Instructions: Language of the

Machine
Instructions: Overview
■ Language of the machine
■ More primitive than higher level languages, e.g., no
sophisticated control flow such as while or for loops
■ Very restrictive
■ e.g., MIPS arithmetic instructions
■ We’ll be working with the MIPS instruction set architecture
■ inspired most architectures developed since the 80's
■ used by NEC, Nintendo, Silicon Graphics, Sony
■ the name is just not related to millions of instructions per second !
■ it stands for microcomputer without interlocked pipeline stages !
■ Design goals: maximize performance and minimize cost and
reduce design time
MIPS Arithmetic
■ All MIPS arithmetic instructions have 3 operands
■ Operand order is fixed (e.g., destination first)

■ Example:
compiler’s job to associate
C code: A = B + C variables with registers

MIPS code: add $s0, $s1, $s2

MIPS Arithmetic
■ Design Principle 1: simplicity favors regularity.
Translation: Regular instructions make for simple hardware!

■ Simpler hardware reduces design time and manufacturing cost.

Allowing variable number
■ Of course this complicates some things... of operands would
simplify the assembly
C code: A = B + C + D; code but complicate the
E = F - A; hardware.

MIPS code add $t0, $s1, $s2

(arithmetic): add $s0, $t0, $s3
sub $s4, $s5, $s0
MIPS Arithmetic
■ Operands must be in registers – only 32 registers provided
(which require 5 bits to select one register). Reason for small
number of registers:

■ Design Principle 2: smaller is faster. Why?

■ Electronic signals have to travel further on a physically larger chip
increasing clock cycle time.
■ Smaller is also cheaper!
Registers vs. Memory
■ Arithmetic instructions operands must be in registers
■ MIPS has 32 registers
■ Compiler associates variables with registers
■ What about programs with lots of variables (arrays, etc.)? Use
memory, load/store operations to transfer data from memory to
register – if not enough registers spill registers to memory
■ MIPS is a load/store architecture

Control Input
Memory
Datapath Output

Processor I/O
Memory Organization
■ Viewed as a large single-dimension array with access by address
■ A memory address is an index into the memory array
■ Byte addressing means that the index points to a byte of
memory, and that the unit of memory accessed by a load/store
is a byte

0 8 bits of data
1 8 bits of data

2 8 bits of data

3 8 bits of data

4 8 bits of data

5 8 bits of data
6 8 bits of data

...
Memory Organization
■ Bytes are load/store units, but most data items use larger words
■ For MIPS, a word is 32 bits or 4 bytes.

0 hocche base address r 4,8,12 egulo offset

base er sathe offset value consider kore amra PA ta pai
0 32 bits of data
4 32 bits of data Registers correspondingly hold 32 bits of data

8 32 bits of data
12 32 bits of data

...
Load/Store Instructions
■ Load and store instructions
■ Example: why 32?
constant er sathe 4 kore multiply hbe

C code: A[8] = h + A[8];

value offset address

MIPS code (load): lw $t0, 32($s3)

(arithmetic): add $t0, $s2, $t0
(store): sw $t0, 32($s3)

■ Load word has destination first, store has destination last

■ Remember MIPS arithmetic operands are registers, not memory
locations
■ therefore, words must first be moved from memory to registers
using loads before they can be operated on; then result can be
stored back to memory
So far we’ve learned:
■ MIPS
■ loading words but addressing bytes
■ arithmetic on registers only

■ Instruction Meaning

add $s1, $s2, $s3 $s1 = $s2 + $s3

sub $s1, $s2, $s3 $s1 = $s2 – $s3
lw $s1, 100($s2) $s1 = Memory[$s2+100]
sw $s1, 100($s2) Memory[$s2+100]= $s1
 Machine Language

■ Instructions, like registers and words of data, are also 32 bits long
■ Example: add $t0, $s1, $s2
■ registers are numbered, e.g., $t0 is 8, $s1 is 17, $s2 is 18

