Chapter 1

Combinatorics

1.1 Factorials
Definition 1.1.1. A factorial is the product of all positive integers less than or equal to a
given positive integer. In other words n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × 1.

1.2 Permutations
Definition 1.2.1. A permutation is a possible arrangement of objects in a set where the
order of objects matter.

Theorem 1.2.2 (Number of Orderings of Objects)

The number of ways of arranging n objects in a line is n!

The number of ways of arranging n objects in a circle where rotations of the same
arrangement aren’t considered distinct is (n − 1)!

The number of ways of arranging n objects in a circle where rotations of the same
arrangement aren’t considered distinct and reflections of the same arrangement aren’t
considered distinct is (n−1)!
2

Remark 1.2.3
The reason that this is true is because we can simply fix 1 person to be at the top and
there are (n − 1)! ways to arrange the other people. This accounts for rotations since
rotating an arrangement will result in someone else on top. We divide by 2 for reflections
because of symmetry on both the left and right sides of the person chosen to be at the

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 1. Combinatorics

top.

Theorem 1.2.4 (Permutations Formula)

The number of ways to arrange k objects out of n total objects is
n!
n
Pk =
(n − k)!

1.3 Word Rearrangements

Theorem 1.3.1 (Word Rearrangements)

The number of ways to order a word is
n!
d1 ! × d2 ! × d3 ! × . . .
where n is the number of letters and d1 , d2 , d3 , . . . are the number of times each of the
letters that occur more than 1 time appear in the word.

Remark 1.3.2
This is not only true for words! The number of ways of arranging objects or anything
else is also the same.

1.4 Combinations
Definition 1.4.1. A combination is a possible arrangement in a collection of items where
the order of the selection does not matter.

Remark 1.4.2
Usually, the words ”permute”, ”order does matter”, etc. imply a permutation while the
words ”choose”, ”select”, ”order doesn’t matter”, etc. imply a combination.

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Theorem 1.4.3 (Combinations Formula)

The number of ways to choose k objects out of a total of n objects is

n(n − 1) . . . (n − k + 1)
!
n n!
= =
k k!(n − k)! k!

This is typically spoken as ”n choose k”

Remark 1.4.4
Notice that ! !
n n
=
k n−k
This is true because we can see choosing k objects on the left hand side is equivalent to
the n − k objects that will not be selected on the right hand side.

1.5 Subsets

Theorem 1.5.1
The number of subsets of a set of size n is 2n .

Remark 1.5.2
We have 2 choices for each element in the set: whether to include or not include the
element in our subset, and since there are n elements in the set, the total number of
subsets is 2 × 2 × 2 × · · · × 2 (n times).

Note: This means that one of our subsets is the empty subset, where we decide to
not include all of the elements. Remember to check the problem wording whether we
should count the empty subset as valid or not.

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1.6 Probability
Definition 1.6.1. Probability is the chance something occurs.

Theorem 1.6.2 (Probability)

Total number of Desired Outcomes
probability =
Total Outcomes

1.7 Distinguishability
Remark 1.7.1
In probability problems, whether you decide to multiply for order or not is up to you as
both will give the same probability.

Remark 1.7.2
If you decide not to multiply for order when doing probability problems, make sure the
number of orderings is consistent across all cases. In the first problem, every pair had 2
orderings. The same would be true for groups of 5 for example as there are always 5!
ways to order the elements in the group. However, in the 2nd problem, the two cases
had different number of orderings so this doesn’t work.

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1.8 Probability of Independent Events

Remark 1.8.1
Whenever we need to find the probabilities of 2 independent events happening (the
results of the events don’t depend on each other), we can simply find the probability of
each event individually and multiply them together.

1.9 Probability of Dependent Events

Remark 1.9.1
When the events are dependent, the probability of both events happening (say A and
B) is the probability of event A happening times the probability that event B happens
given that event A already happened.

1.10 Casework
Many counting or probability problems can be solved by dividing a problem into several cases
and calculating arrangements and probabilities for each case before summing them together.
Concept 1.10.1
When doing casework, always try to minimize the number of cases you have to deal with.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 1. Combinatorics

1.11 Complementary Counting

Complementary counting is the problem solving technique of counting the opposite of what we
want and subtracting that from the total number of cases. The keyword “at least” indicates
that complementary counting may be helpful.
Remark 1.11.1
Often times, we have to use casework in conjuction with other techniques like comple-
mentary counting.

1.12 Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion

Definition 1.12.1. The principle of inclusion and exclusion (PIE) is a counting technique
that computes the number of elements that satisfy at least one of several properties while
guaranteeing that elements satisfying more than one property are not counted twice.
Definition 1.12.2 (Union Symbol). |A ∪ B| is the union of elements in both A and B
(duplicates are only written once)
Definition 1.12.3 (Intersection Symbol). |A ∩ B| is the intersection of elements in both A
and B (only those elements which are in both sets)

Theorem 1.12.4 (Principle of Inclusion Exclusion for 2 Sets)

Given two sets, |A1 | and |A2 |

|A1 ∪ A2 | = |A1 | + |A2 | − |A1 ∩ A2 |

Basically, we count the number of possibilities in 2 ”things” and subtract the duplicates.

Theorem 1.12.5 (Principle of Inclusion Exclusion for 3 Sets)

Given three sets, |A1 |, |A2 |, |A3 |,

|A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 | = |A1 | + |A2 | + |A3 | − |A1 ∩ A2 | − |A1 ∩ A3 | − |A2 ∩ A3 | + |A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 |

In this formula, we count the number of possibilities in 3 ”things”, subtract the possibilities
that are duplicates in all 3 pairs of sets, and add back the number of duplicates in all 3
sets.

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Theorem 1.12.6 (Principle of Inclusion Exclusion Generalized)

Stated more formally, if (Ai )1≤i≤n are finite sets, then:
n n
Ai = |Ai ∩ Aj | + |Ai ∩ Aj ∩ Ak | − · · · + (−1)n−1 |A1 ∩ · · · ∩ An |
[ X X X
|Ai | −
i=1 i=1 i<j i<j<k

1.13 Stars and Bars

Theorem 1.13.1 (Stars and Bars)

The number of ways to place n identical objects into k distinguishable bins is

n+k−1
!

Remark 1.13.2
Stars and Bars is very useful, and can often be adapted based on situations. For example,
if each bin has to have at least 1 object in it we assign 1 object to each bin to start off,
and apply our formula to the remaining n − k objects and k distinguishable bins.

Concept 1.13.3 (Stars and Bars With Constraints)

Stars and bars is extremely useful, and can often be adapted based on situations. For
example, if each bin has to have at least 1 object in it we assign each bin 1 object to
start off with and apply our formula with n − k objects and k distinguishable bins.

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1.14 Combinatorial Identities

Theorem
   
1.14.1
n
k
= n
n−k

Theorem 1.14.2 (Binomial Identity)

The binomial identity states that
! ! !
n n n
+ + ··· + = 2n
0 1 n

Theorem 1.14.3 (Choosing Odd Even Identity)

This identity states
m
n−1
! !
n
(−1) k
= (−1)m
X

k=0 k m

1.15 Vandermonde’s Identity

Theorem 1.15.1 (Vandermonde’s Identity)

Vandermonde’s Identity states that

m+n
! ! ! ! ! ! !
n m n m n m
+ + ··· + =
0 r 1 r−1 r 0 r
.

Theorem 1.15.2 (Special Case of Vandermonde’s Identity)

!2
k
2k
!
k
=
X

i=0 i k

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1.16 Pascal’s and Hockey Stick Identity

Concept 1.16.1 (Pascal’s Triangle)
Pascal’s Triangle is a triangular array of binomial coefficients and contains numerous
patterns that can be used to make complex calculations much easier.

