4.

Chemical Reactions
Physical change Chemical Change
Substances remain chemically the same, no new New substances are made during the reaction
substances formed
Easy to reverse (e.g. mixtures are easy to separate using Many reactions, but not all of them, are difficult to
separation methods)(but sometimes not) reverse
Energy is either
 Given out – exothermic (e.g. chemiluminescence)
 Taken in – endothermic
-many more exothermic reactions than endothermic
reactions
Phase changes, Dissolving Bleaching (colour changes), changes in chemical
properties

Exothermic Endothermic
A process or chemical reaction in which energy is A process or chemical reaction which takes in energy
released to the surroundings from the surroundings.
Results in increase in temperature of the surrounding Decrease in temperature of the surrounding
∆H is negative value (final energy is lesser) ∆H is positive value (final energy is higher)
- Condensation - Melting
- Solidification (freezing) - Boiling
- Most neutralization reactions - Photosynthesis
- Respiration - Sublimation of dry ice
- Decomposition of organic matter - Electrolysis
- Thermite reaction
- Combustion

Enthalpy – heat Content of a substance

Enthalpy change or energy change – change in heat content of a substance.

Activation energy (EA)

The minimum amount of energy (relatively slow) required to cause the reaction to happen. Chemical reactions will only
occur when the reacting particles collide with each other with sufficient energy so they react.

Why are the cause of chemical reactions and how does it affect the factors of the rates of
reaction?

Causes –Successful Collisions of particles with sufficient energy to react. (which are in constant random movement
according to kinetic theory)

The factor that can cause more collisions (successful ones) will make the reaction faster.

Energy Profile Diagrams/energy level diagram/enthalpy graph for exothermic and endothermic
changes
Rates of reaction
The rate of reaction is the rate at which products are formed, or the rate at which reactants are used up, in a reaction.

Factors for rate of reaction

1. Temperature of the reactants

2. Pressure of gases
3. Concentration
4. Surface area
5. Catalysts.
6. Light (affects photochemical reaction – cannot take place in dark)
A catalyst lowers the activation energy – the amount of
energy needed for a successful collision. There are more
collisions, and so a faster reaction.
Temperature Concentration, Pressure, Surface area, Light intensity Catalyst
-increase the energy - Doesn’t increase the energy of the particles - No increase in energy of the
of the particles - But increase collisions particles
- increase more - Decrease in activation
successful collisions energy

How to measure the rate of reactions?

Measuring the product – gases

Measuring decrease in reactants

Cotton wool plug is used to

prevent acid spray loss.
However, gaseous products
such as carbon dioxide can
escape through the cotton
wool.

If we use a stopper, the gas

will not escape, no mass loss,
mass loss method not
applicable.
Effect of concentration on reaction rate

 React magnesium and dilute hydrochloric acid and measure the volume of hydrogen gas produced every 30
seconds
 Repeat the same experiment with double the concentration of hydrochloric acid solution.
Effect of Temperature on reaction rate
Effect of surface area/particle size

Catalyst
Signs of chemical reaction
– Evolution of heat, light, and/or sound

– Production of a gas

– Formation of a precipitate

– Color and odor changes

Equations for chemical reactions

What does an equation include?

- Only chemical substances (e.g. energy is not involved because it’s not a chemical substance)

3 parts of a word equation

1. Reactants
2. Products
3. Conditions e.g. catalysts

Law of conservation of mass

The total mass of all the products of a chemical reaction is equal to the total mass of all the reactants.

Why?

- Atoms of one element are not changed into those of another element
- Atoms do not disappear from the mixture
- Atoms do not appear from nowhere.
- A reaction only involves the breaking of some bonds between atoms and then making new bonds between
atoms to give the new products.

Balancing the Chemical Equations

Stoichiometric coefficients
Ionic equations
The simplified equation for a reaction involving ionic substances: only those ions which actually take part in the reaction
are shown.

How do we know if an ion actually take part in the reaction?

They change their status

- Changing their bonding

- Changing their physical state.
How do we know when they change their physical state?

Study the solubility rules.

What are the other ions that do not take part in the reaction called?

Spectator ions: ions that are present in a chemical reaction but take no part in it.

Complete ionic equation Net ionic equation

- Breakdown the aqueous compounds to separate Leave the spectator ions
ions
 Soluble

Not Soluble

Types of chemical reactions

Synthesis (direct combination) Decomposition Displacement Combustion
Reactions when two or more substances A type of reaction where a compound A reaction in which a more The reaction of a substance with oxygen
react together to form just one product. breaks down into simpler substances. reactive element displaces a less often causing the release of energy.
A chemical reaction in which a compound is One reactant breaks down to give two or reactive element from a solution (burning – combustion in which a flame is
made from its elements. more simpler products of its salt. (single displacement) produce, oxidation reaction as substance
involved is oxidized.
O2 is always a reactant and CO2 and H2O
are products.
1. heat is required to start the reaction but 1. Endothermic (thermal Exothermic Exothermic often with a flame
once started, continues exothermically. E.g. decomposition) Metals Combustion of natural gas
burning of magnesium, reaction of a Decomposition of limestone to lime
hydrogen-oxygen mixture.
2. Reaction starting by a few drops of Reactive metals with acids
Respiration
water.
Making oxygen
Very reactive metals with water
Sometimes not very exothermic
Aluminium foil and bromine
Rusting of iron
Caused by light energy (photochemical)
3. Endothermic. E.g. Photosynthesis
(photochemical reaction)