■ Instruction Format R-type (“R” for aRithmetic):

000000 10001 10010 01000 00000 100000

op rs rt rd shamt funct
opcode – first second registe shift function field
operatio registe registe r amoun -
n r r destin- t selects variant
source source ation of operation
operand operand operand

6 bits 5 bits 5 bits 5 bits 5 bits 6 bits

Machine Language
■ Consider the load-word and store-word instructions,
■ what would the regularity principle have us do?
■ we would have only 5 or 6 bits to determine the offset from a base
register - too little…

■ Design Principle 3: Good design demands a compromise

■ Introduce a new type of instruction format
■ I-type (“I” for Immediate) for data transfer instructions
■ Example: lw $t0, 1002($s2)

100011 10010 01000 0000001111101010

6 bits 5 bits 5 bits 16 bits

op rs rt 16 bit offset
Stored Program Concept
■ Instructions are bit sequences, just like data
■ Programs are stored in memory
■ to be read or written just like data

memory for data, programs,

Processor Memory compilers, editors, etc.

■ Fetch & Execute Cycle

■ instructions are fetched and put into a special register
■ bits in the register control the subsequent actions (= execution)
■ fetch the next instruction and repeat
SPIM – the MIPS simulator
■ SPIM (MIPS spelt backwards!) is a MIPS simulator that
■ reads MIPS assembly language files and translates to machine
language
■ executes the machine language instructions
■ shows contents of registers and memory
■ works as a debugger (supports break-points and single-stepping)
■ provides basic OS-like services, like simple I/O
■ SPIM is freely available on-line
■ An important part of our course is to actually write MIPS
assembly code and run using SPIM – the only way to learn
assembly (or any programming language) is to write lots and
lots of code!!!
■ Refer to our material, including slides, on SPIM
 Memory Organization:
Big/Little Endian Byte Order
■ Bytes in a word can be numbered in two ways:
■ byte 0 at the leftmost (most significant) to byte 3 at the rightmost
(least significant), called big-endian 0 1 2 3
■ byte 3 at the leftmost (most significant) to byte 0 at the rightmost
(least significant), called little-endian 3 2 1 0

Big-endian Little-endian
Bit 31

Bit 31
Bit 0

Bit 0
Memory Memory

Byte 0 Byte 1 Byte 2 Byte 3 Word 0 Byte 3 Byte 2 Byte 1 Byte 0 Word 0

Byte 4 Byte 5 Byte 6 Byte 7 Word 1 Byte 7 Byte 6 Byte 5 Byte 4 Word 1
 Memory Organization:
Big/Little Endian Byte Order
■ SPIM’s memory storage depends on that of the underlying
machine
■ Intel 80x86 processors are little-endian
■ because SPIM always shows words from left to right a “mental
adjustment” has to be made for little-endian memory as in Intel PCs
in our labs: start at right of first word go left, start at right of next
word go left, …!
■ Word placement in memory (from .data area of code) or word
access (lw, sw) is the same in big or little endian
■ Byte placement and byte access (lb, lbu, sb) depend on big or
little endian because of the different numbering of bytes within a
word
■ Character placement in memory (from .data area of code)
depend on big or little endian because it is equivalent to byte
placement after ASCII encoding
■ Run storeWords.asm from SPIM examples!!
 Control: Conditional Branch
■ Decision making instructions
■ alter the control flow,
■ i.e., change the next instruction to be executed

■ MIPS conditional branch instructions:

bne $t0, $t1, Label I-type instructions

beq $t0, $t1, Label
beq $t0, $t1, Label
000100 01000 01001 0000000000011001 (= addr.100)

■ Example: if (i==j) h = i + j; word-relative addressing:

25 words = 100 bytes;
also PC-relative (more…)
bne $s0, $s1, Label
add $s3, $s0, $s1
Label:....
 Addresses in Branch
■ Instructions:
bne $t4,$t5,Label Next instruction is at Label if $t4 != $t5
beq $t4,$t5,Label Next instruction is at Label if $t4 = $t5
■ Format:

