressures on India’s limited land and water resources. It
(Aggarwal et al., 2004). is estimated that nearly 174.4 million ha of land is potentially
Population growth in India has also kept pace with food exposed to various degradation forces. Land degradation in
production. According to the 2017 revision of the World some regions of India, especially in arid and semi-arid tracts
Population Prospects, India’s population stands around 1.32 (desertification), is touching irreversible limits. Land degradation
billion (UNDESA, 2017), although, with the Government policies has become a big challenge to policy makers who need to balance
and public awareness, India’s population growth rate has shown the multiple goals of poverty eradication, food security, and
decline from 2.3% in late 1970s and early 1980s to around sustainable land management.
1.13% in 2017 (Halawar, 2019). Even at this growth rate, India Soil salinization alone has rendered significant chunks of land
is projected to be the world’s most populous country by 2024. unproductive or less productive. Soil salinization is a global and
The massive population increase (despite the slowing down of dynamic problem and is projected to increase in future under
the growth rate) and substantial income growth demand an extra climate change scenarios, viz. rise in sea level and impact on
about 2.5 million tons of food grains annually, besides significant coastal areas, rise in temperature and increase in evaporation etc.
increases in the supply of livestock, fish, and horticultural Precise statistics on the recent estimates of global extent of salt-
products. The growth in food grain productivity has stagnated affected soils are not available and different data sources provide
around 2% per annum. variable information (Shahid et al., 2018). The global figure
The changing lifestyle and food habits of the people, due of 954.83 million ha as reported by Szabolcs (1989) has been
to the sustained economic growth, literacy and awareness, are considered authentic. However, figures such as 932.2 million ha
other challenges associated with food security in India. People (Sparks, 2003) and 952.2 million ha (Arora et al., 2016) have
also been reported. According to Mandal et al. (2018), more Soil salinization may occur through both natural and
recent estimates show an increasing trend in global salt-affected anthropogenic reasons. Out of 932.2 million ha salt-affected soils
area with an area of 1,128 million ha. According to an estimate, worldwide, the extent of human-induced salinization is 76.6
20% of total cultivated and 33% of irrigated agricultural lands million ha (Oldeman et al., 1991; Mashali, 1995; Shahid et al.,
worldwide are afflicted by high salinity (Shrivasata and Kumar, 2018). Arid and semi-arid regions, where evaporation rates are
2015). Around 52 million ha lands are salt-affected in South high and fresh waters are scanty to flush out the excess salts from
Asia (Mandal et al., 2018). Around 85% area worldwide is only soil, favor the formation of such soils. Gupta and Abrol (1990)
slightly to moderately affected by high salt concentrations while have extensively reviewed processes of soil salinization.
the remainder 15% suffers from severe to extreme limitations
a. Natural processes of soil salinization (i.e.,
for crop cultivation (Wicke et al., 2011). In India, the salt-
primary salinization)
affected soils constitute nearly 5% of the net cultivated area,
spreading from Jammu & Kashmir (Ladakh region) in north to • Weathering of parent material: During the process of
Kanyakumari in south, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands in the weathering of rock minerals or sediments with high salt
east to Gujarat in the west. content (physically, chemically, and biologically), salts are
Soil salinization, in addition to reducing net cultivable area, released and made soluble. They are transported away
has serious implications for agricultural productivity and quality, from their source of origin through surface or groundwater
the choice of cultivable crops, biodiversity, water quality, supply streams. In arid regions, the concentration of salts gradually
of water for critical human needs and industry, the longevity of increases until they start precipitating in soil due to limited
infrastructure and the livelihood security of the people. For all natural precipitation and leaching, high evaporation and
important crops, average yields in salt stressed environments are transpiration rates. Low-lying areas with high groundwater
only a fraction, somewhere between 20 and 50% of record yields table and locked topography favor salinization.
(Shrivasata and Kumar, 2015). Estimates suggest global economic • Fossil salts: The fossil salt deposits (e.g., marine and
losses due to soil salinization around US $ 27.3 billion per year lacustrine deposits) are also responsible for salinization
(Qadir et al., 2014). in arid regions. Fossil salts can be dissolved under
Growing trend in the salt-affected soils in India is becoming water storage or water transmission structures causing
a threat to national food security and economic development. salinization (Bresler et al., 1982).
A paradigm shift is, therefore, needed in the policy and • Salinization in coastal lands: The ingression of sea-water
methodology of food production in the country. Food security along the coast increases salt contents in coastal areas (Rao
attempts need to focus on both area expansions under agriculture et al., 2014). The salt-laden winds and rains (sea sprays)
as well as rise in crop productivity. Restoration of degraded lands, along sea coasts carry oceanic salts along with them in
including salt-affected soils, offers a potential opportunity of quantities sufficient to cause salinization in coastal areas.
sustaining food security in the country. With this thing in mind, The sea sprays may contain salt content as high as 14.2
the Government of India has fixed a target of restoring 26 million µg m−3 (Prospero, 1979), and may show impact as deep
ha of degraded lands by the year 2030. as 80 km inland or even more. The coastal regions are also
exposed to the risk of progressive salinization of land due to
processes like storms, cyclones, tidal surges, flooding etc.
SOIL SALINITY AND SOIL SALINIZATION • Transport of salts in rivers: The salts brought down from
the upstream by rivers to the plains and their deposition
Soil salinity is an index of the concentration of salts in soil along with alluvial materials and weathering of rocks may
and is usually expressed as electrical conductivity (EC). Soil also cause salinization.
salinization is a process by which there is build-up of salt
b. Anthropogenic reasons of soil salinization (i.e., secondary
concentration in soil to such a level that impacts on the
salinization)
agricultural production, environmental health, and economics
and quality of life. Soil salinization involves a combination of • Land clearing for cultivation: Replacement of perennial
processes like evaporation, salt precipitation and dissolution, salt vegetation with annual crops, may result into soil
transport, and ion exchange etc. salinization due to saline seepage process. Change of
The salt-affected soils contain excessive concentrations of land use from natural forest vegetation to annual
either soluble salts or exchangeable sodium or both due to food crops decreases evapotranspiration and increases
inadequate leaching of base forming cations. The major soluble leaching. The presence of impermeable/less permeable
mineral salts are the cations: sodium (Na+ ), calcium (Ca2+ ), subsoil layers may intercept the percolating water
magnesium (Mg2+ ), potassium (K+ ) and the anions: chloride passing through saline sediments resulting in lateral