Electrolysis of water
Hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen
Useful in working out the Important source of energy for homes,
patterns of reactivity of elements industries and our bodies.
of the same type. E.g. metals,
halogens
Fuels – substances that undergo combustion readily and give out a large amount of energy.

Oxidation Reduction
A substance gains oxygen during a reaction then it’s oxidized. A substance loses oxygen during a reaction, it
is reduced.
Loss of electrons Gain of electrons
Increase in oxidation state of the atom or ion Decrease in oxidation state of the atom or ion

Combustion
Corrosion – the surface of a reactive metal attacked by air, water
or other substances around it. E.g. iron corrodes in damp air
results in rust (iron III oxide).
Rancidity – fats and oils in butter become rancid when they’re
oxidized. Taste and smell become very unpleasant. E.g. using
nitrogen gas to prevent crisps being oxidized.
Oxidation-reduction reactions or redox reactions.

Two processes of oxidation and reduction take place together during the same reaction.

Reducing agent (reductant) – element or compound that will remove oxygen from other substances while it’s
oxidized itself. E.g. hydrogen, carbon and carbon monoxide, metals.

Oxidising agent (oxidant) – a substance that will add oxygen to another substance while being reduced itself.
E.g. oxygen, air, hydrogen peroxide, potassium manganite (VII) and potassium dichromate (VI), non-metals.
Test for oxidizing and reducing agents

Oxidizing agent Reducing agent

Reaction involved Potassium iodide Reactions involving acidified potassium manganite (VII)
Iodide ion (I-) is oxidized to iodine (I2) Manganese (+7) in manganate ion (MnO4-) is reduced
to Mn2+ ion
Colour change from colourless to yellow-brown The purple colour of manganate ion loses and the
solution appears colourless because of the formation of
the pale pink Mn2+ ion.
Starch indicator can be added to get a dark blue colour
Neutralisation Precipitation
Making Salts, both double displacements
Reactions of acids and alkalis, neutralized Sudden formation of a solid, either when two solutions
are mixed or when a gas is bubbled into a solution.

e.g. limewater test for carbon dioxide ( a milky

suspension of insoluble calcium carbonate)

Salt is produced from acid and base Insoluble salt is produced from a soluble salt
Useful in analysis, paint industry for making insoluble
pigments
Potassium permanganate reduces to different ions according to acidity level.
 Source of direct current

Supplying Electricity – power cables.

Copper Power cables are made of copper as copper has high electrical conductivity
Aluminium Overhead power cables are made of aluminium.
- Conducts electricity well.
- Low density prevents sagging
- Resistant to corrosion
Steel core Used in overhead power cables to strengthened the cables.
Ceramic material Preventing leak of electricity from overhead cables to the pylons.
Plastic Domestic cables are covered in plastic insulation cover for safety reasons.
Conductivity in liquids
Electrolytes – liquids that conduct electricity by movement of ions. E.g. ionic compounds.

Non-electrolytes – liquids that do not conduct electricity by movement of ions. E.g. covalent compounds, metal
liquids (conductors).

Electrolysis

The breakdown of an ionic compound, molten or aqueous solution, by the use of electricity.

Metallic conductivity Electrolytic conductivity

Electrons flow Ions flow
A property of elements and alloys A property of ionic compounds
Takes place in solids and liquids Takes place in liquids and solutions (no solids)
No chemical change takes place Chemical decomposition takes place.
Conduct electricity without chemical changes Chemical change takes place and ionic compound is split
up.
Electrodes

The points where the electric current enters or leaves a battery or electrolytic cell.

Electrolytic cell

The apparatus in which electrolysis is carried out.

How generally?

1. Direct current is supplied by a battery or power pack

2. Graphite (chosen cuz inert) electrodes carry the current into and out of the liquid electrolyte.
3. Electrons or ions flow from the negative terminal of the battery around the circuit and back to positive
terminal.

Anode – positive electrode

The electrode in any type of cell at which oxidation (loss of electrons) takes place.

Cathode – negative electrode

The electrode in any type of cell at which reduction (the gain of electrons) take place.
Why can’t electrolysis happen in solid ionic compounds?

Ions are not free to move and decompose.

What’s the other thing where electrolysis can’t take place?

Covalent compounds.

Ionic movement using electrolysis and

coloured ions.

