Introduction

Definition of Bash scripting

A bash script is a file containing a sequence of commands that
are executed by the bash program line by line. It allows you to
perform a series of actions, such as navigating to a specific
directory, creating a folder, and launching a process using the
command line.

By saving these commands in a script, you can repeat the same

sequence of steps multiple times and execute them by running
the script.

Advantages of Bash scripting

Bash scripting is a powerful and versatile tool for automating
system administration tasks, managing system resources, and
performing other routine tasks in Unix/Linux systems. Some
advantages of shell scripting are:

• Automation: Shell scripts allow you to automate repetitive

tasks and processes, saving time and reducing the risk of
errors that can occur with manual execution.
• Portability: Shell scripts can be run on various platforms
and operating systems, including Unix, Linux, macOS, and
even Windows through the use of emulators or virtual
machines.
• Flexibility: Shell scripts are highly customizable and can be
easily modified to suit specific requirements. They can also
be combined with other programming languages or utilities
to create more powerful scripts.
• Accessibility: Shell scripts are easy to write and don't
require any special tools or software. They can be edited
 using any text editor, and most operating systems have a
built-in shell interpreter.
• Integration: Shell scripts can be integrated with other tools
and applications, such as databases, web servers, and cloud
services, allowing for more complex automation and system
management tasks.
• Debugging: Shell scripts are easy to debug, and most shells
have built-in debugging and error-reporting tools that can
help identify and fix issues quickly.
Overview of Bash shell and command line interface
The terms "shell" and "bash" are used interchangeably. But there
is a subtle difference between the two.

The term "shell" refers to a program that provides a command-

line interface for interacting with an operating system. Bash
(Bourne-Again SHell) is one of the most commonly used
Unix/Linux shells and is the default shell in many Linux
distributions.

A shell or command-line interface looks like this:

The shell accepts commands from the user and displays the output
In the above output, zaira@Zaira is the shell prompt. When a
shell is used interactively, it displays a $ when it is waiting for a
command from the user.
If the shell is running as root (a user with administrative rights),
the prompt is changed to #. The superuser shell prompt looks
like this:
[root@host ~]#
Although Bash is a type of shell, there are other shells available
as well, such as Korn shell (ksh), C shell (csh), and Z shell (zsh).
Each shell has its own syntax and set of features, but they all
share the common purpose of providing a command-line
interface for interacting with the operating system.

You can determine your shell type using the ps command:

ps
Here is the output for me:
 Checking the shell type. I'm
using bash shell
In summary, while "shell" is a broad term that refers to any
program that provides a command-line interface, "Bash" is a
specific type of shell that is widely used in Unix/Linux systems.

Note: In this tutorial, we will be using the "bash" shell.

How to Get Started with Bash Scripting

Running Bash commands from the command line
As mentioned earlier, the shell prompt looks something like this:

[username@host ~]$
You can enter any command after the $ sign and see the output
on the terminal.
Generally, commands follow this syntax:

command [OPTIONS] arguments

Let's discuss a few basic bash commands and see their outputs.
Make sure to follow along :)

• date: Displays the current date

zaira@Zaira:~/shell-tutorial$ date
Tue Mar 14 13:08:57 PKT 2023
• pwd: Displays the present working directory.
zaira@Zaira:~/shell-tutorial$ pwd
/home/zaira/shell-tutorial
• ls: Lists the contents of the current directory.
zaira@Zaira:~/shell-tutorial$ ls
check_plaindrome.sh count_odd.sh env log temp
• echo: Prints a string of text, or value of a variable to the
terminal.
zaira@Zaira:~/shell-tutorial$ echo "Hello bash"
Hello bash
You can always refer to a commands manual with
the man command.
For example, the manual for ls looks something like this:

You can see options for a command in detail using man

How to Create and Execute Bash scripts
Script naming conventions
By naming convention, bash scripts end with .sh. However, bash
scripts can run perfectly fine without the sh extension.
Adding the Shebang
Bash scripts start with a shebang. Shebang is a combination
of bash # and bang ! followed by the bash shell path. This is the
first line of the script. Shebang tells the shell to execute it via
bash shell. Shebang is simply an absolute path to the bash
interpreter.
Below is an example of the shebang statement.
#!/bin/bash
You can find your bash shell path (which may vary from the
above) using the command:

which bash

Creating our first bash script

Our first script prompts the user to enter a path. In return, its
contents will be listed.