Pascal’s triangle is pictured here. It can be represented in terms of combinations, which

is depicted in the image below.

Theorem 1.16.2 (Pascal’s Identity)

Pascal’s identity states that

n+1
! ! !
n n
+ =
r r+1 r+1

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Theorem 1.16.3 (Hockey Stick Identity)

Hockey Stick Identity states

k+1 n+1
! ! ! !
k n
+ + ··· + =
k k k k+1

Theorem 1.16.4 (Hockey Stick Identity Generalization)

j+1 n+1
! ! ! ! !
j n j
+ + ··· + = −
k k k k+1 k+1

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 1. Combinatorics

1.17 Rectangle Counting

Theorem 1.17.1
The general formula for the number of rectangles of all sizes in a rectangular grid of size
m × n is
m+1 n+1
! !
×
2 2
.

Remark 1.17.2
Each combination of two horizontal lines and two vertical lines creates a unique rectangle.
We have
m+1
!

2
ways to choose two horizontal lines and

n+1
!

ways to choose two vertical lines.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 1. Combinatorics

1.18 Square Counting

Theorem 1.18.1
The number of squares in a n × n grid of squares is

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + · · · + n2 =
6
.

Remark 1.18.2
This comes from the fact that there are n2 1x1 squares, (n − 1)2 2x2 squares, ...., 22 (n -
1)x(n - 1) squares, and 12 nxn square.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 1. Combinatorics

1.19 Path Counting

Theorem 1.19.1
The number of ways to get from (0,0) to a point (m,n) moving only up and right is

m+n
!

Remark 1.19.2
Imagine any arrangement string of m R’s and n U’s. Each string would correspond to a
unique path, so to count this, we can use the word rearrangement formula.

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1.20 Geometric Probability

Definition 1.20.1. Geometric probability is a way to calculate probability by measuring the
number of outcomes geometrically, in terms of length, area, or volume. The key to solving
geometric probability is

1. Try a few examples for the different cases, make sure to always mark the extreme cases

2. Try to figure out the region the shape maps out

3. Use geometry to find the area of this region

Remark 1.20.2
Geometric probability can be useful when the number of possible outcomes is infinite.

1.21 Expected Value

Definition 1.21.1. Expected value is the weighted average of outcomes.

Theorem 1.21.2 (Expected Value)

The expected value of some event X is

xi · P (xi )
X

where xi are the possible values of X and P (xi ) is the probability they occur.
Basically the expected value is just the weighted sum of probabilities of events

Remark 1.21.3
Often times, in finding the expected value, we can just look for symmetry instead
of summing each individual probability times number. For example, to calculate the
expected value of a dice roll rather than evaluating
1 1 1 1 1 1
· 1 + · 2 + · 3 + · 4 + · 5 + · 6 = 3.5
6 6 6 6 6 6
we can see that since all rolls from 1 to 6 are equally likely, the expected value is just
the average roll which is just the average of the 2 middle terms which is 3.5. (See the
arithmetic sequences section)

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 1. Combinatorics

Theorem 1.21.4 (Linearity of Expectation)

For independent or dependent events,

E(x1 + x2 + · · · + xn ) = Ex1 + Ex2 + · · · + Exn

Basically, what this means is that the total expected value of n events is just the sum of
the expected values of each individual event.

Remark 1.21.5
This theorem is powerful as it allows us to find the expected value of the individual
events rather than of the whole thing at once.

1.22 Recursion
Concept 1.22.1 (Recursion)
Recursion is the process solving the problem for small values and writing a recurrence
equation to iteratively calculate the values for larger values.
Steps to Solve Recursion Problems:

1. Base Cases: Manually find the values for small values of n

2. Recursion Equation: Look at the different cases for any general value of n (ex.
whether the last digit is 0 or 1)

• If you are stuck, you can try a few small cases and look for a pattern

3. Iteratively calculate higher values of n until you reach your answer

Remark 1.22.2
Note that you can get the answer to many recursion problems by using engineering
induction (see the meta-solving section).

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 1. Combinatorics

1.23 Probability States

Concept 1.23.1 (States)
We use states in problems when we are trying to find the probability of ”a win” from
different positions or turns
When encountering states problems we use the following steps

1. Assign variables to the probabilities of winning from the different positions

2. Write your equations for the probability of winning from each of these positions in
terms of the other states

3. Solve your system of equations

Concept 1.23.2 (Symmetry in States)

Always be on the lookout for symmetry in states problems (positions where you have an
equal probability of winning from) to help simplify your equations.

Remark 1.23.3
Often times in state problems when you have a lot of states, you may have to write a
state recursion equation.

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Chapter 2

Algebraic Manipulations

2.1 Algebraic Manipulations

Theorem 2.1.1 (Exponent Rules)

1
x−a =
xa
xa × xb = xa+b
xa ÷ xb = xa−b
(xa )b = xab

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Manipulations

2.2 Binomial Expansions

Theorem 2.2.1 (Binomial Square Expansions)

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2 = (x − y)2 + 4xy

(x − y)2 = x2 − 2xy + y 2 = (x + y)2 − 4xy

(x + y)2 + (x − y)2 = 2(x2 + y 2 )

(x + y)2 − (x − y)2 = 4xy

(x + y + z)2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2(xy + yz + xz)

Theorem 2.2.2 (Binomial Cube Expansions)

(x + y)3 = x3 + 3xy(x + y) + y 3
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3

(x − y)3 = x3 − 3xy(x − y) − y 3
(x − y)3 = x3 − 3x2 y + 3xy 2 − y 3

x3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3xyz = (x + y + z)(x2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − xz − yz)

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Manipulations

Theorem 2.2.3
If
1
x+ =a
x
then
1
x2 + 2
= a2 − 2
x
1
x3 + 3 = a3 − 3a
x
1
x4 + 4 = (a2 − 2)2 − 2
x

2.3 Quadratic Factorizations

Theorem 2.3.1 (Difference of Squares)

x2 − y 2 = (x − y)(x + y)

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Manipulations

2.4 Cubic Factorizations

Theorem 2.4.1 (Difference of Cubes)

x3 − y 3 = (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 )

Theorem 2.4.2 (Sum of Cubes)

x3 + y 3 = (x + y)(x2 − xy + y 2 )

2.5 Higher Power Factorizations

Theorem 2.5.1 (nth power Factorizations)

Sum of odd powers

x2n+1 + y 2n+1 = (x + y)(x2n − x2n−1 y + x2n−2 y 2 − · · · − xy 2n−1 + y 2n )

Note: The signs in the second term alternate between positive and negative

xn − y n = (x − y)(xn−1 + xn−2 y + xn−3 y 2 + · · · + xy n−2 + y n−1 )

Note: The signs in second term are all positive

Theorem 2.5.2 (Simon’s Favorite Factoring Trick)

xy + kx + jy + jk = (x + j)(y + k)

Remark 2.5.3
You can generally apply this factorization when you have xy, x, and y terms. After
applying the factorization, you can then find all possible values for each of your terms in
your factorization (remember negatives!).

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Manipulations

2.6 Algebraic Equations

Concept 2.6.1 (Algebraic Equations Techniques)

1. Substitution

2. Elimination

3. Adding/Subtracting/Multiplying Equations

4. Group terms together

5. Find common denominator

6. Don’t always have to find every variable

7. Use symmetry between variables

8. Make smart substitutions that can simplify your expression

9. Look for common factorizations

2.7 Polynomials

Theorem 2.7.1 (Quadratic Formula)

The solutions to the quadratic equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0

are √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a

Concept 2.7.2 (Discriminant)

In the quadratic formula,
b2 − 4ac
(the part inside the square root) is the discriminant of the quadratic.