(Cl− ), sulfate (SO2− −
4 ), bicarbonate (HCO3 ), carbonate (CO3 ),
2− seepage, causing salinization in low lying areas (Doering
− and Sandoval, 1976).
and nitrate (NO3 ). Hyper-saline soil water may also contain
boron (B), selenium (Se), strontium (Sr), lithium (Li), silica • Incorrect irrigation: Indiscriminate use of brackish and
(Si), rubidium (Rb), fluorine (F), molybdenum (Mo), manganese saline irrigation water, poor drainage conditions, rising
(Mn), barium (Ba), and aluminum (Al), some of which can be water tables etc., lead to secondary salinization of
toxic to plants and animals (Tanji, 1990). land and water resources (Rao et al., 2014). Even
irrigation with good quality water over a period of time semi-arid regions where less rainfall and high evaporation
in the absence of proper soil-water-crop management rates tend to concentrate the salts in soils; rarely found in
practices may cause salinization. Fall of civilizations like humid regions.
Mesopotamia, Nile Valley, Mohanzoadaro, and Indus ii. Sodic soils (also called “non-saline sodic soils” or “alkali soils,”
Valley are glaring examples of imminent occurrence of or “solonetz”): soils high in exchangeable sodium compared
salinity following irrigation (Dagar, 2005). Currently to calcium and magnesium; sodium carbonate and sodium
worldwide 310 million ha area is irrigated, out of which bicarbonate are the predominant salts; SAR >13; ESP >15;
20–33% area is estimated to be salt-affected (Glick et al., pH = 8.5–10.0; EC of saturation extract < 4 dS m−1 ; black
2007; Jamil et al., 2011; Qadir et al., 2014; Shahid et al., color; poor permeability for water and air; soils formed
2018). Irrigation with sea water causes salinization in due to exchange of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions by Na+ ions;
coastal areas. sodium problems.
• Over extraction of groundwater: It brings salts to iii. Saline-sodic soils: these soils are transitional between saline
soil surface where they get precipitated when water and sodic soils; SAR >13, ESP >15, pH >8.5; EC of saturation
evaporates (Rao et al., 2014). extract >4 dS m−1 ; air and water permeability depends on the
• Canal water seepage: It is a serious problem leading to sodium content; soils formed due to combined processes of
rise in water table and salinity development along the salinization and alkalization; problems with sodium and other
banks of canals. Water-logging and soil salinization in salts; leaching converts these soils into sodic soils.
the Indira Gandhi Nahar Priyojna (IGNP) area in India
is a glaring example of this process. Around 50% of the
command area of IGNP has experienced water-logging EXTENT OF SOIL SALINIZATION IN INDIA
(Tewari et al., 1997).
• Over-use of agro-chemicals: Over-use of chemical Around 60% of the total geographical area of the country is
fertilizers and soil amendments (lime and gypsum) may cultivable (arable), of which nearly 80% (141 million ha) is
also lead to soil salinization. under crops and about 6% (10 million ha) is under rangelands
• Use of waste effluents: Use of sewage sludge and/or (Mythili and Goedecke, 2016). The remaining arable lands are
untreated sewage effluent, dumping of industrial brine not cultivated. Nearly 147 million ha of land is subjected to
onto the soil etc. may also cause soil salinization. Of soil degradation, including 94 million ha from water erosion,
particular concern is the entry of heavy metals into soils. 23 million ha from salinity/alkalinity/acidification, 14 million ha
from water-logging/ flooding, 9 million ha from wind erosion
At several occasions the socio-economic and political
and 7 million ha from a combination of factors (Bhattacharyya
considerations become extremely important in accelerating
et al., 2015; Mythili and Goedecke, 2016).
soil salinization processes. Many times, such factors are
Around 6.727 million ha area in India, which is around 2.1%
beyond the control of individual farmers. Some of such
of geographical area of the country, is salt-affected, of which 2.956
examples, especially in developing countries, may be the
million ha is saline and the rest 3.771 million ha is sodic (Arora
ill-conceived or poorly implemented irrigation schemes,
et al., 2016; Arora and Sharma, 2017). Around 2.347 million ha
intensive vs. extensive irrigation, over-irrigation due to
of the salt-affected soils occur in the Indo-Gangetic plains of the
zero water pricing, small and scattered land holdings etc. It
country, of which 0.56 million ha are saline and 1.787 million ha
is, therefore, the responsibility of respective governments to
are sodic (Arora and Sharma, 2017). Nearly 75% of salt-affected
take appropriate policy decisions and corrective measures
soils in the country exist in the states of Gujarat (2.23 million ha),
in order to keep a check on soil salinization.
Uttar Pradesh (1.37 million ha), Maharashtra (0.61 million ha),
West Bengal (0.44 million ha), and Rajasthan (0.38 million ha)
(Mandal et al., 2018).
CHARACTERISTICS OF SALT-AFFECTED
Salt affected soils in India are spread in four major
SOILS agriculturally important ecological regions in 15 states across the
country and Andaman & Nicobar Islands, and they are:
The salt-affected soils are classified into three groups depending
on the nature and concentration of salts present in them: i. Semi-arid Indo-Gangetic alluvial tract of Punjab, Haryana, UP,
Delhi, parts of Bihar and West Bengal
i. Saline soils (also called “white alkali” or “solonchak”
ii. Arid and semi-arid tracts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya
soils): soils containing calcium, magnesium, and sodium as
Pradesh, and Maharashtra
predominant exchangeable cations (Ca and Mg more than
iii. Peninsular regions of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Na), and sulfate, chloride, and nitrate the predominant anions;
Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa
sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) <13; exchangeable sodium
iv. Coastal-alluvial region of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil
percentage (ESP) <15 of total CEC; pH <8.5; EC of saturation
Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Island of
extract >4 dS m−1 ; white color due to white crust of salts on
Andaman & Nicobar.
the surface; good permeability for water and air; salt problems
in general; the salt concentration is enough to adversely affect The salt-affected soils in India broadly fall in two categories: sodic
the growth of most crop plants; mostly found in arid or soils and saline soils. At certain places, with mean annual rainfall
TABLE 2 | Extent of salt-affected soils in India (‘000 ha). TABLE 3 | State-wise share (%) of salt-affected soils in India.
Sr. No. State Saline soils Sodic soils Total State Sodic soils Saline soil Coastal saline Total
soils
1. Gujarat 1680.570 541.430 2222.000
2. Uttar Pradesh 21.989 1346.971 1368.960 Gujarat 14.3 71.2 37.1 32.9
3. Maharashtra 184.089 422.670 606.759 Uttar Pradesh 35.6 1.3 – 20.3
4. West Bengal 441.272 0.000 441.272 Maharashtra 11.2 10.4 0.6 9.0
5. Rajasthan 195.571 179.371 374.942 West Bengal – – 35.4 6.5
6. Tamil Nadu 13.231 354.784 368.015 Rajasthan 4.7 11.4 – 5.6
7. Andhra Pradesh 77.598 196.609 274.207 Tamil Nadu 9.4 – 1.1 5.5
8. Haryana 49.157 183.399 232.556 Andhra Pradesh 5.2 – 6.2 4.1
9. Bihar 47.301 105.852 153.153 Haryana 4.8 2.9 – 3.4
10. Punjab 0.000 151.717 151.717 Bihar 2.8 2.8 – 2.3
11. Karnataka 1.893 148.136 150.029 Punjab 4.0 – – 2.2
12. Orissa 147.138 0.000 147.138 Karnataka 3.9 0.1 – 2.2
13. Madhya Pradesh 0.000 139.720 139.720 Orissa – – 11.8 2.2
14. Andaman & Nicobar Island 77.000 0.000 77.000 Madhya Pradesh 3.7 – – 2.1
15. Kerala 20.000 0.000 20.000 Andaman & Nicobar – – 6.2 1.1