I op rs rt 16 bit
offset

■ 16 bits is too small a reach in a 232 address space

■ Solution: specify a register (as for lw and sw) and add it to

offset
■ use PC (= program counter), called PC-relative addressing, based
on
■ principle of locality: most branches are to instructions near current
instruction (e.g., loops and if statements)
 Addresses in Branch
■ Further extend reach of branch by observing all MIPS
instructions are a word (= 4 bytes), therefore word-relative
addressing:
■ MIPS branch destination address = (PC + 4) + (4 * offset)
Because hardware typically increments PC early
in execute cycle to point to next instruction

■ so offset = (branch destination address – PC – 4)/4

■ but SPIM does offset = (branch destination address – PC)/4
Control: Unconditional Branch
(Jump)
■ MIPS unconditional branch instructions:
j Label
■ Example:
if (i!=j) beq $s4, $s5, Lab1
h=i+j; add $s3, $s4, $s5
else j Lab2
h=i-j; Lab1: sub $s3, $s4, $s5
Lab2: ...
■ J-type (“J” for Jump) instruction format
word-relative
■ Example: j Label # addr. Label = 100
addressing:
25 words = 100 bytes
000010 0000000000000000000001100
6 bits
1 26 bits
op 26 bit number
 Addresses in Jump
■ Word-relative addressing also for jump instructions

J op 26 bit
address
■ MIPS jump j instruction replaces lower 28 bits of the PC with
A00 where A is the 26 bit address; it never changes upper 4 bits
■ Example: if PC = 1011X (where X = 28 bits), it is replaced with
1011A00
■ there are 16(=24) partitions of the 232 size address space, each
partition of size 256 MB (=228), such that, in each partition the upper
4 bits of the address is same.
■ if a program crosses an address partition, then a j that reaches a
different partition has to be replaced by jr with a full 32-bit address
first loaded into the jump register
■ therefore, OS should always try to load a program inside a single
partition
Constants
■ Small constants are used quite frequently (50% of operands)
e.g., A = A + 5;
B = B + 1;
C = C - 18;

■ Solutions? Will these work?

■ create hard-wired registers (like $zero) for constants like 1
■ put program constants in memory and load them as required

■ MIPS Instructions:
addi $29, $29, 4
slti $8, $18, 10
andi $29, $29, 6
ori $29, $29, 4

■ How to make this work?

Immediate Operands
■ Make operand part of instruction itself!

■ Design Principle 4: Make the common case fast

■ Example: addi $sp, $sp, 4 # $sp = $sp + 4

001000 11101 11101 0000000000000100

6 bits 5 bits 5 bits 16 bits

op rs rt 16 bit number
 How about larger constants?
■ First we need to load a 32 bit constant into a register
■ Must use two instructions for this: first new load upper immediate
instruction for upper 16 bits
lui $t0, 1010101010101010 filled with zeros

1010101010101010 0000000000000000

■ Then get lower 16 bits in place:

ori $t0, $t0, 1010101010101010
1010101010101010 0000000000000000

0000000000000000 1010101010101010
ori
1010101010101010 1010101010101010

■ Now the constant is in place, use register-register arithmetic

 So far
■ Instruction Format Meaning

add $s1,$s2,$s3 R $s1 = $s2 + $s3

sub $s1,$s2,$s3 R $s1 = $s2 – $s3
lw $s1,100($s2) I $s1 = Memory[$s2+100]
sw $s1,100($s2) I Memory[$s2+100] = $s1
bne $s4,$s5,Lab1I Next instr. is at Lab1 if $s4 != $s5
beq $s4,$s5,Lab2I Next instr. is at Lab2 if $s4 = $s5
j Lab3 J Next instr. is at Lab3

■ Formats:
R op rs rt rd shamt funct

I op rs rt 16 bit address
op 26 bit address
J
Control Flow
■ We have: beq, bne. What about branch-if-less-than?