1. If the discriminant b2 − 4ac is 0, then the quadratic has a double or repeated root

2. If the discriminant b2 − 4ac is positive, the quadratic has 2 different real roots

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Manipulations

3. If the discriminant b2 − 4ac is negative, the quadratic has no real roots

Theorem 2.7.3 (Vieta’s Formula For Quadratics)

In a quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0
the sum of its roots is
−b
a
and the product of its roots is
c
a

Theorem 2.7.4 (Vieta’s Formula For Higher Degree Polynomials)

In a polynomial
an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x + a0 = 0
with roots
r1 , r2 , r3 , ...rn
the following holds:
an−1
r1 + r2 + r3 + ... + rn (the sum of all terms) = −
an

an−2
r1 r2 + r1 r3 + .. + rn−1 rn (the sum of all products of 2 terms) =
an

an−3
r1 r2 r3 + r1 r2 r4 + ... + rn−2 rn−1 rn (the sum of all products of 3 terms) = −
an
..
.

a0
r1 r2 r3 . . . rn (the sum of all products of n terms) = (−1)n
an
Note that the negative and positive signs alternate. When summing the products for
odd number of terms, we will have a negative sign otherwise we will have a positive sign.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Manipulations

2.8 Polynomial Root Representation

Theorem 2.8.1 (Representation of Polynomial in terms of roots)

In a polynomial
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x1 + a0
it can be expressed in the form

an (x − r1 )(x − r2 )(x − r3 ) . . . (x − rn )

where r1 , r2 , r3 , . . . , rn are the n roots of the polynomial.

Corollary 2.8.2 (Representation of Monic Polynomial in terms of roots)

In a polynomial
P (x) = xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . a1 x1 + a0
(where the leading coeffecient is 1), it can be expressed in the form

(x − r1 )(x − r2 )(x − r3 ) . . . (x − rn )

where r1 , r2 , r3 , . . . , rn are the n roots of the polynomial.

Concept 2.8.3
When a problem asks you to find an expression like (k − r)(k − s)(k − t) where r, s, and
t are roots of the polynomial for a monic polynomial, it would just be equal to P (k) by
the above definition. The same will work for non monic polynomials except it would be
P (k)
an
where an is the coefficient of the xn term in the polynomial.

Theorem 2.8.4 (Fundamental theorem of Algebra)

A polynomial of degree n (the largest term is to the power of n) has n complex roots
including multiplicity (for example, a double root would be counted as 2 roots when
including multiplicity)

Theorem 2.8.5 (Remainder Theorem)

The remainder when when a polynomial P (x) is divided by x − r is P (r)

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Corollary 2.8.6 (Factor Theorem)

x − r will divide a polynomial P (x) if P (r) = 0
This is a direct consequence of the remainder theorem.

2.9 Symmetric Polynomials

Definition 2.9.1 (Symmetric Polynomials). A polynomial

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x + a0

is symmetric if
an = a0
an−1 = a1
an−2 = a2
an−3 = a3
etc.

Basically, opposite coefficients are equal.

Concept 2.9.2 (Solving Symmetric Polynomials of Even Degree)

To solve a symmetric polynomial P (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x + a0 of even degree,
n
• Divide by x 2

• Group the xk and 1

xk
terms together

• Make the substitution

1
y =x+
x
and write all the terms in your expression that way

• Solve the reduced polynomial

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Manipulations

2.10 Polynomial Manipulations

Concept 2.10.1 (Reciprocal Roots)
In a polynomial
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x + a0
with roots r1 , r2 , r3 , . . . , rn ,

Q(x) = a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + ... + an−1 x + an

will have roots

1 1 1
, ,...,
r1 r2 rn

Essentially, when flipping the coefficients of a polynomial, it will have roots that are
reciprocals of the original roots.

Concept 2.10.2 (Roots That Are More or Less)

In a polynomial
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x + a0
with roots r1 , r2 , r3 , . . . , rn ,

Q(x) = an (x − k)n + an−1 (x − k)n−1 + ... + a1 (x − k) + a0

will have roots

r1 + k, r2 + k, r3 + k, . . . , rn + k

Remark 2.10.3
Remember, if the roots are k more, than we subtract k from each of the x terms in our
polynomial.

Remark 2.10.4
Polynomial manipulations are useful when evaluating complex expressions in terms of
roots. For example, in order to evaluate
1 1 1
+ +
(r − 3) 3 (s − 3) 3 (t − 3)3

of a polynomial with roots r, s, t, rather than expanding it out and bashing with Vieta’s

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Manipulations

Formulas, we can simplify construct a new polynomial with roots

1 1 1
, ,
r−3 s−3 t−3
. Then, we can use standard Vieta tricks to find r3 + s3 + t3 . One way is to use the
factorization a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ac) in the new
polynomial.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Manipulations

Theorem 2.10.5 (Newton Sums)

In a polynomial
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x + a0
with roots
r1 , r2 , r3 , . . . , rn
let S1 = r1 + r2 + · · · + rn
S2 = r12 + r22 + · · · + rn2
..
.
Sk = r1k + r2k + · · · + rnk
..
.
then the following holds true
an S1 + an−1 = 0
an S2 + an−1 S1 + 2an−2 = 0
an S3 + an−1 S2 + an−2 S1 + 3an−3 = 0
..
.
Note that anegative number = 0 as that might show up in your expansion.
Essentially, what this is saying is

1. Start off with a Sk value and multiply by it by the leftmost polynomial coefficient.

2. Then, multiply Sn−1 by the polynomial’s coefficient right after it.

3. Continue doing so and summing the products until either

• k = 0 in which case instead of multiplying S0 by last the last a term we

multiply k
• an−i becomes 0 in which case we simply add the last term and stop

4. Set your final sum of terms to be equal to 0

Remark 2.10.6
Note that by each Newton Sum Equation, we can iteratively calculate each Pk rather
than having to bash with Vieta’s Formulas.

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2.11 Arithmetic Sequences

Definition 2.11.1 (Arithmetic Sequence). An arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers
with the same difference between consecutive terms.
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, . . . , 40
is an arithmetic sequence because there is always a difference of 3 between consecutive terms.

Remark 2.11.2
Note that an arithmetic sequence can also have a negative common difference. For
example, in the arithmetic sequence

40, 37, 34, . . . , 4, 1

the common difference is −3.

Definition 2.11.3 (Arithmetic Sequence Notation). In general, the terms of an arithmetic

sequence can be represented as:
a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , . . . , an
where

• d is the common difference between consecutive terms

• n is the number of terms

Theorem 2.11.4 (nth term in an Arithmetic Sequence)

an = a1 + (n − 1)d

an = am + (n − m)d

Theorem 2.11.5 (Number of terms in an Arithmetic Sequence)

an − a1
n= +1
d
Essentially,
Last Term − First Term
Number of Terms = +1
Common Difference

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Manipulations

Theorem 2.11.6 (Average of terms in an Arithmetic Sequence)

a1 + an
Average of Terms =
2

Theorem 2.11.7 (Sum of all terms in an Arithmetic Sequence)

a1 + an
Sn = ×n
2
Substitute
an = a1 + (n − 1)d
to get
2a1 + (n − 1)d
Sn = ×n
2

2.12 Geometric Sequences

Definition 2.12.1 (Geometric Sequence). A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers
with the same ratio between consecutive terms.

1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 . . . , 1024
is a geometric sequence because there is always a ratio of 2 between consecutive terms.