Islands
Total 2956.809 3770.659 6727.468
Kerala – – 1.6 0.3
Source: NRSA (National Remote Sensing Agency) Associates (1996) and Adapted from J&K 0.5 – – 0.3
Arora and Sharma (2017).
Total 100 (3.78) 100 (1.71) 100 (1.25) 100 (6.74)
Figures in parentheses indicate total area in million ha. Source: Adapted from Mandal et al.
around 550 mm, saline-sodic soils are also found in the form of (2018).
narrow band separating saline and sodic soils (Arora and Sharma,
2017), but because their chemical properties and management
are almost the same as the sodic soils, they are grouped with and subsequent upward flux of salts to the surface, water-
sodic soils category (Qadir et al., 2007). Majority of the sodic soils logging, formation of marshy lands, increased soil salinity,
occur in Indo-Gangetic region of India. They originate primarily and decreased biodiversity. Two glaring examples include: (i)
due to weathering of rocks and minerals containing high sodium salinization of around 0.37 million ha area in Sharda Sahayak
minerals, irrigation with groundwater containing excessive Canal Command region in Utter Pradesh within a span of
quantities of carbonates and bicarbonates, rise in groundwater three decades; (ii) salinization of around 0.18 million ha
table due to introduction of canal irrigation and salt laden area in the Indira Gandhi Nahar Priyojana (IGNP) region
run-off from the adjoining areas and un-drained basins. The in Rajasthan within few years of introduction of irrigation
saline soils are widespread in the canal irrigated arid and semi- project (Singh, 2009).
arid regions. Table 2 shows the distribution of salt-affected soils Use of brackish irrigation waters has caused secondary
in India. salinization in about 17% of irrigated lands in the country (Shahid
Mandal et al. (2018) distinguished salt-affected soils into et al., 2018). Good quality irrigation water is scarce in the country.
three categories (Table 3). According to these workers sodic, Increasing pressure of producing more food per unit available
saline, and coastal saline soils are spread over 56, 25, and arable land forces for extensive use of brackish groundwater
19% area in the country (Table 3). Sodic soils are confined for irrigation. Ground water surveys indicate that poor quality
in the Indo-Gangetic plains, arid and semi-arid region of waters being utilized in different states are 32–84% of the total
western and central India, and Peninsular region in the groundwater development (Minhas, 1999). Many more areas
southern India. Largest area under saline soils (71.2%) occurs with good quality aquifers are endangered with contamination
in the state of Uttar Pradesh. More than 72% of coastal as a consequence of excessive withdrawals of groundwater.
saline soils occur in the states of Gujarat and West Bengal. The salinized areas in India continue to increase each
Largest area under sodic soils (35.6%) occurs in the state year due to introduction of irrigation in new areas (Patel
of Gujarat. et al., 2011). The rate of increase is around 10% annually
Introduction of the canal irrigation projects without proper (Jamil et al., 2011). According to Sharma et al. (2014a), unless
provision of drainage has led to wide spread salinity in the preventive/ameliorative attempts are taken, the salt-affected areas
country. Substantial salt-affected area occurs in different canal are estimated to treble, i.e., increase from 6.74 to 16.2 million ha
commands viz., Sharda Sahayak in Uttar Pradesh; Tungabhardra by 2050.
in Karnataka; Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana (IGNP), Chambal Delineation and digitization process of salt-affected soils in
and Tawa in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh; and Mahi and India is on. Fifteen salt- affected states have been mapped on
Ukai command area in Gujarat (Mandal et al., 2010). Continuous 1:250,000 scale and digitization on 1:50,000 scale is in progress.
seepage from the canals has resulted into rise in water tables The planning and execution of soil reclamation programmes by
the policymakers and stakeholders are based on the state-wise of lost crop production (Qadir et al., 2014). Annual global income
data and maps of saline and sodic soils (Mandal et al., 2010). loss due to salinization of irrigated lands has been estimated
The first approximation of water quality map of India has been around US$ 12 billion (Ghassemi et al., 1995). The inflation-
published (Sharma et al., 2014a), adding great value in executing adjusted cost of salt-induced land degradation in 2013 was
the plans effectively. estimated at US $ 441 per ha, with global economic losses pegged
at US $ 27.3 billion per year (Qadir et al., 2014).
The estimates based on 2012–14 moving average data suggest
ECOLOGICAL, AGRICULTURAL, AND that due to soil salinization India loses annually 16.84 million
SOCIAL CONCERNS OF SOIL tons of farm production (cereals, oilseeds, pulses, and cash crops)
SALINIZATION valued at Rs. 230.20 billion (Mandal et al., 2018). It has strong
implications on the national economy. The state of Uttar Pradesh
The soil salinization has tremendous environmental, ecological, topped the list with 7.69 million tons production loss, followed
agricultural, and social impacts in terms of shrinkage of by Gujarat state with 4.83 million tons production loss. In terms
agricultural lands, low agricultural productivity, uncertain and of monetary loss, Gujarat topped the list with Rs. 100.63 billion
unstable livelihood security, low economic returns, and poor loss, followed by Uttar Pradesh with Rs. 81.29 billion loss. Gujarat
quality of life. Excess salts in soil affect the metabolism of soil and Uttar Pradesh have the largest salt-affected area (>50% of
flora and fauna, leading ultimately to the destruction of all soil cultivated area) in the country. These two states alone share
life, transforming fertile and productive lands into barren and around 79% monetary losses in the country. All these states
desert lands. Soils are rendered useless agriculturally as well as deserve policy attention for management of salt-affected areas to
for several other purposes (e.g., construction work). The salt reduce the crop production and monetary loss.
accumulation damages existing infrastructure, farm machinery, Peoples’ living standard, daily life activities and socio-
waterways, roads etc. History records that soil salinization was economic conditions are adversely affected. Farmers in response
partly responsible for the collapse of ancient civilizations like to salinity problem are forced to shift their livelihood strategies
Mesopotamia, Nile Valley, Mohanzoadaro, and Indus Valley (Ziaul Haider and Zaber Hossain, 2013). Farmers in salt-
(Dagar, 2005). affected areas are generally resource constrained and require
Salinity affects almost all aspects of plant development financial and technical assistance to sustain their livelihood
including germination, vegetative growth, and reproductive efforts (Oo et al., 2013).
development due to drought and high soil salinity, and harsh Such degraded ecosystems, nevertheless, offer immense
environmental conditions (Machado and Serralheiro, 2017). opportunities to harness the productivity potential through
Plants in salt-affected environments experience two types of appropriate technological interventions. Even marginal to
stress, the osmotic stress and nutrient stress. The osmotic stress modest gains in crop yields in such soils would mean dramatic
is due to low osmotic potential of water in saline soils which improvements in the lives of thousands of poor farmers in
adversely affects water absorption by plants. Nutrient stress is salinity affected regions in a country facing many challenges