■ New instruction:
if
$s1 < $s2 then
$t0 = 1
slt $t0, $s1, $s2 else
$t0 = 0

■ Can use this instruction to build blt $s1, $s2, Label

■ how? We generate more than one instruction – pseudo-instruction
■ can now build general control structures

■ The assembler needs a register to manufacture instructions

from pseudo-instructions

■ There is a convention (not mandatory) for use of registers

 Policy-of-Use Convention for
Registers

Register 1, called $at, is reserved for the assembler; registers 26-27,

called $k0 and $k1 are reserved for the operating system.
Assembly Language vs.
Machine Language
■ Assembly provides convenient symbolic representation
■ much easier than writing down numbers
■ regular rules: e.g., destination first

■ Machine language is the underlying reality

■ e.g., destination is no longer first

■ Assembly can provide pseudo-instructions

■ e.g., move $t0, $t1 exists only in assembly
■ would be implemented using add $t0, $t1, $zero

■ When considering performance you should count actual number

of machine instructions that will execute
Procedures
■ Example C code:

// procedure adds 10 to input parameter

int main()
{ int i, j;
i = 5;
j = add10(i);
i = j;
return 0;}

int add10(int i)
{ return (i + 10);}
 Procedures
■ Translated MIPS assembly
■ Note more efficient use of registers possible! save register
in stack, see
.text figure below
.globl main add10:
addi $sp, $sp, -4
main: sw $s0, 0($sp)
addi $s0, $0, 5
add $a0, $s0, $0 addi $s0, $a0, 10
argument add $v0, $s0, $0
to callee jal add10 result
control returns here to caller
jump and link lw $s0, 0($sp)
add $s1, $v0, $0 restore
addi $sp, $sp,
values 4
add $s0, $s1, $0
jr $ra
li $v0, 10 return
system code
syscall MEMORY High address
& call to
exit $sp
Content of $s0
Low address
Run this code with PCSpim: procCallsProg1.asm
 MIPS: Software Conventions
for Registers
0 zero constant 0
1 at reserved for assembler 16 s0 callee saves
2 v0 results from callee ... (caller can clobber)
3 v1 returned to caller 23 s7
4 a0 arguments to callee 24 t8 temporary (cont’d)
5 a1 from caller: caller saves 25 t9
6 a2 26 k0 reserved for OS kernel
7 a3 27 k1
8 t0 temporary: caller saves 28 gp pointer to global area
... (callee can clobber) 29 sp stack pointer
15 t7 30 fp frame pointer
31 ra return Address (HW):
caller saves
Procedures (recursive)
■ Example C code – recursive factorial subroutine:

int main()
{ int i;
i = 4;
j = fact(i);
return 0;}

int fact(int n)
{ if (n < 1) return (1);
else return ( n*fact(n-1) );}
 ■
Procedures (recursive)
Translated MIPS assembly:
.text
.globl main slti $t0, $a0, 1
branch to
beq $t0, $0, L1
main: L1 if
n>=1
nop
addi $a0, $0, 4
jal fact addi $v0, $0, 1
control
returns nop return addi $sp, $sp, 8
from 1 jr $ra
fact if n <
move $a0, $v0
1 L1:
print li $v0, 1 addi $a0, $a0, -1
value syscall if n>=1 call jal fact
returned fact
by recursively
nop
fact li $v0, 10 with argument
exit syscall n-1 lw $a0, 0($sp)
restore return lw $ra, 4($sp)
fact: address, addi $sp, $sp, 8
argument,
addi $sp, $sp, -8
save return sw $ra, 4($sp) and stack pointer
address and return mul $v0, $a0, $v0
argument in sw $a0, 0($sp) n*fact(n-1
stack ) jr $ra
Run this code with PCSpim: factorialRecursive.asmreturn
control
 Using a Frame Pointer