Definition 2.12.2 (Geometric Sequence Notation). In general, the terms of a geometric

sequence can be represented as:

g1 , g2 , g3 , g4 , . . . , gn
where

• r is the common ratio between consecutive terms

• n is the number of terms

Remark 2.12.3
Note that a geometric sequence can also have a negative common ratio. For example the
sequence 1, −2, 4, −8, . . . , 256, −512, 1024 has a common ratio of −2.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Manipulations

Theorem 2.12.4 (nth term in a Geometric Sequence)

gn = g1 · rn−1
gn = gm · r(n−m)

Theorem 2.12.5 (Sum of all terms in a finite Geometric Sequence)

(rn − 1)
Sn = g1
r−1

Theorem 2.12.6 (Sum of all Terms in an Infinite Geometric Sequence)

For −1 < r < 1,
g1
S∞ =
1−r

Remark 2.12.7
The reason the formula only works for |r| < 1 is because if |r| ≥ 1 the sum will diverge
or essentially be infinite. We can only find the sum of an infinite geometric sequence
which is converging as its sum approaches a constant value. Examples:
1 1 1 1
1+ + + + ··· = =2
2 4 8 1− 1
2

1 1 1 1 3
1+ + + + ··· = =
3 9 27 1− 1
3
2

2.13 Special Sequences

Theorem 2.13.1 (Sum of numbers formula)

(n)(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n =
2

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Manipulations

Theorem 2.13.2 (Sum of odd numbers formula)

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
In simple terms, the
Sum of first n odd numbers = n2

Theorem 2.13.3 (Sum of even numbers formula)

2 + 4 + 6 + · · · + 2n = n(n + 1)
To intuitively think about it, just take 2 common from each term

(n)(n + 1)
2(1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n) = 2 = n(n + 1)
2

Theorem 2.13.4 (Sum of squares formula)

(n)(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + · · · + n2 =
6

Theorem 2.13.5 (Sum of Cubes Formula)

!2
(n)(n + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + n =
3 3 3
2

2.14 Telescoping
Concept 2.14.1 (Telescoping)
Expand the first few and last few terms, and cancel out any terms you see.

Remark 2.14.2
Generally, whenever you have long expressions that seem to be hard or impossible to
compute manually, telescoping is probably a good option.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Manipulations

Concept 2.14.3 (Partial Fraction Decomposition)

Partial fraction decomposition is a telescoping technique in where you split terms into
multiple terms in order for terms to cancel. In general, to find the partial decomposition
of ab
1
for any arbitrary variables a and b, we write the equation

x y 1
+ =
a b ab
and then solve for x and y. For example, the partial fraction decomposition of
1
n(n + 1)

(in this case a = n and b = n + 1 is

1 1
−
n n+1
Using partial fraction decomposition, we can telescope and evaluate expressions easily.

2.15 Mean Median Mode

Definition 2.15.1 (Mean/Average).
sum of all terms
Mean = average of all terms =
number of terms
Definition 2.15.2 (Median). After arranging the numbers in increasing or decreasing order:
If number of terms is odd,
Median = middle number
If number of terms is even,
Median = average of middle two numbers
Definition 2.15.3 (Mode).
Mode = Most common term(s)

Remark 2.15.4
There could be multiple modes. If the problem says “unique mode”, it means that there
is only one mode.

Definition 2.15.5. Geometric Mean of numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an

√
n
a1 × a2 × a3 · · · × an

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Manipulations

Definition 2.15.6. Harmonic Mean of numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an

1
= 1
+ a1 +···+ a1
a1 2 n
n
n
= 1
a1
+ 1
a2
+ ··· + 1
an

Definition 2.15.7. Quadratic Mean of numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an

q
a21 + a22 + a23 + · · · + a2n
=
n

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Manipulations

2.16 Work and Rate

Theorem 2.16.1

Work = Rate × Time

Equivalently,
Work
Rate =
Time

Work
Time =
Rate

Theorem 2.16.2
The if one person can do something is a amount of time, and someone else can do it in b
amount of time, together they can do it in
ab
a+b
time.

Remark 2.16.3
This not only applies to work. For example, if a problem says 2 faucets take a and b
hours to fill a tub, together they can fill a tub in
ab
a+b
hours.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Manipulations

2.17 Speed Distance Time

Theorem 2.17.1

Distance = Speed × Time

Equivalently,
Distance
Speed =
Time

Distance
Time =
Speed

Theorem 2.17.2
Total Distance
Average Speed =
Total Time

Remark 2.17.3
A common mistake is to assume that average speed is the averages of all speeds (especially
when the distance you are traveling at each of those speeds are the same). Remember,
that’s not true unless you are traveling at those speeds for the same amount of time!

35
Chapter 3

Number Theory

3.1 Primes
Definition 3.1.1 (Primes). Primes are numbers that have exactly two factors: 1 and the
number itself. Ex. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, etc. are all primes

Remark 3.1.2
In order to check whether a number n is prime, we need to check all the primes that are
less than or equal to √
n

Concept 3.1.3 (Prime Factorization)

Prime factorization is a way to express each number as a product of primes.

Example: prime factorization of 60 is 22 × 3 × 5

Theorem 3.1.4 (Number of Factors of a Number)

If the prime factorization of the number is expressed as:

pe11 × pe22 × · · · × pekk

then the number of factors of this number is

(e1 + 1)(e2 + 1) . . . (ek + 1)

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 3. Number Theory
Remark 3.1.5
Basically, in order to find the number of factors of a number:

1. Find the prime factorization of the number

2. Add 1 to all of the exponents

3. Multiply them together

3.2 Sum of Factors

Theorem 3.2.1 (Sum of Factors of a Number)

If the prime factorization of the number is expressed as:

pe11 × pe22 × · · · × pekk

then the number of factors of this number is

(1+p11 +p21 +· · ·+pe11 −1 +pe11 )(1+p12 +p22 +· · ·+pe22 −1 +pe22 ) . . . (1+p1k +p2k +· · ·+pkek −1 +pekk )

Concept 3.2.2 (Sum of Factors of a Number)

Essentially, for a prime p in the prime factorization, first find the sum of pk for all
possible exponents k in the prime factorization. Then, we will multiply all such sums for
all of the primes to get the sum of all the factors of the number.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 3. Number Theory

3.3 Product of Factors

Theorem 3.3.1 (Product of Factors of a Number)

The product of factors of a number n where it has f factors (this can be calculated using
f
the number of factors formula) is n 2

3.4 Divisibility
Concept 3.4.1 (Divisibility Rules)
2 Last digit is even
3 Sum of digits is divisible by 3
4 Last 2 digits divisible by 4
5 Last digit is 0 or 5
6 Divisible by 2 and 3
7 Take out factors of 7 until you reach a small number that is either
divisible or not divisible by 7
8 Last 3 digits are divisible by 8
9 Sum of digits is divisible by 9
10 Last digit is 0
11 Calculate the sum of odd digits (O) and even digits (E). If |O − E|
is divisible by 11, then the number is also divisible by 11
12 Divisible by 3 and 4
15 Divisible by 3 and 5

3.5 GCD and LCM

Definition 3.5.1 (Greatest Common Divisor). The Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) of
two or more non-0 integers is the largest positive integer that divides each of the integers.
Note: This is also known as GCF (Greatest Common Factor), and the terms GCF and GCD
are often used interchangeably.
Definition 3.5.2 (Least Common Multiple). The Least Common Multiple (LCM) of two or
more non-0 integers is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both the numbers.

Concept 3.5.3
GCD/LCM Greatest common divisor of m and n = GCD(m, n) can be found by taking
the lowest prime exponents from the prime factorizations of m and n.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 3. Number Theory

Least common multiple of m and n = LCM (m, n) can be found by taking the high-
est prime exponents from the prime factorizations of m and n.

Theorem 3.5.4
The product of GCD and LCM of two numbers is equal to the product of the two
numbers:
GCD(m, n) · LCM (m, n) = m · n

Theorem 3.5.5
If two numbers have a common factor c, then

gcd(ac, bc) = c · gcd(a, b)

Theorem 3.5.6 (Euclidean Algorithm)

The Euclidean algorithm states that

gcd(x, y) = gcd(x − ky, y)

where x > y and k is a positive integer.