due to both toxicity (Na, Cl, B) and deficiency of plant nutrients in agriculture.
(N, Ca, K, P, Fe, Zn). It also results in nutritional imbalances.
Soil salinity significantly reduces phosphorus uptake by plants
because phosphate ions precipitate with Ca ions (Bano and TECHNOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS
Fatima, 2009). The enhanced Na+ absorption in sodic soils
reduces K+ absorption which adversely affects the enzymatic After decades of experiments globally including ICAR-CSSRI,
activities involved in metabolic processes like photosynthesis and Karnal and several SAUs in India, understanding the problems of
protein synthesis (Hauser and Horie, 2010), which is detrimental salt-affected soils, poor-quality irrigation waters, water dynamics,
for plant growth (Katiyar-Agarwal et al., 2005). Reduced leaf area, causes of salt accumulation and behavior of plants under
chlorophyll content and stomatal conductance in salt-affected salt stresses, recommendations have emerged as technologies
soils also affect photosynthesis (Netondo et al., 2004). for reclamation and management of salt-affected soils, viz.
Apart from high ESP and nutrient deficiencies and toxicities, gypsum technology for reclamation of sodic soils, developing salt
other constraints for plant growth in sodic soils include poor tolerant crop varieties, guidelines for use of poor quality waters,
soil physical conditions, viz. low water and air permeability, high rehabilitation of salty lands using forestry species, etc. (Mandal
runoff, low water holding capacity, surface crusting, and hard et al., 2018). There may be two approaches to tackle problem of
setting. They affect plant root penetration, seedling emergence, soil salinity. One, to reclaim salt-affected soils; two, to manage
and tillage operations (Murtaza et al., 2006). salt-affected soils as they exist, i.e., without reclamation, using
Although salinization has strong implications on socio- alternate suitable agricultural options such as cultivation of salt
economic aspects, yet very few publications are available in tolerant crops, saline aquaculture etc. The choice depends on the
literature (Shahid et al., 2018). Social consequences of soil feasibility of reclamation and the cost effectiveness.
salinization include decline in agricultural harvest, low income, Not all salt-affected soils can be reclaimed practically and
change of livelihood options and related social constraints. The economically. While it is feasible to reclaim alkali and sodic soils
estimates show that the global annual cost of salt-induced land by specific amendments and manage thereafter, the coastal salt-
degradation in irrigated areas could be US$ 27.3 billion in terms affected soils and black soils cannot be fully reclaimed. They
require continuous soil and water management practices for organizations for irrigation as well as drainage projects. It
their productive uses. Indian Council of Agricultural Research slows down the up-scaling of reclamation technologies in
(ICAR)-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI) was salt-affected areas.
established in India in 1969 to work exclusively on salt-
affected soils. In addition, several State Agricultural Universities,
especially those located in salt-affected regions, are also Reclamation and Management of Sodic
engaged in soil salinity research. Their efforts have resulted Soils
in the development of several technological interventions The technology package based on chemical amendments consists
for the reclamation and management of salt-affected soils of the components such as land leveling, bunding, flushing,
and use of poor quality water for irrigation in different drainage for removal of excess water, good quality irrigation
agro-ecological zones of the country (Sharma et al., 2011). water, application of amendments, selection of crops and efficient
The popularity of gypsum-based sodic soil reclamation, sub- nutrient management. Different chemical amendments used for
surface drainage of water-logged saline lands, salt tolerant the reclamation of sodic soils may be grouped into two categories:
crop varieties and improved agroforestry techniques are a soluble calcium sources (e.g., gypsum, calcium chloride, and
few laudable testimonies to the research credentials of these phospho-gypsum) and acids or acid formers (e.g., elemental
research Institutes. sulfur, sulphuric acid, sulfates of iron and aluminum, pyrites and
lime sulfur). Farmyard manure and pressmud are also used as
amendments for reclaiming sodic soils. Chemical amendments
Reclamation and Management of Saline require moisture (rainfall or irrigation) to activate the chemical
Soils processes that can reduce sodium levels or leach salts from the
Salt leaching with ponded fresh water, sub-surface drainage, root zone. The organic amendments, on the other hand, are
mulching between two irrigations and during fallow period, capable of alleviating problems associated with excessive salts or
irrigation management are some of the effective and well- sodium without supplemental irrigation.
known technological intervention to tackle the problems The amount and type of chemical amendments required for
of water-logging and soil salinity (Smedema and Ochs, reclamation of sodic soils depend primarily on soil pH, EC, and
1998; Gupta, 2002; Arora and Sharma, 2017). The sub- ESP. Soluble calcium sources are recommended for use in non-
surface drainage technology has been successfully adopted calcareous soils while for calcareous soils acids or acid-formers
in Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, are recommended. Gypsum followed by pyrites has emerged
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka, restoring as the most preferred and acceptable chemical amendment for
around 110,000 ha waterlogged saline soils (Sharma et al., sodic soils in India due to their easy availability and low cost
2014a). (Abrol et al., 1988; Tyagi and Minhas, 1998). Pyrite was much less
The adoption of sub-surface drainage technology in saline effective than gypsum (Tyagi, 1998). The pyrites to be effective for
soils resulted in 3-fold increase in farmers’ income. The yields reclamation must contain at least 5–6% soluble S (Sharma and
of paddy, wheat and cotton increased by about 45, 111, and Swarup, 1990).
215%, respectively (Sharma et al., 2014a). Besides, it significantly Gypsum requirement for restoring an alkali soil depends on
increased cropping intensity and socio-economic benefits in the initial exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), texture and
terms of on-farm employment generation (Singh, 2009). The sub- mineralogy of soil, depth of soil to be reclaimed and tolerance of
surface drainage technology was able to generate around 128 crops to sodicity. A good correlation exists between soil pH and
man-days additional employment per ha per annum (Sharma gypsum requirement (Abrol et al., 1973). Generally, 10–15 Mg
et al., 2011). ha−1 gypsum is required for the reclamation of alkali soils (Abrol
The cost of installation of sub-surface drainage system per and Bhumbla, 1971).
hectare was estimated Rs. 74,000 for medium to coarse-textured The addition of organic materials in conjunction with gypsum
soils with 67 m spacing and Rs. 1,15,000 for fine-textured black hastens the reclamation process and also reduces the gypsum
soils with 30 m spacing, with a benefit/cost ratio of around 2.71 requirement (Chorum and Rengasamy, 1997; Vance et al., 1998;
(Raju et al., 2016). The reclaimed area contributed about 0.56 Arora and Sharma, 2017). Addition of organic material increases
million tons of foodgrains and an income generation of Rs. 8.60 soil microbial biomass while gypsum lowers soil pH (Wong et al.,