Create a file named run_all.sh using the vi command. You can

use any editor of your choice.
vi run_all.sh
Add the following commands in your file and save it:

#!/bin/bash
echo "Today is " `date`

echo -e "\nenter the path to directory"

read the_path

echo -e "\n you path has the following files and folders: "
ls $the_path
Script to print contents of a user supplied directory
Let's take a deeper look at the script line by line. I am displaying
the same script again, but this time with line numbers.

1 #!/bin/bash
2 echo "Today is " `date`
3
4 echo -e "\nenter the path to directory"
5 read the_path
6
7 echo -e "\n you path has the following files and folders: "
8 ls $the_path
 • Line #1: The shebang (#!/bin/bash) points toward the bash
shell path.
• Line #2: The echo command is displaying the current date
and time on the terminal. Note that the date is in backticks.
• Line #4: We want the user to enter a valid path.
• Line #5: The read command reads the input and stores it in
the variable the_path.
• line #8: The ls command takes the variable with the stored
path and displays the current files and folders.
Executing the bash script
To make the script executable, assign execution rights to your
user using this command:

chmod u+x run_all.sh

Here,

• chmod modifies the ownership of a file for the current user :u.
• +x adds the execution rights to the current user. This means
that the user who is the owner can now run the script.
• run_all.sh is the file we wish to run.

You can run the script using any of the mentioned methods:

• sh run_all.sh
• bash run_all.sh
• ./run_all.sh
Let's see it running in action 🚀
Bash Scripting Basics
Comments in bash scripting
Comments start with a # in bash scripting. This means that any
line that begins with a # is a comment and will be ignored by the
interpreter.
Comments are very helpful in documenting the code, and it is a
good practice to add them to help others understand the code.

These are examples of comments:

# This is an example comment

# Both of these lines will be ignored by the interpreter

Variables and data types in Bash

Variables let you store data. You can use variables to read,
access, and manipulate data throughout your script.

There are no data types in Bash. In Bash, a variable is capable of

storing numeric values, individual characters, or strings of
characters.
In Bash, you can use and set the variable values in the following
ways:

1. Assign the value directly:

country=Pakistan
2. Assign the value based on the output obtained from a
program or command, using command substitution. Note
that $ is required to access an existing variable's value.
same_country=$country
This assigns the value of countryto the new variable same_country
To access the variable value, append $ to the variable name.
zaira@Zaira:~$ country=Pakistan
zaira@Zaira:~$ echo $country
Pakistan
zaira@Zaira:~$ new_country=$country
zaira@Zaira:~$ echo $new_country
Pakistan
Assigning and printing variable values
Variable naming conventions
In Bash scripting, the following are the variable naming
conventions:

1. Variable names should start with a letter or an underscore

(_).
2. Variable names can contain letters, numbers, and
underscores (_).
3. Variable names are case-sensitive.
4. Variable names should not contain spaces or special
characters.
5. Use descriptive names that reflect the purpose of the
variable.
 6. Avoid using reserved keywords, such as if, then, else, fi,
and so on as variable names.
Here are some examples of valid variable names in Bash:

name
count
_var
myVar
MY_VAR
And here are some examples of invalid variable names:

2ndvar (variable name starts with a number)

my var (variable name contains a space)
my-var (variable name contains a hyphen)
Following these naming conventions helps make Bash scripts
more readable and easier to maintain.

Input and output in Bash scripts

Gathering input
In this section, we'll discuss some methods to provide input to
our scripts.

1. Reading the user input and storing it in a variable

We can read the user input using the read command.
#!/bin/bash
echo "Today is " `date`

echo -e "\nenter the path to directory"

read the_path

echo -e "\nyour path has the following files and folders: "
ls $the_path
2. Reading from a file

This code reads each line from a file named input.txt and prints
it to the terminal. We'll study while loops later in this article.
while read line
do
echo $line
done < input.txt
3. Command line arguments

In a bash script or function, $1 denotes the initial argument

passed, $2 denotes the second argument passed, and so forth.
This script takes a name as a command-line argument and prints
a personalized greeting.

echo "Hello, $1!"