Remark 3.5.7
We can apply the Euclidean Algorithm multiple times to easily find the GCD of large
numbers since after applying the Euclidean algorithm, we know have 2 smaller numbers
which we can apply the Euclidean Algorithm again until we get 2 very small numbers.
For example,

gcd(186, 92) = gcd((186 − (2 · 92)), 92)

= gcd(2, 92)
= gcd(2, (92 − (2 · 46)))
= gcd(2, 0)
=2

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 3. Number Theory

Theorem 3.5.8 (Bezout’s Identity)

Integer solutions to the equation
ax + by = c
will only exist if and only if gcd(a, b) divides c

3.6 Modular Arithmetic

Definition 3.6.1.
n ≡ a (mod b)
means the number ’n’ leaves the same remainder as ’a’ when divided by b

Theorem 3.6.2
If a = x (mod n) and b ≡ y (mod n), then

ab ≡ xy (mod n)

Theorem 3.6.3
If a ≡ x (mod n), then
am ≡ x m (mod n)

Concept 3.6.4 (Digit Cycles)

To calculate large digit(s) of a number ab , a strategy that may work is to just look for a
pattern by computing the first few values of ab and then seeing that the pattern will
repeat for large values of b.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 3. Number Theory

Theorem 3.6.5 (Euler’s Totient Function)

If number n has the prime factorization

pe11 · pe22 · pe33 . . . penn

then

1 1 1
! ! !
ϕ(n) = n · 1 − 1− ... 1 −
p1 p2 pn

where ϕ(n) denotes the number of positive integers less than or equal to n that are
relatively prime to n.
Steps to find totient of a number

1. Find prime factorization

2. For all primes, calculate and multiply

1
1−
pi

3. Multiply this product to the number n to get the totient

Theorem 3.6.6 (Euler’s Totient Theorem)

aϕ(n) ≡ 1 (mod n)
if and only if
gcd(a, n) = 1

Corollary 3.6.7 (Fermat’s Little Theorem)

ap−1 ≡ 1 (mod p)
if an only if p is a prime and
gcd(a, n) = 1

Concept 3.6.8 (Modular Inverses)

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 3. Number Theory

If a is denoted as the modular inverse of b (mod n), then

ab ≡ 1 (mod n)

We also write that

a−1 ≡ b (mod n)
since a and b are inverses (mod n).

Theorem 3.6.9 (Wilson’s Theorem)

(p − 1)! ≡ p − 1 ≡ −1 (mod p)

Theorem 3.6.10 (Binomial Theorem)

For non-negative n,
! ! ! !
n n 0 n n−1 n n−2 2 n 0 n
(x + y) =
n
x y + x y+ x y + ··· + xy
0 1 2 n

Theorem 3.6.11 (Chinese Remainder Theorem)

If a positive number x satisfies

x ≡ a1 (mod n1 )
x ≡ a2 (mod n2 )
..
.
x ≡ ak (mod nk )

where all ni are relatively prime, then x has a unique solution (mod n1 · n2 · n3 . . . nk )

Remark 3.6.12
Be careful! This may not necessarily be true if any ni share common factors as then
congruences might contradict each other.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 3. Number Theory

Concept 3.6.13 (Solving Linear Congruences)

To solve a linear congruence with 2 congruences you can either

• Guess and Check until you reach a value that works and satisfies both mods

• Algebraic Method

1. Find 2 congruences
n ≡ r1 (mod m1 )
n ≡ r2 (mod m2 )
such that m1 and m2 are relatively prime
2. Rewrite them algebraically

n = k(m1 ) + r1

n = j(m2 ) + r2
3. Set them equal mod the smaller of m1 and m2 (in this case, say m1 < m2 )

k(m1 ) + r1 ≡ r2 (mod m2 ) =⇒ m1 ≡ (r2 − r1 ) · k −1 (mod m2 )

4. Guess and check to find the value of

k −1 (mod m2 )

5. Using the value of what b is (mod d), rewrite it algebraically.

6. Substitute it back into the expression

n = k(m1 ) + r1

7. Convert it back to mods to get the final congruence

Concept 3.6.14
The solution to
n ≡ r1 (mod m1 )
n ≡ r2 (mod m2 )
is
n ≡ r1 + m1 (r2 − r1 ) · i
where i ≡ m−1
1 (mod m2 )

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 3. Number Theory
Remark 3.6.15
To solve a general congruence of more than 2 congruences, just solve them 2 at a time
until you are left with just 1 congruence.

3.7 Algebraic Number Theory

Concept 3.7.1 (Algebraic Number Theory Techniques)

1. Make substitutions to convert numbers to variables

2. Group terms

3. Look for factorizations

4. Sometimes use modular arithmetic, divisibility, or other number theory techniques

3.8 Quadratic Factorizations

Theorem 3.8.1 (Exponent Rules)

1
x−a =
xa
xa × xb = xa+b
xa ÷ xb = xa−b
(xa )b = xab

Theorem 3.8.2 (Difference of Squares)

x2 − y 2 = (x − y)(x + y)

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 3. Number Theory

3.9 Cubic Factorizations

Theorem 3.9.1 (Difference of Cubes)

x3 − y 3 = (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 )

Theorem 3.9.2 (Sum of Cubes)

x3 + y 3 = (x + y)(x2 − xy + y 2 )

3.10 Simon’s Favorite Factoring Trick

Theorem 3.10.1 (Simon’s Favorite Factoring Trick)

xy + kx + jy + jk = (x + j)(y + k)

Remark 3.10.2
You can generally apply this factorization when you have xy, x, and y terms. After
applying the factorization, you can then find all possible values for each of your terms in
your factorization (remember negatives!).

3.11 Higher Power Factorizations

Theorem 3.11.1 (nth power Factorizations)

Sum of odd powers

x2n+1 + y 2n+1 = (x + y)(x2n − x2n−1 y + x2n−2 y 2 − · · · − xy 2n−1 + y 2n )

Note: The signs in the second term alternate between positive and negative

xn − y n = (x − y)(xn−1 + xn−2 y + xn−3 y 2 + · · · + xy n−2 + y n−1 )

Note: The signs in second term are all positive

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 3. Number Theory

3.12 Sophie Germain’s Identity

Theorem 3.12.1 (Sophie Germain’s Identity)

x4 + 4y 4 = (x2 − 2xy + 2y 2 )(x2 + 2xy + 2y 2 )

Remark 3.12.2
Be on the lookout for 4th powers to apply Sophie Germain’s Identity!

3.13 Diophantine Equations

Definition 3.13.1. A Diophantine equation is a polynomial equation such that the only
solutions are integers (i.e. all variables have integer values).

Concept 3.13.2 (Strategies to Solve Diophantine Equations)

Here are some ideas on how to solve diophantine equations

• Take mods of different numbers. This is generally useful when you

1. Show there are no solutions to a Diophantine equation

2. Show that there are only a specific type of solution

• Bound the possible values of different terms, generally useful when there are a
finite number of solutions to your Diophantine equations

• Factoring, using the various factorizations (see the algebra section on this), can
help find all the solutions

• Make substitutions to simplify your Diophantine equation

• Look for conditions on what must be multiples/divisors of your variables and

rewrite your Diophantine equation in terms of that (ex. if you know a is multiple
of 6, then can make substitution a = 6k)

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 3. Number Theory

3.14 Bases
Definition 3.14.1 (Bases). A number expressed in base-n is similar to base 10 except instead
of regrouping to a new place value every 10, we regroup every n.

Concept 3.14.2
A number in base n with digits am , am−1 , . . . , a2 , a1 , a0 can be written as:

am am−1 . . . a2 a1 a0

This number can be evaluated as

am nm + am−1 nm−1 + · · · + a2 n2 + a1 n1 + a0 n0

Concept 3.14.3
We can also have bases with decimals (both repeating and terminal).

