Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Savitribai Phule Pune University

PUNE VIDYARTHI GRIHA’S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

SHRIKRUSHNA S. DHAMANKAR INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT, NASHIK

First Year of Engineering (2024 Pattern)

Course Name: Basic Electrical Engineering

Course Code: ESE-102-ELE

Practical Manual
(AY: 2024-25)

Subject Teacher: - Prof. Y. R. Shinde

Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

List of Experiments

1. To study safety precautions while working on electrical systems, handling

of various equipment’s such as rheostat, multi-meter, ammeters,
voltmeters, wattmeter’s etc.

2. Study of wiring materials, switch board and different wiring schemes.

(Simple wiring & staircase wiring).

3. To verify Kirchhoff’s laws experimentally

4. To verify Superposition theorem experimentally

5. To determine efficiency and regulation of transformer by using direct

loading test experimentally

6. To measure steady state response of series RL and RC circuits

experimentally

7. To study RLC series resonance experimentally

8. To verify the relation between phase and line quantities in three phase
balanced star delta connections of load experimentally

9. Study of cut view section of single phase Induction motor.

10. To measure insulation resistance by using megger and study of Single-

Phase LT electricity bill
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Date of Performance: / / 20
Experiment No 1. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS & HANDLING OF ELECTRCIAL
INSTRUMENTS

Aim: To study safety precautions while working on electrical systems, handling

of various equipment’s such as rheostat, multi-meter, ammeters, voltmeters,
wattmeter’s etc.
Apparatus: AC and DC Ammeters, Voltmeters, Multimeter, Wattmeter, Rheostat
Theory:

Part A: Safety Precautions

Safety is always important when working with electricity. This includes both the safety for you as
well as safety for the circuit components/ equipment’s you are working with. Concerns such as high
voltage or currents can affect the human body, since the human body is a conductor of electricity.
Significant physical harm or death mayresult from its misuse.

The major harm associated with electricity are electrical shock and fire. Electrical shock occurs when
the body becomes part of the electric circuit, either when an individual comes in contact with both
wires of an electrical circuit, one wire of an energized circuit and the ground, or a metallic part that
has become energized by contact with an electrical conductor.

The effect of the shock may range from a slight tingle to severe burns to cardiac arrest. The following
table shows the effect of shock, when the current level varies from few mA to several mA.

Curren Reactio
t n
1 1 Milliampere Perception level
2 5 Milliamperes Slight shock felt; not painful but disturbing
3 6-30 Milliamperes Painful shock; "let-go" range
4 50-150 Milliamperes Extreme pain, respiratory arrest, severe muscular contraction
5 1000-4,300 Milliamperes Ventricular fibrillation
6 10,000+ Milliamperes Cardiac arrest, severe burns and probable death

Prepare for Emergencies in case of electric shock and fire

Since it is essential to react promptly and deliberately to emergencies, students should learn what to do
in various emergencies and be prepared to act accordingly.

1. Electric Shock:

When someone suffers serious electrical shock, he or she may be knocked unconscious. If the victim
is still in contact with the electrical current, immediately turn off the electrical power source. If you
cannot disconnect the power source, try to separate the victim from the power source with a
nonconductive object, such as a wooden stick or wooden handled broom.

Important: Do not touch a victim that is still in contact with a power source; you could electrocute
yourself. Havesomeone call for emergency medical assistance immediately.
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2. Electrical Fire:

If an electrical fire occurs, try to disconnect the electrical power source, but only if you can do it
without endangering yourself. If the fire is small, you are not in immediate danger, and you have been
trained in fighting fires, use any type of fire extinguisher except water to extinguish the fire.

Important: Do not use water on an electrical fire.

Safety Precautions need to be observed while dealing with electricity in Electrical Engineering Lab.

 Do your wiring, setup, and a careful circuit checkout before applying power
 Use wires of appropriate length. Do not allow them to drape over your equipment. Avoid joints,
which createlive surfaces.
 When running a pair of wires to adjacent terminals, twist the wires together so they don’t swing.
This also neatens your work and will save time
 Do not make circuit changes or perform any wiring when the power is on.
 Avoid contact with energized electrical circuits
 Do not touch anything if your hands are wet. The "one-hand" approach is safest
 It is wise in electrical labs to wear pants rather than shorts or skirts. Ties are also dangerous.
 Do not wear loose-fitting clothing or jewelry in the lab. Rings and necklaces are usual excellent
conductors in contact with your skin
 Powered equipment can be hot! Use caution when handling equipment after it has been operating.
 When you are mentally or physically tired, avoid work on energized circuit.

General Safety Precautions:

 Rubber or plastic-soled shoes or chappals must be used while working on electrical system. Using
a woodensupport under the feet is advisable as it avoids contact with the earth.
 Earth connection should always be maintained in proper condition.
 A line tester should be used to check whether a terminal is ‘live’ i.e. holds any potential. A more
appropriate method is to use a test lamp.
 Supply from mains must be switched off and the fuses must be removed before starting repair or
maintenance work.
 Fuses must have correct ratings.
 Insulated screwdrivers, pliers, line testers etc. should be used.
 Two different terminals should not be touched at the same time.
 The plug should never be removed by pulling the wires connected to it.
 The sockets should be fixed at a height beyond the reach of the children.
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Part B: Handling of Electrical Instruments

Use of different, commonly used electrical instruments
 Ammeter: - Ammeter is used to measure current in an electrical circuit and is required to be
connected always in series. Depending on type of current i.e. AC or DC, ammeter is selected.
 Voltmeter: - Voltmeter is employed to measure the potential difference (Voltage) across any two
points of a circuit. It is connected in parallel across any element in the circuit. Depending on type
of supply i.e. AC or DC, voltmeter is selected.

Fig. Use of Ammeter and voltmeter

 Wattmeter: - The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power in watts of any
given circuit. It consists of two coils i.e. voltage/potential coil (parallel) and current coil (series).
As the current coil is connected in series with load, it measures the load current and whereas the
potential coil is connected across the load is used to measure the voltage across the load.