million annually (Raju et al., 2016, 2017). 2009). Industrial byproducts such as phosphogypsum, pressmud,
The technology is useful but constrained by bottlenecks like molasses, acid wash, and effluents from milk plants help in the
higher initial costs, operational difficulties, lack of community reclamation of sodic soils by providing Ca directly or indirectly
participation and the problems of safe disposal of drainage by dissolving soil lime (Arora and Sharma, 2017). However, care
effluents, for the rapid adoption of this technology (Singh, should be taken that toxic elements like F, which is present in
2009). Successful implementation of sub-surface drainage large quantities in products like phosphogypsum, are not added
projects demands a collective approach and responsibility duly to soil (Chhabra et al., 1980). The equivalent amounts of other
supported by appropriate institutional arrangements (Ritzema amendments relative to gypsum are given in Table 4.
et al., 2008). In majority of the salinity affected regions, The gypsum-based alkali land reclamation technology has
however, the community participation appears lacking as found large scale on-farm adoption in the country. Nearly
evidenced by the non-existent or non-functional water-user 2.07 million ha of barren sodic soils have been brought under
TABLE 4 | Equivalent quantities of some common amendments for sodic soil in farmers’ income from Rs. 5,644 ha−1 (wet rice) to Rs. 1,43,982
reclamation. ha−1 (wet rice-fish-vegetables) (Mandal et al., 2017). Similar
Amendment Relative quantity encouraging results were obtained through land modification
technology (pond based and raised and sunken bed) under sodic
Gypsum (CaSO4 2H2 O) 1.00 soils in Uttar Pradesh (Verma et al., 2012).
Calcium chloride (CaCl2 .2H2 O) 0.85
Sulphuric acid (H2 SO4 ) 0.57 Phytoremediation of Salt-Affected Soils
Iron sulfate (FeSO4 .7H2 O) 1.62 Phytoremediation of salt-affected soils refers to the processes
Aluminum sulfate [Al2 (SO4 )3 .18H2 O] 1.29 of removing excess salts from soil by growing different type of
Sulfur (S*) 0.19 plants. Growing of salt tolerant trees, shrubs, and grasses is a
Pyrite (FeS*2 ) (30% S) 0.63 cost-effective and environmental-friendly way of restoring salt-
Pressmud (Lime sulfur, 9% Ca, 24% S) 0.77 affected soils (Mishra et al., 2003; Qadir et al., 2007). Different
species of salt tolerant trees, shrubs, and grasses have been
*Based on assumption of 100% oxidation of materials like sulfur or pyrite in order to be as
effective as soluble calcium compounds. Since in practice this assumption is not fulfilled,
identified and put to use (Table 5). Excellent reviews are available
their effectiveness is much lower than gypsum. in literature on phytoremediation, e.g., Dagar (2014) for inland
Source: Choudhary and Kharche (2015). salt-affected lands, Dagar et al. (2014a) for coastal regions and
Dagar and Minhas (2016) for use of poor-quality waters, etc.
Plants remove excess salts from soil through root absorption
cultivation, contributing 16-17 million tons of paddy and wheat and accumulate them in their biomass, a process called phyto-
per annum to the country’s food basket. Farmers are harvesting accumulation or phyto-extraction. It decreases exchangeable
5 t ha−1 of rice and 3 t ha−1 of wheat from third year onwards sodium and soluble salt concentrations in soil. They also augment
in such reclaimed lands (Mandal et al., 2018). Besides, it also soil organic carbon and nutrient content thereby gradually
provides an employment opportunity to about 2.8 million man improving physical (bulk density, porosity, infiltration, water
days annually. Financial viability for investment on gypsum holding capacity etc.), chemical (nutrient concentrations), and
technology has been found positive with benefit/cost ratio of 2.47 biological (microbial population) properties of soils and overall
(Tripathi, 2011). Sharma et al. (2011) calculated the economics soil productivity (Bhojvaid and Timmer, 1998; Kaur et al., 2000;
for reclamation of sodic soils by considering 10% discount rate. Mishra et al., 2003; Nosetto et al., 2007; Qadir et al., 2007). Tree
The reclamation cost was estimated to be around Rs. 56,000/ha, plantation, besides making degraded lands productive, provides
with B:C of 1.52, internal rate of return 21.4% and payback period fuel wood, and forage and helps in moderating climate change
of 3 years. impacts through carbon sequestration (Dagar, 2005; Sharma
et al., 2011). It has been estimated that reforestation of 75 million
ha degraded lands with suitable trees and grasses/crops has the
Reclamation and Management of Coastal potential to sequester carbon in above-ground as well as below-
Saline Soils ground C biomass to the tune of about 4 Pg of carbon (Dagar and
A number of technologies have been standardized and perfected Swarup, 2003).
to restore coastal saline soils and sustain crop production Reclamation of sodic and saline waterlogged soils through
in them. Rabi cropping in mono-cropped coastal saline soils, afforestation and agroforestry practices is well established and
salt tolerant rice cultivars, rainwater harvesting in dugout documented (Dagar, 2005; Dagar et al., 2014b; Dagar and
farm ponds, integrated rice-fish culture and efficient nutrient Minhas, 2016). Some of the promising species for sodic soil
management have been successfully practiced (Sharma and reclamation include Prosopis juliflora, Acacia nilotica, Casuarina
Chaudhari, 2012). An innovative “Doruvu” technology has equisetifolia, Tamarix articulate, Eucalyptus tereticornis, and
become popular in coastal regions of the country. The technology Leptochloa fusca (Singh et al., 1994; Dagar et al., 2016), and
involves skimming of shallow depth fresh water floating on for waterlogged saline soils include Prosopis juliflora, Tamarix
the saline water and storing in dug-out conical pits, locally articulata, Casuarina glauca, Acacia farnesiana, Acacia nilotica,
called “Doruvus.” Acacia tortilis, and Parkinsonia aculeata (Dagar and Tomar,
Multi-storeyed integrated agroforestry systems involving 2002). Plant species like Eucalyptus tereticornis, Populus deltoids,
fish or shrimp culture, poultry, plantation crops, cattle, and and Tectona grandis are effective for reclaiming sodic soils (Singh
diversified arable crops etc. seem to have potential in these areas. et al., 1994).
Khan et al. (2014) reported an average yield advantage of 20–30% Dagar et al. (2001a) used raised-sunken bed technology to
over the existing rice yield of 2.9–3.3 t ha−1 by using biocompost successfully establish trees like pomegranate (fruit tree) and
@ 2–6 t ha−1 in sodic soils of Uttar Pradesh. Salvadora persica (a non-edible oil yielding tree) on sodic soils.
Initial cost on land excavation for constructing farm ponds, These trees were grown on raised beds to avoid damage due
paddy-cum-fish culture and raised-sunken beds in coastal salt- to water stagnation. In highly sodic soils of semiarid regions,
affected areas was around Rs. 145, 136, and 88 thousand, having kankar pan in upper 2-m soil layer, Dagar et al. (2001b)
respectively, with benefit/cost ratio of 1.20–1.58 (Mandal et al., used auger hole planting technique for successfully planting the
2018). Such techniques in coastal areas of West Bengal increased forest tree species like Tamarix articulata, Prosopis juliflora, and
cropping intensity from 114 to 186% which resulted in increase Acacia nilotica.
TABLE 5 | Soil ECe and SAR reduction through phytoremediation and chemical amendments using different plants (i initial, f final).
Amendment/plant species ECei ECef ECe reduction (%) SARi SARf SAR reduction (%) Remarks
(dS m−1 ) (dS m−1 )
Sesbania aculeata 7.5 5.5 27 55.6 43.5 22 1st year