Electrolysis of molten salts/compounds

1. Sometimes it is heated to keep the salt

molten.
2. Graphite/Platnium electrodes carry the direct current supplied by a battery or power pack into and out of
liquid electrolyte.
3. Electrons flow from the negative terminal of the battery around the circuit and back to the positive terminal.
4. Graphite – electrons, electrolyte - ions
5. After passing the current for a short time the compound is decomposed.
6. Positive ions are attracted to the cathode
7. Negative ions are attracted to the anode
8. Ions are discharged at the opposite electrode.
9. Positive ions, cations, accepts electrons at the cathode and become neutral.

10. Negative ions, anions, donates electrons at the anode and neutral. Perhaps, bond together to form diatomic
molecules.

11. The element-form of the ions are collected at opposite electrodes.

12. Electrons taken from the cathode, and electrons set free at the anode. It continues the flow of electrons.
Industrial electrolysis of molten compounds
 - Extraction available for the most reactive metals such as Group I, II and aluminium as they’re too reactive to
be extracted by chemical reduction using carbon like other metals.

e.g. Sodium and Magnesium are obtained by electrolysis of their molten chlorides.

Electrolysis of extracting aluminium from its mineral ore

- Bauxite ore is treated to produce pure aluminium oxide

- Aluminum oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite (sodium aluminium fluoride) because the melting point of the
mixture is much lower than that of pure aluminium oxide.
Electrolysis of solutions
Solution of salt vs molten salt

Solution of salt contain water.

And can water interfere anyhow with electrolysis?

- Water produces ions

-
- Normally pure water doesn’t have enough ions to conduct electricity well.
- However, during electrolysis, these hydrogen and hydroxide ions also move to the electrodes, competing
with ions from the acid or salt to be discharged at the electrodes.
- But only one type of ion gets discharged at each electrode.

Electrolysis of Salt Solution

At the Cathode At the Anode

Cations Anions
Metals less reactive Halogen (need to be No Halogen/Halogen but
Metals more reactive
than hydrogen concentrated enough) Very diluted (HCL, NaCL)
than hydrogen

-Have more tendency -give electrons more -OH- ions will give
-Have more tendency
to stay as ions in readily than OH- ions electrons more easily.
to accept electrons,
discharged and form solution - OH- ions are
- Molecules of
metal atoms. -H+ ions will accept halogens are formed discharged and oxygen
electrons and form and OH- ions remain is formed. Anion stays
- Leave H+ ions in
hydrogen molecules in solution in solution.
solution
e.g. Electrolysis of concentrated brine (salt water) is different from that of molten sodium chloride.

Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution.

Cathode – Sodium and hydrogen.

Anode – OH and Chlorine.

 Name of this apparatus?

Hofmann voltameter.

Why is it used?

To keep the gases produced separate so that

- The volume of gas can be measured

- Tested.

Sometimes the colour of electrolyte after electrolysis changes.

A different type of electrolytic cell – membrane cell
Benefits

- Safest for the environment and uses the least electricity.

Electrolysis of water.

Electrolysis of acid

Pure water is poor conductor of electricity, how to make it decompose?

- Add some dilute sulfuric acid.

Electroplating
What is it?

Deposition of one metal onto another metal using electric current.

Which concept does it use?

The surface of cathode can be coated by unreactive metal by electrolysis.

How does electroplating work?

- Cathode – object to be plated

- Anode – metal being used to plate it
- Electrolyte – a salt of metal being used to plate the object.

What happens to the metal at anode?

- Lose electrons as electrons pulled to battery

- dissolves away into the solution as metal ions (metallic bonding is disrupted)

-
- Metal ions are discharged at the cathode when they get electrons pushed from the battery.
- Metal ions become neutral atoms and stick to object (cathode) as solid metals.
- The object becomes plated.
- so the concentration of solution, electrolyte, stays the same

What’s the point of electrolyte?

For metals to be able to travel to object to be plated. (electrolyte)

Then why don’t we just use water since metal ions can dissolve in it?

- We use salt solution of the metal.

- The dissolved salt forms ions
- And they allow electricity to flow through.

How is electroplating used?

- Give protective coating to the metal underneath.

- Prevent corrosion
E.g. tin-plating of steel cans to prevent rusting, chromium-plating car bumpers, kettles and bath taps as
chromium resists scratching, wear, and corrosion.
 - Giving attractive appearance
e.g. electroplating silver onto an object made from cheaper metals such as nickel silver. EPNS on cutlery
(electroplated nickel silver)
- Purification of metals

The refining (purification) of copper by

electrolysis
How to set up the cell?

- Use copper electrodes

- Cathodes – thin sheets of pure copper
- Anodes – impure copper
- Use acidified copper(II) sulfate as electrolyte

Pure copper is removed from the impure anodes and

deposited on the cathodes.
Any impurities fall to the bottom of the cell as anode sludge.

Cell
What if we use graphite as electrode?

Then copper (II) sulfate will be decomposed, into copper at cathode, OH at anode, sulfuric acid in the electrolyte.