Figure: Use of Wattmeter and its connection

 Digital Multimeters:

A digital multimeter is a test tool used to measure two or

more electrical values—principally voltage (V), current (A)
and resistance (Ω). It is a standard diagnostic tool used in
colleges as well as in the electrical/electronic industries.
Digital multimeters long ago replaced pointer-based analog
meters due to their ability to measure with greater accuracy,
reliability and increased impedance. Digital multimeters
combine the testing capabilities of single-task meters—the
voltmeter (for measuring volts), ammeter (amps) and
ohmmeter (ohms). Often, they include several additional
specialized features or advanced options. Operating person
with specific needs, therefore, can seek out a model targeted to
meet their needs.
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 Rheostat

Rheostats are employed in the circuit to control the value of current, when connected in series and to
control value of voltage, when connected in parallel without breaking the circuit. Rheostats are made
up of high resistivity material such as nickel-chromium iron alloy closely wound over a circular tube.
These are available both in a single tube and double tube. Inter-turn insulation is provided to avoid
short circuiting of turns. The tube of rheostat is made of insulating material, like asbestos.

If you connect the circuit wires so

that the top bar of the rheostat is
excluded (so connect bottom left, A,
and bottom right, B, terminals) the
current will pass through all of the
coil (excluding the slider and the bar
at the top) and you will have
maximum resistance.

If you connect either end of the rheostat into the circuit (bottom left, A to top right, C) the current will
pass through the coil and out at wherever the slider is, and on to the rest of the circuit (via the bar and
terminal C). By moving the slider along you will change the length of coil in the rheostat, and thus alter
the resistance it provides. Making it shorter will decrease the resistance, moving the slider to reveal
more coil will increase the resistance in the circuit.

Handling and selection of Electrical Instruments

Electrical measuring instruments are devices used to measure various electrical parameters such as
voltage, current, resistance, and capacitance. Their accuracy and reliability are essential for ensuring
safety, efficiency, and optimal performance of electrical systems and equipment. Here are some
important guidelines for the care, handling, and application of electrical ensuring instruments

 Instruments should be handled carefully, avoiding drops, impacts, and rough handling.
 Always handle electrical measuring instruments with utmost care. Hold them using the grip or
handle, if available, to avoid mishandling. Never hold them by the probes or leads.
 Measuring instruments are powered from a suitable power source. Never use an instrument
that is not designed for a specific voltage range.
 Ensure that the equipment is rated for the voltage and current ranges being measured.
 Ensure that all connections and leads are properly connected and secure. Take readings and notes as required.

Proper care, handling, and application of electrical measuring instruments are essential to ensure
accurate readings and safe operation
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Activities
 Step1
Insert the red and black leads into the proper jacks on the digital multimeter.
a. The black probe should go in the COM jack and the red probe should go in the + (plus) jack.

 Step 2
Turn on the multimeter. Click or turn to the on button.
a. What is the model of multimeter?

b. What action must be taken to turn the meter on?

 Step 3
Switch or turn to different measurements. For example, voltage, and ohms.
a. How many different switch positions does the multimeter have?

b. What are they?

 Step 4
Switch or turn the multimeter to the voltage measurement.
a. What is the symbol for this?

 Step 5
Put the tip of the red, positive lead on the positive side of a battery. Put the tip of the black,
negative, lead on the other end of a battery.
a. Is any number showing up on the multimeter? If not, make sure to switch to the correct
type of measurement. For example, Vol, voltage, or V. If the voltage is negative, reverse the
leads.

Reflection:
1. Name one thing that should not be done to a multimeter.

2. Name one important function of a multimeter.

3. If a voltage is negative when measuring a battery, what is wrong?

Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

OBSERVATIONS:
Enlist at least two meters and parameters with specifications from laboratory

Sr. Meter/ Specificatio

No. Parameter ns
1.

1 Ammeter
2

1.

2 Voltmeter
2

1.

3. Wattmeter
2

1.

4 Multimeter
2

CONCLUSION:
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Date of Performance: / / 20

EXPERIMENT NO. 2: STUDY OF WIRING MATERIALS, SWITCHBOARD AND

DIFFERENT WIRING SCHEMES. (SIMPLE & STAIRCASE WIRING).

Aim: - A. Study of wiring materials (Wires, switches, sockets, plugs, lamp holders etc.)
B. Study of Switchboard
C. Study of simple wiring and staircase wiring.

Electricity requires an electric path to flow and conducting materials are used for this purpose. There
are non- conducting materials which are used as insulation during working on live lines.
A. Wiring materials:
Electrical wire is made of materials like copper, aluminum and silver. As silver is expensive, mostly
copper andaluminum are used in wiring. Materials are classified into following types according to their
properties:
a. Conducting materials
b. Insulating materials
Conducting Material
1. Copper
It is a good conductor of electricity. It is used in wiring materials in cables. Its has low resistance and is
used for conduction of electricity at high, medium and low voltage.

It is used in wiring and cable making.

2. Aluminum
It is light weight and cheaper in comparison to copper. Therefore, this type of conducting material is mostly
used in electrical wiring. It is silvery–white in colour and it has a soft texture. It is often used in wiring and
making cable.
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Insulating Materials
Insulating materials are used for insulating purpose. These types of materials are bad conductors of
current. For example, Vulcanized
V.I.R. (Vulcanized India Rubber) Wires

This type of wire consists of tinned conductor coated with rubber insulation. This is further covered with
protective cotton and bitumen compound and finally finished with wax. This makes it moisture and
heat resistant. These are always single core wires. As they are covered with a cotton layer, they tend to
absorb moisture and hence rarely used now a days.

C.T.S. (Cab Tyre Sheathed) Wires

In this type, ordinary rubber insulated conductors are provided with an additional tough rubber sheath.
The wire is also known as Tough Rubber Sheathed (T.R.S) wire. It provides additional insulation and also
protection against moisture, chemical fumes and wear and tear. They are available in single core, double
core and three core varieties.

P.V.C. (Poly Vinyl Chloride) Wires

These wires, which are most used, have conductors with P.V.C. insulation. P.V.C. is non-hygroscopic,
tough, durable, corrosion resistant and chemically inert; therefore, it is suitable for general wiring
work. P.V.C. insulation, being sufficiently tough to give mechanical protection, cotton taping or
braiding is not essential as in the case of ordinary rubber insulated conductors. P.V.C., being
thermoplastic, softens at high temperatures. Therefore, it should not be used where extreme
temperatures are likely to occur. For example, it should not be used for making connections to heating
appliances.