We have supplied Zaira as our argument to the script.
#!/bin/bash
echo "Hello, $1!"
The code for the script: greeting.sh
Output:
Displaying output
Here we'll discuss some methods to receive output from the
scripts.

1. Printing to the terminal:

echo "Hello, World!"
This prints the text "Hello, World!" to the terminal.

2. Writing to a file:

echo "This is some text." > output.txt

This writes the text "This is some text." to a file
named output.txt. Note that the >operator overwrites a file if it
already has some content.
3. Appending to a file:

echo "More text." >> output.txt

This appends the text "More text." to the end of the
file output.txt.
4. Redirecting output:
ls > files.txt
This lists the files in the current directory and writes the output
to a file named files.txt. You can redirect output of any
command to a file this way.
Basic Bash commands (echo, read, etc.)
Here is a list of some of the most commonly used bash
commands:

1. cd: Change the directory to a different location.

2. ls: List the contents of the current directory.
3. mkdir: Create a new directory.
4. touch: Create a new file.
5. rm: Remove a file or directory.
6. cp: Copy a file or directory.
7. mv: Move or rename a file or directory.
8. echo: Print text to the terminal.
9. cat: Concatenate and print the contents of a file.
10. grep: Search for a pattern in a file.
11. chmod: Change the permissions of a file or directory.
12. sudo: Run a command with administrative privileges.
13. df: Display the amount of disk space available.
14. history: Show a list of previously executed commands.
15. ps: Display information about running processes.
Conditional statements (if/else)
Expressions that produce a boolean result, either true or false,
are called conditions. There are several ways to evaluate
conditions, including if, if-else, if-elif-else, and nested
conditionals.
Syntax:
if [[ condition ]];
then
statement
elif [[ condition ]]; then
statement
else
do this by default
fi
Syntax of bash conditional statements
We can use logical operators such as AND -a and OR -o to make
comparisons that have more significance.
if [ $a -gt 60 -a $b -lt 100 ]
This statement checks if both conditions are true: a is greater than 60 AND b is less than 100.
Let's see an example of a Bash script that uses if, if-else,
and if-elif-else statements to determine if a user-inputted
number is positive, negative, or zero:
#!/bin/bash

echo "Please enter a number: "

read num

if [ $num -gt 0 ]; then

echo "$num is positive"
elif [ $num -lt 0 ]; then
echo "$num is negative"
else
echo "$num is zero"
fi
Script to determine if a number is positive, negative, or zero
The script first prompts the user to enter a number. Then, it uses
an if statement to check if the number is greater than 0. If it is,
the script outputs that the number is positive. If the number is
not greater than 0, the script moves on to the next statement,
which is an if-elif statement. Here, the script checks if the
number is less than 0. If it is, the script outputs that the number
is negative. Finally, if the number is neither greater than 0 nor
less than 0, the script uses an else statement to output that the
number is zero.
Seeing it in action 🚀

Looping and Branching in Bash

While loop
While loops check for a condition and loop until the condition
remains true. We need to provide a counter statement that
increments the counter to control loop execution.
In the example below, (( i += 1 )) is the counter statement
that increments the value of i. The loop will run exactly 10
times.
#!/bin/bash
i=1
while [[ $i -le 10 ]] ; do
echo "$i"
(( i += 1 ))
done
While loop that iterates 10 times.

For loop
The for loop, just like the while loop, allows you to execute
statements a specific number of times. Each loop differs in its
syntax and usage.
In the example below, the loop will iterate 5 times.

#!/bin/bash

for i in {1..5}
do
echo $i
done
For loop that iterates 5 times.

Case statements
In Bash, case statements are used to compare a given value
against a list of patterns and execute a block of code based on
the first pattern that matches. The syntax for a case statement
in Bash is as follows:

case expression in
pattern1)
# code to execute if expression matches pattern1
;;
pattern2)
# code to execute if expression matches pattern2
;;
pattern3)
# code to execute if expression matches pattern3
;;
*)
# code to execute if none of the above patterns match expression
;;
esac
Case statements syntax
Here, "expression" is the value that we want to compare, and
"pattern1", "pattern2", "pattern3", and so on are the patterns
that we want to compare it against.

The double semicolon ";;" separates each block of code to

execute for each pattern. The asterisk "*" represents the default
case, which executes if none of the specified patterns match the
expression.