Leptochloa fusca 7.4 5.3 28 57.9 44.7 23
Sorghum bicolor 7.8 6.4 18 62.3 55.1 12
Gypsum 9.0 7.2 20 73.0 53.3 27
Sesbania aculeate 5.5 4.4 20 43.5 30.1 31 2nd year
Leptochloa fusca 5.3 4.9 8 44.7 32.5 27
Sorghum bicolor 6.4 6.0 6 55.1 40.0 27
Gypsum 7.2 6.8 6 53.3 24.7 54
Source: Qadir et al. (1997).
Many grass species suited for sodic soils have been identified practiced by the farmers (Rao et al., 2000, 2003; Sharma and
but all of them could not find field application due to the Chaudhari, 2012; Arora et al., 2013).
reason that they absorb and accumulate sodium and other toxic Large stretches of canal irrigated lands in many arid and semi-
elements in their foliage and, thus, are unfit as fodder. Efforts arid regions have become unproductive due to water-logging
are on to identify and popularize those grass species which and the subsequent secondary salinization. Water seepage
can retain high proportion of sodium in their root system, from canals and faulty on-farm water management practices
rendering the shoots palatable for cattle. However, Biswas and together create shallow water table conditions. Higher capillary
Biswas (2014) have advocated that most of the field crops are less salinization in such areas has caused significant increase in root
tolerant than grasses to alkali environment. Para grass (Brachiaria zone salinity (Chhabra and Thakur, 1998). The conventional
mutica), rhodes grass (Chloris gayana), matricaria (Matricaria approaches to reclaim such lands are expensive, difficult to
recutila), Karnal grass (Leptochloa fusca) have been found the operate and pose problems in the safe disposal of saline drainage
most promising grass spp. suitable for alkali soils. Aeluropus effluents and so have necessitated interest in other viable
lagopoides, Chloris barbata, Echinocloa colonum, Dicanthium alternatives such as bio-drainage (Chhabra and Thakur, 1998;
annulatum, Sporobolus helvolus, Phragmites spp., and Sida spp. Ram et al., 2011). Analogous to energy-operated water pumps,
have been identified the other promising grasses for rehabilitation bio-drainage is a proven technology to arrest salinity build-up
of saline soil. Large tracts of salt-affected community and in canal commands with growing of suitable tree species (e.g.
government lands lying barren have been restored and put to best eucalyptus, poplar, and bamboo) (Singh, 2009). Efforts are on
productive use through adoption of agroforestry techniques and in exploring combined applications of bio-drainage and suitable
agronomic practices. land modifications to effectively utilize the water-logged salt-
Promising agro-forestry models, fruit-based agro-forestry affected soils (Sharma et al., 2011).
models, silvi-pastoral models etc. along with appropriate planting
and management techniques have been developed specifically Bio-Remediation
for saline/sodic/saline-sodic etc. conditions (Singh et al., 1994; The bio-remediation approach, which involves plant-microbial
Dagar et al., 2008, 2015; Sharma et al., 2014b). Under interaction, has received increased attention worldwide for
saline irrigation conditions medicinal and aromatic plants such enhancing productivity of salt-affected soils (Arora et al., 2014).
as isabgol (Plantago ovata), aloe (Aloe barbadensis), kalmeg The microorganisms have the capability of rapid adjustment
(Andrographis paniculata), Matricaria chamomilla, Vetiveria toward environmental changes and deterioration, and thus can
zizanioides, Cymbopogon martini, and Cymbopogon flexuosus play an important role in the maintenance and sustainability of
have been found to produce high biomass (Tomar et al., 2003a,b; any ecosystem. Microorganisms possess some unique properties
Dagar et al., 2004, 2006; Tomar and Minhas, 2004). such as salt stress tolerance, genetic diversity, synthesis of
Salt-affected Vertisols (i.e., black cotton soils) are difficult compatible solutes, production of plant growth promoting
and tedious to restore compared to alluvial sandy loam soils hormones, bio-control potential, and their interaction with crop
of Indo-Gangetic Plains. The high clay content of these soils plants. If these traits are suitably exploited, microorganisms can
makes them vulnerable even at low salt and exchangeable sodium play a significant role in alleviating salt effects on crop plants
concentrations. Major chunk (about 1.21 million ha) of salt- (Shrivasata and Kumar, 2015).
affected black cotton soils (Vertisols) is found in Gujarat. Such Microorganisms present in the rhizosphere could promote
soils also occur in appreciable extent in Karnataka, Maharashtra, plant growth and yield in salt stress environment in different
and Rajasthan. Commercial cultivation of salt tolerant plants like ways, directly and indirectly (Dimkpa et al., 2009). For
Salvadora persica (a halophyte, non-edible oil tree), dill (Anethum example, some plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria may
graveolens) a spice crop, industrial species like Euphorbia and directly stimulate plant growth and development by providing
Mulethi (Glycyrrhiza glabra), castor and sunflower has been plants with fixed nitrogen, phytohormones, iron (sequestered