Flexible Wires

These are used very commonly in domestic wiring or for wiring of temporary nature. It consists of two
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separately insulated stranded conductors. The insulation is mostly made of rubber. They are more
commonly available in parallel or twisted twins. Due to its flexible nature, the handling of these wires
becomes veryeasy.
CABLES:

Types of
a) Aerial cables
b) Underground cables

A cable can be defined as a group of individually insulated conductors, which is put together and
finally provided, with a number of layers of insulation to give mechanical support. The figure shows a
general construction of an underground cable.

General Construction of cable

Conductor or core: This consists of stranded aluminum or copper

conductors.

Insulation: Commonly used insulating material is impregnated paper, vulcanized bitumen.

Metallic sheath: This is an aluminum sheath or lead sheath, which covers the insulation and provides
mechanical protection. It restricts moisture to reach to the insulation.

Bedding: It consists of some fibrous material, which protects metallic sheath from corrosion.

Armouring: This consists of layers of galvanized steel wires, which provide protection to the cable
from mechanical injury.

Serving: It is a layer of fibrous material like jute cloth, which protects the armouring from atmospheric conditions.

As in cities and big towns underground cables or overhead wires is not feasible, it is necessary to use
the network of the underground cables. The cable with only one conductor is called as a single core
cable. The cable with twoconductors is called as a two core cable and so on.

Specification of wires:

Similar to the cables, many other types of wires also use more than one conductor in them. The wires
using more than one strand of conductors in them are called multistranded wires. The number of
strands in various types of wires are 3, 7, 19, 37, 61, 91, 127 and 169. This number of strands ensures
that the cross-section of the conductor or wire remains circular in shape.

The multi-stranded construction increases the current carrying capacity of the wires. As current through
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

conductor increases, heat produced is more. In case of single solid conductor, majority of current flows
near the surface and hence surface becomes very hot and insulation comes under high temperature
stress. Due to many strands, the current gets divided into number of paths and larger surface area is
available for heat dissipation than the single solid conductor. Hence, for the same temperature limit, a
multi-stranded wire can carry more current than single solid conductor. A multi-stranded wire is more
flexible as the cross section of each strand is much less. It makes it suitable while wiring. If at all there
is an open circuit in one of the strands, other strands can carry current. The heat produced gets
dissipated quicker in multi-stranded wires. The one way of specifying wires is the number of strands
of conductors used in it. Secondly, various insulations can withstand different temperatures and
depending upon the type of insulation, wires are specified. As mentioned earlier, various
insulations are vulcanized India rubber, cab tyre, tough rubber, and poly vinyl chloride etc. So
wires are specified as V.I.R., T.R.S., C.T.S., and P.V.C. wires. Now a days, P.V.C. insulated wires are
very commonly used.

The size of the strand of the conductor is also important from the specification point of view. The size
determines the current carrying capacity of the conductor. To specify the size of conductor various
methods, are used.

SWITCHES:

The switch is a device, which is used to make (close) or break (open) the electrical circuit. At the
instant of breaking, the switch should not produce an arc at the contacts of the switch. To ensure fast
switching, switches are provided with a spring to its movable blades. The various types of switches
are shown in the figure.

S.P.S.T. (Single pole single throw) switch: It consists of only one pole and it can be thrown only on
one side for making or breaking the circuit.
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S.P.D.T. (Single pole double throw) switch: This is further classified as a two-way switch or a two
way with center off switch. A two-way switch always makes contact with one of the two poles and a
two way with center off switch can be kept at its center position keeping away from the two poles.

D.P.S.T. (Double pole single throw) switch: For simultaneous action of both poles, a spring is
provided connecting two movable blades.

D.P.D.T. (Double pole double throw) switch: This is also available in the form of intermediate switch.

T.P.S.T. (Triple pole single throw) switch: This is used for three-phase supply. Other varieties of
switches are push button switch, rotary snap switch, flush switch etc.

FUSES:

When there is a short circuit, overload or some type of fault in the circuit, heavy current flows through
it. This is dangerous to the appliances connected to the same supply and also to the loads connected in
parallel to the same line. High current overheats the wires and damages the insulation. Hence, under
such conditions, it is necessary to break the supply. This is done by a fuse.

a) Semi-enclosed or Rewirable Type Fuse:

It consists of a porcelain base and a wire, which melts at higher temperatures. It is inserted in live or
phase wire. When current exceeds certain limit, fuse wire melts due to overheat and supply to the
circuit gets disconnected. Either copper or lead-tin alloy is generally used as a fuse wire. Instead of
connecting the fuse wire directly in series with live wire, a fuse top is used which is having porcelain
base. The porcelain structure containing fuse wire is bridged to the base by fitting top into the base.
Such arrangement is called as kitkattype of fuse unit.

Advantages:
 They are cheaper.
 After blowing off the fuse element, the bridge can be pulled out and again rewired with a new
fuse wire. Thus, service can be restored very quickly with negligible additional expenditure.

Disadvantages:
 Cannot be used for higher values of fault current.
 Protection is not reliable due to inaccurate characteristics.
 Since the wire is exposed to air, it is subjected to deterioration due to oxidation caused by heating.
This decreases the effective diameter of the wire. Heating due to increased resistance causes
premature failure under normal load.
 Slow speed i.e. current interruption is not quick in comparison with other interrupting devices.
 Risk of fire-hazards due to external flash on blowing.

Applications: Commonly used in domestic installations and other circuits where very low values of
fault currents are to be handled.

b) HRC Fuse:

This fuse is used to break the circuit where fault current level is very high. In such cases, the fuse has to
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

withstand heavy stresses hence the construction is of totally closed type. This type of fuse is called as
high rupturing capacity

(H.R.C.) fuse. The fuse wire is enclosed in a ceramic cartridge. The ends of fuse wire are connected to
metal caps. The body of cartridge is filled with powdered quartz. When fuse melts, it reacts with
quartz powder forming a substance having high resistance like insulator. This also restricts the arc
formation.
Advantages:
 Being totally closed, there is no deterioration of the fuse element.
 Due to accurate characteristics and consistent performance, protection is reliable.
 High-speed operation.
 Ability to clear high values of fault current.
 Its operation is silent and without flame, gas or smoke. Hence safe from the point of view of fire hazards.
Disadvantages:
 Costly in comparison with Rewirable type fuses.
 The fuse is to be totally replaced by a new one after each operation.
 Overheating of the adjacent contacts is possible during the operation of the fuse.