A number in base n with digits am , am−1 , . . . , a2 , a1 , a0 before the decimal point

and the digits a−1 , a−2 , . . . , a−q after the decimal point can be written as:

am am−1 . . . a1 a0 .a−1 a−2 . . . a−q

This number can be evaluated as:

am nm + a(m−1) n(m−1) + · · · + a1 n1 + a0 n0 + a−1 n−1 + a−2 n−2 + . . . a−q n−q

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 3. Number Theory

3.15 Palindromes
Definition 3.15.1. A palindrome is a number that reads the same forward and backward.

3.16 Chicken McNugget Theorem

Theorem 3.16.1 (Chicken McNugget Theorem)

The maximum value that cannot be expressed as the sum of non-negative multiples of a
and b is ab − a − b if a and b are relatively prime.
For relatively prime positive integers a, b ,there are exactly

(a − 1)(b − 1)
2
positive integers which cannot be expressed in the form ma + nb where m and n are
positive integers.

Remark 3.16.2
This theorem is useful in finding solutions to problems like ”the maximum amount of
money that can’t be created with 3 cent and 5 cent coins”.

Theorem 3.16.3 (Legendre’s Theorem)

number of factors of p in n! =
the number of multiples of p ≤ n + the number of multiples of p2 ≤ n + . . .

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Chapter 4

Geometry

4.1 Angle Chasing

4.2 Basics of Angle Chasing

• Sum of angles in triangle is 180°

• Sum of angles in a line is 180°

• A triangle with 2 equal angles will have their corresponding sides equal and a triangle
with 2 sides equal will have their corresponding angles equal. Such a triangle is called
an isosceles triangle.

Concept 4.2.1 (Complementary Angle)

Complementary angles are a pair of angles with the sum of 90 degrees

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

Concept 4.2.2 (Supplementary Angle)

Supplementary angles are a pair of angles with the sum of 180 degrees

Concept 4.2.3 (Intersecting lines)

When two lines intersect, the vertical angles are equal. Vertical angles are each of the
pairs of opposite angles made by two intersecting lines. ”Vertical” in this case means
they share the same Vertex (corner point), not the usual meaning of up-down.

Concept 4.2.4 (Parallel Lines)

Corresponding angles equal

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

Theorem 4.2.5

Sum of interior angle of a polygon = (n − 2) · 180

(n − 2)
Interior angle of a regular polygon = · 180
n

360
Exterior angle of a regular polygon =
n

Fact 4.2.6. Important Interior Angles

Number of sides in regular polygon Interior Angle of regular polygon

3 60
4 90
5 108
6 120
8 135
9 140
10 144

Theorem 4.2.7 (Inscribed Arc Theorem)

The angle formed by an arc in the center or the arc angle is double of the angle formed
on the edge.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

Corollary 4.2.8 (Inscribed Right Triangle)

Inscribed triangle with diameter as one side is always a right triangle.

Definition 4.2.9 (Chord). A Chord is a line segment between any two distinct points on
the circle. The diameter of the circle is the longest chord in the circle.

Theorem 4.2.10
The perpendicular bisector of any chord passes through the center. In the figure below,
the perpendicular bisectors of AB and CD intersect at the center O.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

Corollary 4.2.11 • Congruent chords are equidistant from the center of a circle.

• If two chords in a circle are congruent, then their intercepted arcs are congruent.

• If two chords in a circle are congruent, then they determine two central angles that
are congruent.

Theorem 4.2.12
The angle marked in the diagram is half of the difference of the 2 red arcs.
⌢ ⌢
BD − AC
∠AP C =
2

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

Theorem 4.2.13
If two chords AB and CD intersect at P, then the ∠BP C and ∠AP D are equal to the
average of the two arcs.
⌢ ⌢
BC + AD
∠BP C = ∠AP D =
2

Theorem 4.2.14
If a tangent R intersects the circle at Q, and a chord QP is drawn, then the ∠RQP is
equal to half the arc angle

Remark 4.2.15
Circles are really useful for angle chasing so keep an eye out for the inscribed arc theorem

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

that can be used in many angle chasing problems.

Remark 4.2.16
A useful trick to solving angle chasing problems with regular polygons is to draw a circle
around the polygon and use the inscribed arc theorem.

Theorem 4.2.17
Equal chords mark out equal arcs
This basically means that if you have 2 chords of the same length, the sector of the circle
they mark out will be equal

Definition 4.2.18 (Tangent). A tangent is any line from a point external to the circle that
just touches the circle.

Theorem 4.2.19 (Right Angle Tangency Point)

If you connect the center of a circle to the point where the circle and a line are tangent,
they will form a right angle.

Remark 4.2.20
This property is very useful in circle problems as it allows us to work with right angles.
In addition, another helpful technique is drawing useful radii to various points in your
diagram as that opens up new information to work with.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

Theorem 4.2.21 (Properties of a Cyclic quadrilateral)

Sum of opposite angles = 180

4.3 Area of a Triangle

There are many ways to calculate the area of a triangle. Here are some of the most useful
formulas for calculating the area of a triangle:

Theorem 4.3.1 (Using base and height)

A triangle with base b and height h has an area of
1
·b·h
2

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

Theorem 4.3.2 (Heron’s Formula)

A triangle with sides a, b, c and semiperimeter s has an area of
q
s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)

Definition 4.3.3 (Incenter). The incenter of a triangle is the intersection of all the angle
bisectors. This point is also the center of the incircle, and equidistant from all the three sides.

Definition 4.3.4 (In-radius). The inradius of a triangle is the radius of the inscribed circle
in the triangle.

Theorem 4.3.5
Inradius r of a right triangle:

1
r = (a + b − c)
2
where a and b are the legs of the triangle, and c is the hypotenuse.

Theorem 4.3.6 (Using inradius)

A triangle with inradius r (the radius of the circle that can be inscribed in a triangle)
and semiperimeter s has an area of:

Area = inradius · semiperimeter

A = rs

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry
Remark 4.3.7
Note that if we know the area of the triangle and it’s semi-perimeter, we can apply the
inradius formula to find the inradius of the triangle.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

Definition 4.3.8 (Circumcenter). The circumcenter of a triangle is the intersection of all

3 perpendicular bisectors (the line that bisects a segment and is perpendicular to it). This
point is also the center of the circumcircle and equidistant from all the three vertices.

Definition 4.3.9 (Circumradius). The circum-radius of a triangle is the radius of circle that
a triangle is inscribed in.

Theorem 4.3.10 (Using circumradius)

A triangle with circumradius R (the radius of the circle that the triangle can be inscribed
in) and sides a, b, c has an area of
abc
A=
4R

Remark 4.3.11
Similar to the inradius problem, if we know all 3 sides of a triangle, we can apply Heron’s
and easily calculate the circumradius of the triangle.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

Theorem 4.3.12 (Shoelace Theorem using coordinates)

Suppose the polygon P has vertices (a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b2 ), ... , (an , bn ), listed in clockwise
order. Then the area (A) of P is

1
A= |(a1 b2 + a2 b3 + · · · + an b1 ) − (b1 a2 + b2 a3 + · · · + bn a1 )|
2
You can also go counterclockwise order, as long as you find the absolute value of the
answer.
The Shoelace Theorem gets its name because if one lists the coordinates in a column,

(a1 , b1 )
(a2 , b2 )
..
.
(an , bn )
(a1 , b1 )

and marks the pairs of coordinates to be multiplied,

Remark 4.3.13 (Intuitive Way of Thinking about Shoelace Theorem)

Steps to Shoelace Theorem

1. Line up all of your polygon’s coordinates in a vertical line

2. Repeat your first coordinate at the bottom of your line

3. Let the sum of products of all rightward diagonally pairs be A

4. Let the sum of products of all leftward diagonally pairs be B

5. Find
1
|A − B|
2

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

Theorem 4.3.14 (Pick’s Theorem)

If a polygon has vertices with integer coordinates (lattice points) then the area of the
polygon is i + 2b − 1 where i is the number of lattice points inside the polygon and b is
the number of lattice points on the boundary of the polygon.