found useful in reclaiming these soils and have largely been by bacterial siderophores), and soluble phosphate (Hayat et al.,
2010), while others may indirectly benefit plants by protecting TABLE 6 | Relative tolerance of some crops to salinity (EC).
them against soil-borne diseases, mostly caused by pathogenic
Field crops Threshold Vegetable Threshold Fruit crops Threshold
fungi (Lutgtenberg and Kamilova, 2009) by inducing cell wall salinity crops salinity salinity
structural modifications, biochemical and physiological changes (dS m−1 ) (dS m−1 ) (dS m−1 )
leading to synthesis of proteins and chemicals involved in plant
defense mechanisms (Arora and Sharma, 2017). Barley 8.0 Sugarbeet 7.0 Citrus 1.7
Halophilic bacteria have the potential to remove sodium Cotton 7.7 Peas 3.4 Strawberry 1.0
ions from soil and increase metabolic and enzymatic activities Sorghum 6.8 Tomato 2.5
in plants. Arora et al. (2016) used halophilic bacteria for the Wheat 6.0 Cucumber 2.5
remediation of saline and sodic soils. In a field experiment, bio- Soybean 5.0 Spinach 2.0
inoculation of wheat seeds with halophilic bacteria increased Sunflower 4.8 Cabbage 1.8
grain and straw yield of wheat in a sodic soil by 18.1 and 24.2%, Groundnut 3.2 Potato 1.7
respectively. The bacterial inoculation improved soil properties Rice 3.0 Cauliflower 1.5
by decreasing soil pH from 9.4 to 8.6, increasing microbial Maize 1.7 Broccoli 1.3
biomass C from 82 to 137 µg/g. Similarly, in a pot experiment Sugarcane 1.7 Raddish 1.2
irrigated with saline water (5% NaCl), inoculation of halophilic Onion 1.2
bacterial consortium increased fresh weight, dry weight, shoot Carrot 1.0
length, and root length of maize plants by 194.5, 98.97%, 15.37
Adapted from Grieve et al. (2012).
and 7.4 cm, respectively, compared to the uninoculated control
plants. Arora et al. (2014) could enhance wheat yield by 10–
12% in salt-affected soil (EC = 156 dS/m) by using phosphatic
TABLE 7 | Relative tolerance of some crops to soil sodicity (ESP).
solublizing bacteria and Rhizobium strains.
A low-cost microbial bio-formulation “CSR-BIO,” a Tolerant Moderately tolerant Sensitive
consortium of Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus thuringenesis, and (ESP = 35–50) (ESP = 35–50) (ESP <15)
Trichoderma harzianum, is rapidly becoming popular with
Karnal grass (Leptochloa Wheat (Triticum aestivum) Gram/Chickpea (Cicer
the farmers in many states (Damodaran et al., 2013). This
fusca) arietinum)
bio-formulation acts as a soil conditioner and nutrient mobilizer
Rhodes grass (Chloris Barley (Hordeum vulgare) Mash (Phaseolus mungo)
and has been found to increase the productivity of the high value gayana)
crops such as banana, vegetables, and gladiolus in sodic and Para grass (Brachaaria Oat (Avena sative) Lentil (Lens esculenta)
normal soils by 22–43%. mutica)
Bermuda grass (Cynodon Shaftal (Trifolium Soybean (Glycin max)
dactylon) resupinatum)
CULTIVATION OF SALT TOLERANT CROPS Rice (Oryza sativa) Lucern (Medicago sativa) Groundnut (Arachis
AND CROP VARIETIES hypogea)
Dhaincha (Sesbania Turnip (Brassica rapa) Sesamum (Sesamum
Cultivation of salt tolerant crops and crop varieties is another aculeate) oriental)
way to address the problem of soil salinization. This technique is Sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris) Sunflower (Helianthus Mung (Phaseolus aureus)
annus)
viable and cost effective and suits well to the small and marginal
Teosinte (Euchlaena Safflower (Carthamus Pea (Pisum sativum)
farmers who without financial support are unable to bear the high
maxicana) tinctorius)
costs of chemical amendment-based reclamation technologies.
Berseem (Trifolium Cowpea (Vigna
Salt tolerant varieties of rice, wheat, mustard, and other crops, alexandrinum) unguiculata)
grasses, shrubs, fruit trees, and medicinal and aromatic plants Linseed (linum Maize (Zea mays)
have been developed/identified for commercial cultivation in usitatissimum)
salt-affected soils (Singh, 2009; Sharma et al., 2011). The relative Onion (Allium cepa) Cotton (Gossypium
tolerance of some crops to total salinity (EC) and sodicity (ESP) Garlic (Allium sativum) hirsutum)
is shown in Tables 6, 7, respectively. Pearl millet (Pennisetum
Use of salt tolerant varieties of field crops is another practical typhoides)
option to manage salt-affected soils with the poor farmers,
Source: Abrol and Bhumbla (1979).
especially small and marginal, for whom chemical amendment
technologies are not feasible without Government subsidies
(Arora and Sharma, 2017). Several varieties of important field
crops like rice, wheat and mustard, having potential to yield the railway tracks, Government lands etc. is another opportunity
reasonable economic returns in saline and sodic soils, have been of managing salt-affected soils (Singh et al., 1994; Minhas et al.,
developed (Singh and Sharma, 2006). 1997; Tomar et al., 2003b).
Cultivation of salt tolerant multipurpose trees, bushes, and Tissue culture techniques find usefulness in
grasses, fruit plants, medicinal and aromatic plants etc. on salt- developing suitable salt-tolerant trees and crops of high
affected village community lands, road-side lands, lands along economic value.
It may be noted, however, that crop production on RECLAMATION OF SALT-AFFECTED SOILS