LAMP HOLDERS:

These are used to hold the lamps required for lighting purposes. These are made up of brass, bakelite
or hard plastic. The lamp holders are classified as, having moulded or porcelain interior with a solid
plunger and having moulded interior with spring plunger.

The two types of holders are bayonet type and screw type holders. Each of these types is further
classified intothe following types.
 Batten holders: These can be screwed to wooden blocks and hence can be used for wall or ceiling
attachments.
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

 Pendant holders: These can be used for lamps hanging from the ceiling.
 Bracket holders: These can be screwed on a wall bracket or on a table lamp stand.
PLUGS & SOCKETS:

The sockets have an insulated base having two or three sleeves. These are the points from which
electricity can be tapped. In two terminal sockets, the terminals are phase and neutral but in case of a
three-terminal socket, two thin terminal sleeves are for phase and neutral while the third of thicker cross-
section is meant for earth connection. For tapping power from the socket, 2 or 3 pin plugs are used. By
using sockets and plug, the various domestic appliances can be connected to an electric supply. Both
three-pin and two-pin type plugs and sockets are available with the rating of 5 A - 250 V & 15 A - 250
V

B. Switch Board
Components required for a switchboard used to control two single phase
loads are:Cutout fuse and Indicator, Piano Switch and Gang Socket

Fuse: The information regarding the fuse has been provided in the previous section.

Indicator: An indicator lamp just Sounds Technical, sometimes it is called a Supervisory light
Indicator. Indicator lights are amber in color and can be located at the Front, the Rear, and Sometimes
at the Side of the car on both the left And Right-hand sides. The Common colors used by Indicator
lamps are red, yellow, blue, white, and green line system. A Panel Indicator Lamp Generally has up to
5 Differently Colored Segments to Indicate Various Conditions on the Machine or Process system.

Switch : The information regarding the SPST has been provided in the previous section.

Socket: The information regarding the power socket has been provided in the previous section
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C. Wiring Schemes
In the domestic wiring, the various appliances & lamps are connected in Parallel but for various
combinations of switches & lamps are also used. Such combinations are called as wiring systems or
schemes.
Control of one lamp from one switch (Simple wiring scheme):

Components required: Single Pole switches: 1 No., Connecting wires, Bulbs (40 Watt) : 1 No

For a lamp (L1), one live wire & one neutral is necessary. To control the supply to the
lamp switch is introduced in the live wire & neutral is directly connected to the lamp.
When the switch (S1) is ON, a full voltage gets applied to the lamp & it Glows. When the
switch is turned off, the circuit gets opened & lamp gets switched Off. This is controlling
one lamp by one switch.

Control of three lamps from three switches (looping in system):

Components required: Single Pole switches: 3 Nos., Connecting wires, Bulbs (40 Watt) : 3 Nos.

Working: This type of wiring is called as a looping in system. Instead of running separate wires for
each lamp from the supply point, they are looped in from one lamp to the other. In this case it will be
observed that the position of any switch does not affect the working of the other lamps, and thus its
own switch controls each lamp independently.
Application: This system is commonly used in domestic wiring as it saves length of wire & avoids soldered
joints.

Part C: Staircase wiring:

Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Components required: Two-way switches: 2 Nos., Bulbs (40 Watt):1 No., Connecting wires
Working: When a person has to climb stairs, the staircase needs to be illuminated. For this purpose,
switch S1 is kept in position ‘b’ (switch S2 is in position ‘b’) so that the circuit is completed, and bulb
lights up. After climbing the stairs, one does not need the light anymore, so switch S 2 is brought to
position a, the circuit breaks and lamp is switched off. While coming down, switch S2 is brought to
position b to put the lamp on. After reaching downstairs, switch S1 is put in position ‘a’ to turn off the
lamp. Thus, two switches can control one and the same lamp.

Application: Normally used for staircases and corridors.

Conclusion:
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Date of Performance: / /20

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Experiment No 3. KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

Aim: To verify Kirchhoff’s Laws.

Apparatus: 1. Experimental kit.

2. D.C. milliammeter (0-10mA)- 3 Nos
3. DC Voltage (0-10V)
4. Multimeter
5. Connecting wires

Circuit Diagram: Verification of Kirchoff’s Law

Theory:

Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

Statement: “Algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction/node is always equal to zero”.
The current sign (positive or negative) is assigned based on its direction towards or away from
a node. Let the sign of incoming current (current approaching the node) is positive and the
sign of outgoing current (current leaving the node) is negative.

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3

In other words, at any node (junction) in an electrical circuit,

the sum of currents coming to that node is equal to the sum of
currents flowing out of that node.
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Statement: Algebraic sum of the branch voltages in any closed loop is always equal to zero.

∑𝑉 = 0

Solution of the given network by Mesh Analysis

In the given network all the circulating loop currents are assumed to be flowing in the same
direction i.e clockwise. This is not necessarily essential as the choice of direction can be
arbitrarily for any loop current. The equation for different loops will always be of the
generalized form given below:
𝑅11𝐼1+ 𝑅12𝐼2+.......+ 𝑅1𝑛𝐼𝑛 = 𝑉1
𝑅21𝐼1+ 𝑅22𝐼2+.......+ 𝑅2𝑛𝐼𝑛 = 𝑉2
................................................................
𝑅𝑛1𝐼1+ 𝑅𝑛2𝐼2+.......+ 𝑅𝑛𝑛𝐼𝑛 = 𝑉𝑛
Where,
𝑉1= the Algebraic sum of the source voltage in loop-1 in the direction of 𝐼1
𝑉2= the Algebraic sum of the source voltage in loop-1 in the direction of 𝐼2
𝑅11= Sum of all resistances in Loop-1
𝑅12=𝑅21=Total resistance common to loop 1& 2
Hence it is important to note that the resistance elements (or the coefficient) 𝑅11, 𝑅22 etc
respectively represent the total resistance values on the contours of the loops 1, 2 etc always
positive sign. In other words, it means that equation derived for a particular loop, the term
which loops own circulating current is always positive e.g. the term 𝑅11𝐼1 is always positive in
the equation of first loop, the term 𝑅22𝐼2 is always positive in the equation of second loop and
so on,