4.4 Triangle Properties

Definition 4.4.1 (Median). A median is a line connecting a point to the midpoint of the
opposite side.

Theorem 4.4.2 (Median in a Right Triangle)

In a right triangle ABC, let the median from point C intersect AB at a point M. Then
AM = BM = CM.
Basically, in a right triangle AB is the diameter of the circumcircle, and MA, MB, and
MC are radii of the circumcircle.

C A

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

Definition 4.4.3 (Centroid). In a triangle, the intersection of all 3 medians in a triangle is

the centroid.

Theorem 4.4.4
The centroid of a triangle is on the median and it is 2
3
of the way from from one of
vertices to the midpoint of the opposite side.

Definition 4.4.5 (Cevian). A cevian is any line from any vertex of a triangle to the opposite
side. Medians and angle bisectors are special cases of cevians.

Theorem 4.4.6 (Stewart’s Theorem)

Given a triangle △ABC with sides of length a, b, c opposite vertices of A, B, C respectively.
If cevian AD is drawn so that BD = m, DC = n and AD = d, we have that

man + dad = bmb + cnc

Remark 4.4.7
A way to remember this is the saying ”A Man and his Dad put a Bomb in the Sink

Corollary 4.4.8 (Stewart’s For Angle Bisector)

If AD is an angle bisector, then d2 + mn = bc.

Note that this follows from Stewart’s Theorem and the Angle Bisector Theorem.

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Corollary 4.4.9 (Stewart’s Theorem For Medians)

If AD is a median, then d2 = 12 (b2 + c2 ) − 41 a2

4.5 Equilateral Triangle

Theorem 4.5.1
If the side length of an equilateral triangle is a
√
3
Height of the triangle = a
2

This follows directly from the 30 − 60 − 90 triangle.

√
3 2
Area of the equilateral triangle = a
4

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4.6 Right Triangles

Theorem 4.6.1 (Pythagorean Theorem)

A right triangle with legs a and b and hypotenuse c satisfies the following relation:

c 2 = a2 + b 2

a c

C b A

Fact 4.6.2. Important Pythagorean Triples

3, 4, 5
5, 12, 13
7, 24, 25
8, 15, 17
9, 40, 41
20, 21, 29

If all numbers in a pythagorean triple are multiplied by a constant, the resulting num-
bers still form a pythagorean triple.

For example: These are all pythagorean triples:

3, 4, 5
6, 8, 10
9, 12, 15
12, 16, 20
15, 20, 25

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

4.6.1 45-45-90 Triangle

Theorem 4.6.3
If the side length of a 45-45-90 triangle is a
√ √
hypotenuse of the triangle = 2 × side length = 2a

1 1
Area of the triangle = × side length2 = a2
2 2

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

4.6.2 30-60-90 Triangle

Theorem 4.6.4
If the short leg length of a 30-60-90 triangle is a
√ √
Long Leg of the triangle = 3 × short leg = 3a

hypotenuse of the triangle = 2 × short leg = 2a

√ √
3 3 2
Area = × short leg2 = a
2 2

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

4.6.3 13-14-15 Triangle

Theorem 4.6.5
If the three sides of a triangle are 13, 14, and 15, it can be divided into two right triangles
with side lengths:
5, 12, 13 and 9, 12, 15
Area of this triangle = 12 × 14 × 12 = 84

4.7 Similar Triangles

Theorem 4.7.1
For similar triangles:

1. All the angles of the triangles are same

2. All corresponding sides have same ratio

3. Area ratio is the square of side length ratio

Concept 4.7.2 (Similarity Test)

Two triangles are similar if the three angles in the triangle are the same. In other words,

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

the triangles are the same shape multiplied by a scale factor. In general, triangles are
similar if:

• AA similarity: Two angles of the triangles are same, which basically means that
the third angle will be equal)

• SAS similarity (Side Angle Side): Two sides are proportional and the angle between
the sides is equal

• SSS similarity (Side Side Side): All three sides are proportional

• HL similarity (Hypotenuse Leg): In a right triangle, hypotenuse and leg are

proportional

• LL similarity (LL Leg): In a right triangle, the two legs are proportional

Warning: SSA does not mean triangles are similar

An easy way to detect similar triangles is if bases of triangles are parallel and the
sides of the triangles are collinear (see figure below)

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

Theorem 4.7.3 (Special Properties of right triangles)

In a right triangle ABC where B is the right angle, the following triangles are similar

△ABC ∼ △ADB ∼ △BDC

Length of the perpendicular to the hypotenuse (BD) = AB·BC

AC
Also note that:
AD · CD = BD2
AD · AC = AB2
CD · CA = CB2

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4.8 Angle Bisector Theorem

Theorem 4.8.1 (Angle Bisector Theorem)

If the line AD bisects angle A, then
AB AC
=
BD CD

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4.9 Square

Theorem 4.9.1 (Area of a Square)

Any square with side length s has an area of

s2

and a perimeter of
4s

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4.10 Rectangle

Theorem 4.10.1 (Area of a Rectangle)

Any rectangle with base b and height h has an area of

bh

and a perimeter of
2b + 2h

4.11 Rhombus

Theorem 4.11.1 (Area of a Rhombus)

A rhombus with diagonals d1 and d2 has an area of
1
d1 d2
2
and a perimeter of q
2× d21 + d22

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

Concept 4.11.2 (Rhombus) 1. All sides equal

2. Opposite angles congruent

3. Diagonals are perpendicular bisectors

4.12 Parallelogram

Theorem 4.12.1 (Area of a Parallelogram)

A parallelogram with base b and height h has an area of

bh

A parallelogram with diagonals d1 and d2 has an area of

1
d1 d2 ∗ sin(θ)
2
where θ is the central angle of the parallelogram

Concept 4.12.2 (Parallelogram Properties) 1. Diagonals bisect each other

2. Opposite sides congruent

3. Opposite angles congruent

4. Base angles supplementary

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4.13 Trapezoid

Theorem 4.13.1 (Area of a Trapezoid)

A trapezoid with 2 bases b1 and b2 and a height h has an area of

b1 + b2
·h
2

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4.14 Circle Area

Theorem 4.14.1 (Area and Circumference)

A circle with radius r has
Area = πr2
Circumference = 2πr

Theorem 4.14.2 (Arcs of a circle)

An arc of a circle with radius r and angle a°

a°
Area of a sector = πr2 × = π × radius2 × fraction of circle in sector
360
a°
Length of the arc = 2πr × = 2π × radius × fraction of circle in sector
360

Definition 4.14.3 (Angle of an arc). This is the angle that the arc makes at the center of
the circle.

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4.15 Circle Length

Concept 4.15.1
In geometry problems with circles, always try to draw all important radii
(i.e. connect center to all points on a circle)

4.16 Power of a Point

Theorem 4.16.1 (Power of Point For 2 Tangents)

From a given point P external to a circle, the two tangents to the circle are equal.

PS = PT

Theorem 4.16.2 (Power of Point Inside Circle)

If AB and CD are two secants in a circle with Center O, which intersect at a point P,
the line segments satisfy the following property:

P A · P B = P C · P D = r2 − OP 2

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

Theorem 4.16.3 (Power of Point Outside Circle)

If AB and CD are two secants in a circle, which intersect at a point P outside the circle
with Center O, the line segments satisfy the following property:

P A · P B = P C · P D = OP 2 − r2

where r is the radius of the circle

Remark 4.16.4
Power of a point is useful when dealing with circles and chord lengths.