salt-affected soils is generally costlier and crop yields are usually AND FOOD SECURITY IN INDIA
low, net returns are low and the risk of crop failures continues
even after suitable amendments are provided (Minhas and It is estimated that due to soil salinization India loses around
Sharma, 2003). Rs. 230.20 billion annually in terms of crop production loss to
the tune of 16.84 million tons (Mandal et al., 2018). The Indian
Government, therefore, has attached highest priority to the policy
Saline Aquaculture planning for the reclamation of degraded lands, including salt-
Inland saline aquaculture (land-based aquaculture using saline affected soils in the country. The Indian Government is keen to
groundwater) is being commercially practiced in many saline restore 26 million ha of degraded lands by the year 2030 in order
tracts of Australia, Israel, and USA (Allan et al., 2009). This to ensure food security in the country. Significant research efforts
knowledge was used in India also to make the saline water- have been made during the last 4 decades with encouraging
flooded soils profitable. The experience in many parts of south- results. The response of the farming community in salt-affected
western Haryana and Punjab have shown that the degraded regions is overwhelming.
soil and water resources could be put to profitable use by Sharma and Chaudhari (2012) reported reclamation of 1.5
shrimp and fish farming (Purushothaman et al., 2014). At Nain million ha of salt-affected soils in the country, with addition of
Experimental Farm, Panipat, Haryana (India), under conditions around 15 million tons of food grains to the national food basket
of high salinity of pond water (25 dS m−1 ), low water availability annually. It provided additional income of around Rs. 13.5 billion
and high evaporation losses, fish growth of about 400–600 g per annum, and also generated 8.33 million man-days per year in
in 6-month and 600–800 g in 1-year period was observed terms of on-farm and off-farm rural employment opportunities.
(CSSRI, 2013). According to a recent publication of Mandal et al. (2018), around
In coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, many farmers have 2.18 million ha salt-affected soils (0.11 million ha saline soils and
converted their rice fields into brackish water fish farms for 2.07 million ha sodic soils) have been reclaimed in India. The
reason of high remuneration from aquaculture. They store reclamation has been achieved through gypsum technology in
brackish water, drawn from the sea through creeks and drains, saline soils and sub-surface drainage technology in sodic soils.
in big tanks for raising high value prawns. Estimates suggest that It has contributed an estimated 17.16 million tons of food-grains
nearly 0.2 million ha is under saline aquaculture in the coastal per annum (16.6 million tons from saline soils and 0.56 million
districts of Andhra Pradesh. Many small and marginal farmers tons from sodic soils) to the national food basket, with additional
(>50%), however, found this technology (prawn farming) highly income of as high as Rs. 15.5 billion annually (Mandal et al.,
risky with unstable returns, and hence abandoned after few years 2018).
(Singh, 2009). The technological interventions on other aspects of salt-
affected soils such as alternate land-use systems, saline
aquaculture, cultivation of salt tolerant crop varieties,
Multi-Enterprise Agriculture Models agroforestry, phytoremediation, bioremediation etc. have
Integrated multi-enterprise models comprising different proved their worth by positively influencing food and nutritional
components, viz. field and horticultural crops, fishery, cattle, security, women empowerment, involvement of landless laborers
poultry, and beekeeping etc. are being developed and tested and minimizing rural migration, besides restoration of the
to address the specific needs of small and marginal farmers ecological balance by its positive impact on environment
especially in post reclamation phase. The models have been (Sharma and Chaudhari, 2012).
standardized for specific conditions such as saline soils of
Haryana, water-logged sodic soils of Uttar Pradesh, highly saline
black soils of Gujarat and coastal saline soils of West Bengal CONCLUSION
(Singh, 2009; Sharma and Chaudhari, 2012). The aim is to
sustain resource use efficiency, high and regular income and Soil salinization is a serious problem challenging food security
employment generation to the farmers. The models drastically in India. It is a dynamic process caused by several natural and
reduce the production costs by synergistic recycling of resources human-induced processes, and quite often, the socio-economic
among different components. and political considerations become extremely important in
A multi-enterprise model developed and evaluated by ICAR- accelerating the processes of soil salinization. Many times, such
CSSRI Karnal for reclaimed sodic land generates net annual factors are beyond the control of individual farmers and call for
income of Rs. 2.65 lakh (Chinchmalatpure et al., 2015). The the attention of the policy makers. It becomes the responsibility
model on daily basis generates a gross income of Rs. 400–700 of respective governments to take appropriate policy decisions
and net income of Rs. 250–500 from about 1.0 ha land area when and corrective measures in order to keep a check on soil
fisheries, dairy, horticulture, poultry, duckery, and mushroom salinization and also to restore the soils already affected by salts.
cultivation are integrated and by-products of these enterprises Several on-farm tested technologies are available for the
are recycled within the system. Biogas produced (2 m3 per reclamation and management of salt-affected soils. The efforts
day) in the Model adequately meets the energy requirements of put-in by Government agencies and farmers for the reclamation
farmer’s family. and rehabilitation of salt-affected soils in the country so far have
been encouraging. Nevertheless, in order to achieve the target hope of land expansion and production enhancement for future
of reclamation of 26 million ha of salt-affected soils, concerted food security in the country.
efforts are needed by all the stakeholders. The site-specific
restoration programmes be conceived and implemented in AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
mission mode with the genuine participation of the local farmers.
The farmers need to be incentivized rather than subsidized to PK contributed in conception and first draft preparation.
undertake corrective measures. Under the scenario where the PKS reviewed, analyzed, and provided interpretation. All
cultivable lands are shrinking due to increased urbanization, the authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual
restoration and management of salt-affected soils offer a potential contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.
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published: 06 October 2020

Soil Salinity and Food Security in

3. Maharashtra 184.089 422.670 606.759 Uttar Pradesh 35.6 1.3 – 20.3

5. Rajasthan 195.571 179.371 374.942 West Bengal – – 35.4 6.5

6. Tamil Nadu 13.231 354.784 368.015 Rajasthan 4.7 11.4 – 5.6

8. Haryana 49.157 183.399 232.556 Andhra Pradesh 5.2 – 6.2 4.1

9. Bihar 47.301 105.852 153.153 Haryana 4.8 2.9 – 3.4

10. Punjab 0.000 151.717 151.717 Bihar 2.8 2.8 – 2.3

11. Karnataka 1.893 148.136 150.029 Punjab 4.0 – – 2.2

12. Orissa 147.138 0.000 147.138 Karnataka 3.9 0.1 – 2.2

13. Madhya Pradesh 0.000 139.720 139.720 Orissa – – 11.8 2.2

Sesbania aculeata 7.5 5.5 27 55.6 43.5 22 1st year

Source: Qadir et al. (1997).

It may be noted, however, that crop production on RECLAMATION OF SALT-AFFECTED SOILS

REFERENCES Commercialization of ICAR-CSSRI Technologies for Management of Salt-

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