On the other hand, all other resistance elements like𝑅12, 𝑅21, etc representing the resistance
common to two loops carry a positive sign if the two assumed loop currents through the flow
in the same direction and a minus sign if these loop currents flow in opposite direction

With these rules in mind, it is possible to write the equation necessary for the solution of any
method merely by inspecting that network without the necessity for collecting terms with the
same coefficient

For loop 1: 𝑅11𝐼1+ 𝑅12𝐼2 = 𝑉1 For loop 2: 𝑅21𝐼1+ 𝑅22𝐼2 = 𝑉2

Solve the given equation by simultaneous method or matrix method

Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Procedure for KCL:

1. Apply suitable voltage using DC dual power supply on both sides
2. Measure currents using milli-ammeter/multimeter.
3. Verify the observed and calculated values of current

Observation Table:
R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 =
Obs. V1 I1, I2 I3 I4 I5
No. ,

Calculations:

Result table for KCL:

Currents. Observed Values Calculated Values

I1
I2
I3
I4
I5
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Procedure for KVL:

1. Apply suitable voltage using DC dual power supply on both sides
2. Measure voltage drop across each resistance with the help of voltmeter or multimeter
3. Verify observed values of voltages with calculated values of voltage drops
4. Write the loop equation for first loop and second loop and verify KVL statement

Observation Table:
R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 =
Voltage Voltage Voltage Voltage Voltage Voltage
Obs.
V1 across R1 across R2 across R3 across across R5 across R6
No.
(VR1) (VR2) (VR3) R4 (VR4) (VR5) (VR6)
1

Calculations:

Calculated values of VR1, VR2, VR3, VR4, VR5, VR6

VR1=I1R1 VR3=I1R3

VR2=I2R2 VR4=I2R4

VR5=(I1-I2) R5

Loop equation for first loop (with Loop equation for first loop (with
observed values) calculated values)
[verification of KVL statement] [verification of KVL statement]

Loop equation for second loop (with Loop equation for second loop (with
observed values) calculated values)
[verification of KVL statement] [verification of KVL statement]

Result table for KVL:

1. Verification of voltage drops

Voltage drops Observed Calculated Voltage drops Observed Calculated

VR1 VR4
VR2 VR5
VR3 VR6
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

2. Verification of KVL Statement

Loop Equation Observed Calculated

First Loop

Second Loop

Conclusion:

Questions
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Date of Performance: / /20

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Experiment No 4. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Aim: To verify Superposition theorem.

Apparatus: 1. Experimental kit.

2. D.C. milliammeter (0-10mA)- 3 Nos
3. DC Voltage (0-10V)
4. Multimeter
5. Connecting wires

Circuit diagram:

Statement: Superposition theorem states that in a linear bilateral network containing constant
resistance and several source, the resultant current in any branch is a algebraic sum of the
currents that would be produce in that branch by each source acting separately, when all the
remaining source are replaced by their respective internal resistances.

Consider a circuit shown above. When 𝐸1 is acting alone and 𝐸2 is replaced by its internal
resistance.

𝐼 = 𝐸1 𝐼. 𝑟2
1 𝑆𝑜 𝐼′ =
𝑟2𝑅 𝑟2 + 𝑅
𝑟1 + 𝑟 + 𝑅
2

Where 𝑟1 & 𝑟2 are internal resistance of 𝐸1 & 𝐸2

When battery 𝐸2is acting alone, & 𝐸1 is replaced by its internal resistance.

𝐼 = 𝐸2 𝐼. 𝑟1
2 𝑆𝑜 𝐼′′ =
𝑟1𝑅 𝑟1 + 𝑅
𝑟2 + 𝑟 + 𝑅
1
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

The total current I supplied to load when both batteries are acting simultaneously is given by
the algebraic sum of the component current 𝐼′& 𝐼′′ . Thus I = 𝐼′+𝐼′′ . while finding the total
current in any branch of the network, it is necessary to take into account the direction of the
component current produced in that branch individually by different voltage source. Currents
flowing in the same direction are additive while flowing in opposite direction are subtractive.

Procedure:
1. Apply suitable voltage V1 using DC power supply and replace second source (V2) by
its internal resistance
2. Measure current through respective branch using milli-ammeter.
3. Repeat the process considering second source voltage V2
4. Measure current through respective branch when both the voltage sources are present

Observation Table:
V1 = V2 = R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 =

Sr. No Current When 𝑽𝟏 acting Current When 𝑽𝟐 When 𝑽𝟏& 𝑽𝟐 are acting
alone ( 𝑰′) acting alone (𝑰′′) Simultaneously (I)

Calculations
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Result Table:

Sr. No Observed values Calculated values

𝑰′

𝑰′′

Conclusions:
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Date of Performance: / /20

Experiment No 6. STAR & DELTA CONNECTIONS

Aim: To verify the relation between phase and line quantities in three
phase balanced star delta connections of load.

Apparatus:
1) Three phase lamp load --- (440V, 10 A)
2) A.C. Voltmeter --- (0-300V-600V)
3) A.C. Ammeter --- (0-5A)
4) A.C. Ammeter --- (0-10A)

Theory:
A balanced three phase system is one in which the voltages in all phases are
equal in magnitude & differ in phase from one another by equal angle i.e.120
degree (electrical). A three phase balanced load is that in which the loads
connected across three phases are identical in nature and magnitude.

Circuit Diagram for Star Connection

Circuit Diagram for Delta Connection

Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Star Connection:

In this type of interconnection, one of the ends of each load impedances are
joined together to form a common point called as star or neutral point. The
potential difference between line & neutral is called as phase voltage &
between two lines is called line voltage.
Hence VRN,VYN,VBN(Each equal to VPH ) are the three phase voltages.

We have, as phasor relations:

 
 

VRY  VRN  VNY  VRN - VYN

VYB  VYN  VNB  VYN - VBN
VBR  VBN  VNR  VBN - VRN

The relation between line voltage and Phase voltage is VL  3 VPH

The relation between line Current and Phase current is i.e., IL=IPH

Delta Connection :
In this type of interconnection, the end of first load impedance is connected
to start of second load impedance, the end of second load impedance is
connected to start of third load impedance and end of third is connected to
start of first. In this way a closed loop of three impedances is formed. Three-
phase supply is given to the three junctions in the closed loop of the
impedances.
Current flowing through any line is called line current (i.e., I R = IY = IB = IL ) &
current through any single load impedance is called as phase current (i.e., IRY
= IYB =IBR = IPH ). The line voltages V RY , VYB& VBR are phase voltages as well
as line voltages.
The relation between line voltage and Phase voltage is VL=Vph
The relation between line Current and Phase current is I L  3 I PH

Procedure:
1) Connect the given lamp load in STAR,
2) Make it balance by switching appropriate number of lamps in each phase.
3) Measure the line and phase voltages as well as line and phase currents
4) Repeat the same procedure by connecting the load in DELTA.