Let's see an example.

fruit="apple"

case $fruit in
"apple")
echo "This is a red fruit."
;;
 "banana")
echo "This is a yellow fruit."
;;
"orange")
echo "This is an orange fruit."
;;
*)
echo "Unknown fruit."
;;
esac
Example of case statement
In this example, since the value of "fruit" is "apple", the first
pattern matches, and the block of code that echoes "This is a red
fruit." is executed. If the value of "fruit" were instead "banana",
the second pattern would match and the block of code that
echoes "This is a yellow fruit." would execute, and so on. If the
value of "fruit" does not match any of the specified patterns, the
default case is executed, which echoes "Unknown fruit."

How to Schedule Scripts using cron

Cron is a powerful utility for job scheduling that is available in
Unix-like operating systems. By configuring cron, you can set up
automated jobs to run on a daily, weekly, monthly, or specific
time basis. The automation capabilities provided by cron play a
crucial role in Linux system administration.

Below is the syntax to schedule crons:

# Cron job example

* * * * * sh /path/to/script.sh
Here, the *s represent minute(s) hour(s) day(s) month(s)
weekday(s), respectively.
Below are some examples of scheduling cron jobs.
 SCHEDULE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
0 0 * * *
0 0 * * * Run a script at midnight every day /path/to/script.sh

*/5 * * * */5 * * * *
* Run a script every 5 minutes /path/to/script.sh

0 6 * * 1- Run a script at 6 am from Monday to 0 6 * * 1-5

5 Friday /path/to/script.sh

0 0 1-7 * Run a script on the first 7 days of every 0 0 1-7 * *

* month /path/to/script.sh

Run a script on the first day of every 0 12 1 * *

0 12 1 * * month at noon /path/to/script.sh

Using crontab
The crontab utility is used to add and edit the cron jobs.
crontab -l lists the already scheduled scripts for a particular
user.
You can add and edit the cron through crontab -e.
You can read more about corn jobs in my other article here.
How to Debug and Troubleshoot Bash Scripts
Debugging and troubleshooting are essential skills for any Bash
scripter. While Bash scripts can be incredibly powerful, they can
also be prone to errors and unexpected behavior. In this section,
we will discuss some tips and techniques for debugging and
troubleshooting Bash scripts.

Set the set -x option

One of the most useful techniques for debugging Bash scripts is
to set the set -x option at the beginning of the script. This
option enables debugging mode, which causes Bash to print
each command that it executes to the terminal, preceded by
a + sign. This can be incredibly helpful in identifying where
errors are occurring in your script.
#!/bin/bash
set -x

# Your script goes here

Check the exit code

When Bash encounters an error, it sets an exit code that
indicates the nature of the error. You can check the exit code of
the most recent command using the $? variable. A value
of 0 indicates success, while any other value indicates an error.
#!/bin/bash

# Your script goes here

if [ $? -ne 0 ]; then
echo "Error occurred."
fi
Use echo statements
Another useful technique for debugging Bash scripts is to
insert echo statements throughout your code. This can help you
identify where errors are occurring and what values are being
passed to variables.
#!/bin/bash

# Your script goes here

echo "Value of variable x is: $x"

# More code goes here

Use the set -e option
If you want your script to exit immediately when any command
in the script fails, you can use the set -e option. This option will
cause Bash to exit with an error if any command in the script
fails, making it easier to identify and fix errors in your script.
#!/bin/bash
set -e

# Your script goes here

Troubleshooting crons by verifying logs

We can troubleshoot crons using the log files. Logs are
maintained for all the scheduled jobs. You can check and verify
in logs if a specific job ran as intended or not.

For Ubuntu/Debian, you can find cronlogs at:

/var/log/syslog
The location varies for other distributions.

A cron job log file can look like this:

2022-03-11 00:00:01 Task started

2022-03-11 00:00:02 Running script /path/to/script.sh
2022-03-11 00:00:03 Script completed successfully
2022-03-11 00:05:01 Task started
2022-03-11 00:05:02 Running script /path/to/script.sh
2022-03-11 00:05:03 Error: unable to connect to database
2022-03-11 00:05:03 Script exited with error code 1
2022-03-11 00:10:01 Task started
2022-03-11 00:10:02 Running script /path/to/script.sh
2022-03-11 00:10:03 Script completed successfully
Cron log