Variables that are local to a procedure but do not fit into registers (e.g., local arrays, struc-
tures, etc.) are also stored in the stack. This area of the stack is the frame. The frame pointer
$fp points to the top of the frame and the stack pointer to the bottom. The frame pointer does
not change during procedure execution, unlike the stack pointer, so it is a stable base
register from which to compute offsets to local variables.
Use of the frame pointer is optional. If there are no local variables to store in the stack it is
not efficient to use a frame pointer.
Using a Frame Pointer
■ Example: procCallsProg1Modified.asm
This program shows code where it may be better to use $fp
■ Because the stack size is changing, the offset of variables stored in
the stack w.r.t. the stack pointer $sp changes as well. However, the
offset w.r.t. $fp would remain constant.
■ Why would this be better?
The compiler, when generating assembly, typically maintains a table
of program variables and their locations. If these locations are
offsets w.r.t $sp, then every entry must be updated every time the
stack size changes!
■ Exercise:
Modify procCallsProg1Modified.asm to use a frame pointer
■ Observe that SPIM names register 30 as s8 rather than fp. Of
course, you can use it as fp, but make sure to initialize it with the
same value as sp, i.e., 7fffeffc.
MIPS Addressing Modes
 Overview of MIPS
■ Simple instructions – all 32 bits wide
■ Very structured – no unnecessary baggage
■ Only three instruction formats

op rs rt rd shamt funct
R

I op rs rt 16 bit address

op 26 bit address
J

■ Rely on compiler to achieve performance

■ what are the compiler's goals?
■ Help compiler where we can
Summarize MIPS:
Alternative Architectures
■ Design alternative:
■ provide more powerful operations
■ goal is to reduce number of instructions executed
■ danger is a slower cycle time and/or a higher CPI

■ Sometimes referred to as R(educed)ISC vs. C(omplex)ISC

■ virtually all new instruction sets since 1982 have been RISC

■ We’ll look at PowerPC and 80x86

 PowerPC Special Instructions
■ Indexed addressing
■ Example: lw $t1,$a0+$s3 #$t1=Memory[$a0+$s3]
■ what do we have to do in MIPS? add $t0, $a0, $s3
lw $t1, 0($t0)
■ Update addressing
■ update a register as part of load (for marching through arrays)
■ Example: lwu $t0,4($s3) #$t0=Memory[$s3+4];$s3=$s3+4
■ what do we have to do in MIPS? lw $t0, 4($s3)
addi $s3, $s3, 4
■ Others:
■ load multiple words/store multiple words
■ a special counter register to improve loop performance:
bc Loop, ctrl != 0 # decrement counter, if not 0 goto loop
■ MIPS: addi $t0, $t0, -1
bne $t0, $zero, Loop
A dominant architecture:
80x86
■ 1978: The Intel 8086 is announced (16 bit architecture)
■ 1980: The 8087 floating point coprocessor is added
■ 1982: The 80286 increases address space to 24 bits,
+instructions
■ 1985: The 80386 extends to 32 bits, new addressing modes
■ 1989-1995: The 80486, Pentium, Pentium Pro add a few
instructions (mostly designed for higher performance)
■ 1997: MMX is added

“this history illustrates the impact of the “golden handcuffs” of

compatibility”

“adding new features as someone might add clothing to a packed bag”

A dominant architecture:
80x86
■ Complexity
■ instructions from 1 to 17 bytes long
■ one operand must act as both a source and destination
■ one operand may come from memory
■ several complex addressing modes

■ Saving grace:
■ the most frequently used instructions are not too difficult to build
■ compilers avoid the portions of the architecture that are slow

“an architecture that is difficult to explain and impossible to love”

“ what the 80x86 lacks in style is made up in quantity, making it beautiful

from the right perspective”
Summary
■ Instruction complexity is only one variable
■ lower instruction count vs. higher CPI / lower clock rate

■ Design Principles:
■ simplicity favors regularity
■ smaller is faster
■ good design demands compromise
■ make the common case fast.

■ Instruction set architecture

■ a very important abstraction indeed!