Observation table:
Connection Line Voltage Phase Voltage Line Current Phase Current
VL (Volt) V Ph (Volt) IL (Amp) IPh (Amp)

1
STAR
2
1
DELTA
2
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Calculations:
Star Connection Delta Connection

Conclusion:
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Date of Performance: / /20

Experiment No 5. PERFORMANCE OF SINGLE PHASE

TRANSFORMER
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Aim: To determine efficiency and regulation of Single Phase
Transformer by Direct Loading test.
Apparatus:
1. Single Phase Transformer --- 1 kVA, 115/230V
(115V/230V)
2. A. C. Voltmeter --- 0-150V & 0-300V
3. A. C. Ammeter --- 0-5A & 0-10A
4. Dimmer stat --- 230V/0-270V, 15A
5. Single Phase Lamp bank (Resistive load)--- 230V, 10A
6. Wattmeter --- 5 /10 A, 300 V
Theory:
Transformer transforms electrical energy from one circuit to another. By
keeping primary side voltage constant if load on secondary side is increased,
then terminal voltage V2 across the load changes. For a resistive or inductive
type of load this change is on negative side, i.e., the terminal voltage drops.
With the further increase in load it drops further because the load current
increases and hence the voltage drops in resistance and leakage reactance of
the secondary winding also increases.

Voltage Regulation:

The change in secondary voltage from no load to full load expressed as the
fraction of no load secondary voltage is defined as the voltage regulation of
transformer.

Losses:

There are two types of losses in transformer

1. Copper losses or Winding losses (Variable Losses).
2. Iron losses or Core losses (Constant losses)

Due to various losses, the power output of the transformer is always less than
the corresponding power input. So for same input, higher the value of power
output i.e. lesser the losses, more efficient is the transformer.
Efficiency:

Efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to the

input power. When expressed in percentage;

% = (Output power / Input power) x 100.

Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Circuit Diagram

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in diagram.
2. Initially keep all the lamps off and keep the dimmerstat at zero position.
3. Switch on the supply and by varying the dimmerstat, apply rated voltage
to primary.
4. Note down the readings of currents, voltages and power. The secondary
voltmeter reading is obviously the no load secondary voltage V2(0).
5. Now keeping primary voltage constant, increase the load on secondary side
in steps by switching the lamps on. Note down various quantities V1, I1,
W1, V2 and I2 at each step.
6. Repeat the procedure till full load current flows on secondary side.

Observation Table:

Primary Primary Power Secondary Secondary

Sr.
Voltage Current Input Voltage Current
No. V1 (Volt) I1 (Amp) W1 (Watts) V2 (Volt) I2 (Amp)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Calculations:

1) Full load Secondary current ( I2) = kVA rating x 1000

V2 (rated)

2) Power Output (W2) = V2 × I2 Watt

Power output(W2 )
3) % Efficiency =  100
Power input (W1)
V  V2
4) % Re gulation 2 No load x100
V2 No Load

Sample Calculations: (for one reading)

Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Result Table:

Observation
Power output (W2) % Efficiency % Regulation
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Graphs: Plot the graphs of 1) % Efficiency Verses Output Power and

2) % Regulation Verses Output Power

Conclusion:
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Scale:
On X- axis: 1 cm=
On Y- axis: 1 cm=
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Date of Performance: / /20

Experiment No 7. Study of cut view section of Single-Phase Induction

Motor
Aim: To study cut view section of single-phase Induction motor
Apparatus: Single Phase Induction motor
Theory:

A single-phase induction motor is one of the most widely used types of low power ac motors,
especially for domestic or commercial applications where a three-phase power source is not available.
Such motor has both mainand auxiliary winding for starting torque. In general, the, auxiliary winding is
only used for producing the starting torque, hence the Single Phase Induction Motor has the pulsating
torque due to the excitation of only main winding. In most of the applications the Single-Phase
Induction Motor usually runs at fixed speed. In this case, the efficiency and the power factor of motor
drive are very low. The single-phase induction motor is the most frequently used motor for
refrigerators, washing machines, clocks, drills, compressors, pumps, and so forth .

Cut View of Single-Phase Induction Motor

Figure. Single Phase Induction Motor and its cut section

Parts of Single Phase Induction motor

Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

1. Stator frame
The stator frame or body is made up of close-grained alloy cast iron. All the different parts of the
induction motor detailed below will be accommodated in the frame of the motor depending upon the
type of motor.

2. Stator
As the name indicates, it is the stationary part of the induction motor and made of silicon steel strips of
thickness, varying from 0.3 to 1.35 mm. These strips are combined, which are called laminated strips,
and the combination is known as laminated core. These laminated stampings/strips are slotted to
receive the winding. These slots maybe of open or semi-closed types, to facilitate the winding.
In a single-phase induction motor, there are two windings used in the stator. Out of these two
windings, one winding is the main winding and the second is auxiliary winding.
The stator core is laminated to reduce the eddy current loss. The single-phase supply is given to the
stator winding (main winding).

3. Rotor:
The rotor is the rotating part of the motor and made of silicon steel strips. The thickness of these strips varies
from
0.3 to 1.35 mm, as in the case of stator. These strips are clamped together to form rotor core, called
laminated core. This laminated core is slotted to totally closed type, to receive rotor winding. In large
capacity motors thick aluminum bars are inserted and are short-circuited with end rings. Now a day,
melted aluminum is filled in these slots, which works as short-circuited winding. This winding is
known as squirrel cage winding. The rotor bars are braced to the end-rings to increase the mechanical
strength of the motor.

4. End Covers:
As the name indicates these covers are used to cover the ends of the motor and are made of cast iron.
These end covers are fitted with the stator frame with the help of nuts and bolts. The ball bearings are
fitted in the end covers to keep the rotor exactly in the center of the stator, so that it can move freely.

5. Shaft and Bearings: -

Mostly ball bearings are used in large capacity motors whereas bush bearings is used in small capacity
motors because the noise level is high in ball bearing as compare to bush bearings. The main purpose
of bearings is to keep the rotor exactly in center and ensure free movement for the rotor. The shaft is a
long circular bar, made of mild steel. The rotor assembly and cooling fan is securely keyed to the shaft
of the motor.

6. Cooling Fan:-
In general, the fan is used to cool down the temperature. When the motor runs on load, the heat is
produced in the motor winding as well as in the core due to copper and iron losses respectively. So, the
fan serves the purpose of transferring the heat from inside to outside of the motor by forced air
circulation. It sucks the air from the atmosphere through the air ducts and discharges back to
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

atmosphere after cooling the winding and core of the motor. In large capacity

7. Winding: -
The winding of the induction motor is the main part of the motor. In below standard and low capacity
motors, it may have aluminum winding but normally it is made of copper. The type of winding
depends upon the speed, type of supply (Single phase or three phase) and type of starting device used
especially in case of single-phase winding.

8. Centrifugal Switch: -
As the name indicates, it is a switch, which switches on and switches off on the principle of
centrifugal forces. When the motor is at standstill position, the switch contacts remain closed, keeping
the starting winding in the circuit and it cut-off the starting winding out of circuit when the motor
attains more than the 80 % of the rated speed. When the motor is switched off, the starting winding is
again inserted into the circuit by switching on the centrifugal switch.

9. Capacitor: -
Capacitor works as a starting device in single-phase induction motors by producing an angle of phase
displacement between the starting and running winding of the motor.

Working Principle of Single-Phase Induction Motor

The working principle of a single-phase induction motor is based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. Single-phase AC supply is given to the stator winding (main winding). The alternating
current flowing through the stator winding produces magnetic flux. This flux is known as the stator
magnetic flux or main flux.

As the flux is changing due to changing magnetic field of AC supply with time, an emf and current will
be induced in the rotor. The induced current will give rise to another magnetic flux which is called rotor
magnetic flux. There are two fluxes; main flux which is produced by stator and second is the rotor flux
which is produced by the rotor. Instead of a rotating magnetic field, it produces a magnetic field which
alternates in nature. Due to interaction between main flux and rotor flux, the torque produced in the
rotor, and it starts rotating.

A single-phase induction motor differs in operation from a 3-phase induction motor in the sense that
this motor cannot generate a rotating magnetic field. Hence Single-phase induction motor is not self-
starting. To make the single-phase induction motor as self-starting motor, rotating stator magnetic
field is required. This is possible when, at least, two fluxes with some phase difference need to be
produced by stator mechanism. Therefore, along with the main winding, an auxiliary (starting)
winding/mechanism is required on stator to produce rotating magnetic field.

The speed of the stator field is the same as synchronous speed. The synchronous speed of the motor
depends on the number of pole and supply frequency. The number of poles for which stator winding
is wound, decides the synchronous speed of the motor. The synchronous speed is denoted as N S and it
has a fixed relation with supply frequency f and number of poles P. The relation is given by: NS =
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

120 f / P

The induction motor never rotates with the synchronous speed but rotates at a speed which is slightly
less than thesynchronous speed.

Depending upon the method employed to make the motor self-starting, single-phase induction motors
may be classified into the following three types −
 Split-phase induction motor
 Capacitor-start induction motor
 Capacitor-start capacitor-run induction motor

Types of Single-Phase Induction motor

Advantages of Single-Phase induction motor

 This induction motor is smaller in size and lighter in weight.
 It is also cheaper in cost.
 These motors are highly efficient.
 This motor also requires less maintenance.
 1-phase induction motors have a longer life.
 Single-phase induction motors can be designed in a variety of sizes.

Disadvantages of Single-Phase induction motor

We know that these motors are used only for small outputs and not used for large powers as they suffer
from many disadvantages and are never used in the case where three-phase machines can be adopted.

The main disadvantages are as follow,

 For a given frame size and temperature, its output is only 50% of the three-phase induction motor.
 The single-phase induction motor is not self-started.
 These motors have a lower power factor.
 Efficiency is lower.
 These motors do not have a starting torque.
 For the same power output, these motors are more expensive than three-phase induction motors.
Applications of Single-Phase Induction Motors
Single-phase induction motors are mainly used in domestic and commercial appliances like fans, ACs,
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

refrigerators, air-cooler, washing machines, etc. Given below are some of the applications of different
kinds of single-phase induction motors −
 Split-Phase Induction Motors − These motors are best suited for moderate starting-torque
applications like fans, washing machines, oil burners, small machine tools, etc. 
 Capacitor-Start Induction Motors − These motors are suitable for applications that require
relatively high-starting torque like compressors, large fans, pumps and high-inertia loads, etc.
 Capacitor-Start Capacitor-Run Induction Motors − These motors are suitable for constant
torque, and vibration free applications like in hospital appliances, studio equipment and in many
other appliances that are used in such areas where silence is important.

Conclusion:

Related you tube videos

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EX-71cLRp2Q
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ly5SdylK12A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dM5IpYCw8o4
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Question Bank
Q. No. Statement BT
1 What is the function of centrifugal starting switch in a single-phase induction motor 2
2 Which type of torque is developed in single phase motors? 1
3 What is typical value of resistance, inductive reactance of starting and running 1
winding of 1 ph induction motor
4 How the starting winding produce rotation in a single-phase resistance start 2
induction motor
5 How the speed of rotation of a split phase induction motor is reversed 2
6 After giving supply 1 ph motor is not starting, what could be possible faults 1
7 Where do we require single-phase induction motors? Mention 2-3 reasons 2
8 After giving supply to motor, person is getting electric shock after touching body of 2
motor,what could be fault
9 Fan is running at constant speed even after changing fan regulator position, 1
what could be fault in system
10 What is the function of capacitor in single phase induction motor 2
11 Differentiate between “capacitor start” & “Capacitor start capacitor run” single 3
phase induction motor?
12 State 5-6 manufacturers of motors 2
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Date of Performance: / / 20

Experiment No 8. INSULATION RESISTANCE AND STUDY OF SINGLE-PHASE

LTELECTRICITY BILL

Aim: To measure insulation resistance by using megger and study of Single-Phase LT electricity bill.

Apparatus: Megger-1 No
Sample Electricity Bill
Theory:

Every electric wire in your plant – whether it’s in a motor, generator, cable, switch, transformer, etc. –
is carefully covered with some form of electrical insulation. The wire itself is usually copper or
aluminum, which is known to be a good conductor of the electric current that powers your equipment.
The insulation must be just the opposite from a conductor: it should resist current and keep the current
in its path along the conductor.

To understand insulation testing you really don’t need to go into the mathematics of electricity, but
one simple equation – Ohm’s law – can be very helpful in appreciating many aspects. Even if you’ve
been exposed to this law before, it may be a good idea to review it in the light of insulation testing.
Essentially, “good insulation” means relatively high resistance to current. Used to describe an
insulation material, “good” would also mean “theability to keep a high resistance.” So, a suitable way of
measuring resistance can tell you how “good” the insulation is. Also, if you take measurements at
regular periods, you can check trends toward its deterioration

When your plant electrical system and equipment are new, the electrical insulation should be in top-
notch shape. Furthermore, manufacturers of wire, cable, motors, and soon have continually improved
their insulations for services in the industry. Nevertheless, even today, insulation is subject to many
effects which can cause it to fail
– mechanical damage, vibration, excessive heat or cold, dirt, oil, corrosive vapors, moisture from
processes, or just the humidity on a muggy day.

Part A: Measurement of Insulation Resistance:

You have seen that good insulation has high resistance, and poor insulation has relatively low
resistance. The actual resistance values can be higher or lower, depending on factors such as
temperature or moisture content of the insulation (resistance decreases in temperature or moisture).
With a little record-keeping and common sense, however, you can get a good picture of the insulation
condition from values that are only relative.

The Megger insulation tester is a small, portable instrument that gives you a direct reading of insulation
resistance in ohms or megohms. For good insulation, the resistance usually reads in the megohm
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

range. The Megger insulation tester is essentially a high-range resistance meter (ohmmeter) with a
built-in direct-current generator. This meter is of special construction with current and voltage coils,
enabling true ohms to be read directly, independent of the actual voltage applied. This method is
nondestructive; that is, it does not cause deterioration of the insulation.

Testing insulation resistance: For testing insulation of the installation, we have to check insulation
resistancebetween earth & conductor and the insulation resistance between conductors.

Figure. Insulation resistance measurement with Megger

(A) Insulation resistance between earth & conductor: For the purpose of safety, it is necessary to
ensure that there is no leakage current through the insulation used. This test gives the value of the
insulation resistance between earth & conductor. Insulation resistance can be measured with the help
of 500 V megger using the procedure as given below.

 Keep all fuse links, all switches and lamps in position. The main switch should be off.

 Connect the line terminal of megger to either of the main leads (phase or neutral) and earth
terminal toany point on the earth continuity conductor of the system.

 Rotate the handle of megger with hand and note down insulation resistance between conductor
and earth. This resistance should not be less than 50 M-Ohm divided by the number of outlets.

(B) Insulation resistance between conductors:

 In this test, keep all the switches and fuse links in position. Keep the main switch in off
position. Removeall the lamps and appliances from supply.

 Now connect the megger terminals between two conductors (phase & neutral).

 Rotate the handle of megger with hand & note down insulation resistance between
conductors. This resistance should be less than specified in previous test.
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Observation Table (For Cable):

Insulation resistance between Insulation

Sr. Insulation resistance between two
andconductor conductors
No.
Healthy Condition Faulty Condition Healthy Condition Faulty Condition
1
(C) Insulation Test on machine:

 Keep all the switches and fuse links in position. Keep the main switch in off position.
 Now connect the megger terminals between machine winding and the frame, also between
the two windings.

 Rotate the handle of the megger with hand and note down the insulation resistance between
windings and frame and between the two windings

Observation Table (For Machine):

Insulation resistance between winding

Sr. Insulation resistance between two windings
andframe
No.
Healthy Condition Faulty Condition Healthy Condition Faulty Condition

Part B: LT Electricity Bill:

A large no. of consumers is fed by power stations in order to meet their energy requirements. The
electrical energy company sells this energy to consumers at various rates. The rate at which the energy
is sold is called ‘Tariff’. This is an important factor in the study of the economic aspects of electric
supply. The tariff should be framed in such a way that it should recover the total cost of producing
electrical energy and it should provide for marginal profit on capital investment.

The following points must be considered while determining the tariff.

 Whether it is affordable to the consumers.

 It should be simple in calculation.
 Types of services rendered.
 The annual cost of production i.e., total running and fixed charges.

Essential requirements of a good Tariff:

 The tariff should make sure that the proper return is obtained from each consumer. The cost
associated with production and supply of electrical energy must be recovered along with
reasonable profit for investment on future expansion of the system.
 The tariff should involve simple calculations so that it will be easily understood by the ordinary consumer.
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

 The tariff should be attractive so that a large no. of consumers is encouraged to use electrical energy.
 The profit must be marginal. If there is no competition, the supply company may have its
monopoly and hence the investment is relatively safe. There must be restrictions on profit.
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Study of sample LT Electricity bill

Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)

Exercise: Understanding Electricity bill

Observe/ find out the values of different constituents of electricity bill

1. Registration number/ consumer number,

2. Tariff category like LT1, LT2 etc (Which decides tariff rates),
3. Sanctioned load in KW or HP,
4. Fixed charges of transmission and generation companies,
5. Variable charges on based and excess kW connected,
6. Previous reading,
7. Present reading
8. Total kWh consumed,
9. Taxes,
10. Penalty charges.

Conclusion:

Questions

Sr. No. Statement BT

1 What is meant by ‘ground fault’ in cables ? 2
2 What is meant by ‘short-circuit’ fault in cables ? 2
3 What is meant by ‘open-circuit fault’ in cables ? 2
4 What are the problems that could happen if there is an insulation failure? 3
5 What are the reasons for the insulation to go bad? 2
6 What should be the range of Power Factor in which an incentive shall be 1
given on theamount of the monthly bill to the consumer?
7 Which tariff rates are applicable to small shops, offices, hotels, guest houses, 1
theatres etc.
8 What is the importance of power factor? 2
9 Compare prepaid and postpaid electricity tariff 3
10 What is BPL category. How this tariff is different than general tariff 2
Basic Electrical Engineering (2024 Course) (Lab Manual)