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4.17 Cyclic Quadrilaterals

Theorem 4.17.1 (Properties of a Cyclic quadrilateral)

Sum of opposite angles = 180

You can draw a circle around quadrilateral and use angle chasing properties for circles
like the inscribed angle theorem.

Concept 4.17.2
Sometimes, there may be quadrilaterals not explicitly stated to be in a circle. Then, if
the sum of opposite angles is 180° or if the angles satisfy properties from the inscribed
angle theorem, then you can identify them to be a cyclic quadrilateral, and you can
use any of the properties of cyclic quadrilaterals or even circles because you know the
quadrilateral can be inscribed in a circle.

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

Theorem 4.17.3 (Ptolemy’s Theorem)

In a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD

Product of diagonals = Sum of the product of both pairs of opposite sides

AC · BD = AB · CD + AD · BC

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Theorem 4.17.4 (Brahmagupta’s Formula)

In a cyclic quadrilateral with side lengths a, b, c, d, the area of the quadrilateral can be
found as:
q
A= (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d)

where s is the semiperimeter of the quadrilateral and can be calculated as

a+b+c+d
s=
2

Basically, to find the area of a cyclic quadrilateral

1. Find the perimeter and divide by 2

2. Subtract each of the side lengths from it to get 4 values

3. Multiply your 4 values

4. Take the square root of your product

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4.18 Polygons

Theorem 4.18.1

Sum of interior angle of a polygon = (n − 2) · 180

(n − 2)
Interior angle of a regular polygon = · 180
n

360
Exterior angle of a regular polygon =
n

Fact 4.18.2. Important Interior Angles

Number of sides in regular polygon Interior Angle of regular polygon

3 60
4 90
5 108
6 120
8 135
9 140
10 144

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4.19 Hexagon

Theorem 4.19.1

Sum of interior angle of a regular hexagon = (6 − 2) · 180 = 720

(6 − 2)
Interior angle of a regular hexagon = · 180 = 120
6

360
Exterior angle of a regular hexagon = = 60
6
√
3 2
Area of a regular hexagon = 6 · s
4

Length of the diagonal of a regular hexagon = 2s

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4.20 Octagon

Theorem 4.20.1

Sum of interior angle of a regular octagon = (8 − 2) · 180 = 1080

(8 − 2)
Interior angle of a regular octagon = · 180 = 135
6

360
Exterior angle of a regular octagon = = 45
8
√
Area of a regular octagon = 2(1 + 2)s2

Remark 4.20.2
A regular hexagon can be divided into 6 congruent equilateral triangles.

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4.21 Pentagons

4.22 Cube

Theorem 4.22.1 (Volume and Surface Area of a cube)

Volume of a cube = (side length)3 = a3

Surface area of a cube = 6 × (side length)2 = 6a2

√ √
Length of space diagonal of a cube = 3 × side length = 3a

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4.23 Rectangular Prism

Theorem 4.23.1 (Volume and Surface Area of a rectangular prism)

Volume of a rectangular prism = l × b × h = product of all three dimensions

Surface area of a rectangular prism = 2(lb + bh + lh)

√
Length of space diagonal of a rectangular prism = l2 + b2 + h2

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4.24 Cylinder

Theorem 4.24.1 (Volume and Surface Area of a cylinder)

Volume of a cylinder = πr2 h

Surface area of a cylinder = 2πr2 + 2πrh

= 2πr(r + h)

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4.25 Cone

Theorem 4.25.1 (Volume and Surface Area of a cone)

1
Volume of a cone = πr2 h
3
which basically means
1
Volume of a Cone = π · radius2 · height
3

Surface area of a cone = πr2 + πrs = πr(r + s)

where s is the lateral or slant height

which can also be written as

π · radius2 + π · radius × slant height

Remark 4.25.2
The slant height s can be calculated by the following formula
√
s = r2 + h2

or q
slant height = radius2 + height2

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4.26 Sphere

Theorem 4.26.1 (Volume and Surface Area of a sphere)

4
Volume of a sphere = πr3
3

Surface area of a sphere = 4πr2

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4.27 Tetrahedron

Theorem 4.27.1 (Volume of a tetrahedron)

1
Volume of any tetrahedron = · base area · height
3

Theorem 4.27.2 (Volume of a regular tetrahedron (all sides equal))

√
2 3
Volume of a regular tetrahedron = s
12

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

4.28 Pyramid

Theorem 4.28.1 (Volume of a pyramid)

1
Volume of any pyramid = · base area · height
3

Theorem 4.28.2 (Volume of a regular pyramid (all sides equal))

When the pyramid has a square base, and all the sides are equal
√
2 3
Volume of a regular pyramid = s
6

4.29 Volume of Complex Polyhedrons

4.30 Cross Sections

4.31 Area of Complex Shapes

Concept 4.31.1
Tricks to finding the area of complex shapes

• Divide the shape into “nicer” areas which are easier to calculate

• Extend Lines

– You generally want to extend lines when they form nicer shapes/areas to work

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OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Geometry

with, such as triangles

• Break up areas

– A common way to do so is to drop altitudes as doing so generally allows you

to form right triangles

Remark 4.31.2
A common technique is to find the area of shapes and then find the area of a shape in
terms of a variable (like altitude, inradius, circumradius, etc.) and then solve for that
variable.

4.32 Length of complex shapes

Concept 4.32.1
Finding Length of Complex Shapes

• Having equal angles means equal lengths and vice versa

• Be on the lookout for 90 degree angles, as you can use Pythagorean theorem

• Split the length into multiple components by using some of these techniques

– Drawing extra lines

– Dropping Altitudes

• Extending lines to create similar triangles, special triangles, etc. and then sub-
tracting the extra length

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4.33 Line in Coordinate Plane

Definition 4.33.1 (Equation of a Line). The equation of a line is ax + by + c = 0.

Definition 4.33.2 (Slope-Intercept Form). An equation of a line in slope-intercept form is

y = mx + b

Theorem 4.33.3 (Slope of a line through 2 points)

The slope of a line passing through 2 points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is
y2 − y1
x2 − x1

Theorem 4.33.4 (Slope of a line through angle)

The slope of a line with an angle of θ above the x-axis is tan(θ)

Theorem 4.33.5 (Distance between 2 points)

The distance between 2 points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is
q
(x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2

Theorem 4.33.6 (Point to line formula)

The distance between a point (x0 , y0 ) and a line ax + by + c = 0 is

|a · x0 + b · y0 + c|
√
a2 + b 2
.

Remark 4.33.7
Be careful not to get the equation of the line confused with ax + by = c

Remark 4.33.8
Note that this distance represents the shortest possible distance which would be length

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of the perpendicular line.

Remark 4.33.9
This formula is a bit confusing so an easy way to remember the numerator is that it’s
just the equation of the line with the values of the point plugged in as the x and y values

4.34 Circle in Coordinate Plane

Theorem 4.34.1 (Equation of a Circle)

A circle with center (a, b) and radius r has equation

(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2

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4.35 Shoelace Theorem to find Area

Theorem 4.35.1 (Shoelace Theorem using coordinates)

Suppose the polygon P has vertices (a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b2 ), ... , (an , bn ), listed in clockwise
order. Then the area (A) of P is

1
A= |(a1 b2 + a2 b3 + · · · + an b1 ) − (b1 a2 + b2 a3 + · · · + bn a1 )|
2
You can also go counterclockwise order, as long as you find the absolute value of the
answer.
The Shoelace Theorem gets its name because if one lists the coordinates in a column,

(a1 , b1 )
(a2 , b2 )
..
.
(an , bn )
(a1 , b1 )

and marks the pairs of coordinates to be multiplied,

Remark 4.35.2 (Intuitive Way of Thinking about Shoelace Theorem)

Steps to Shoelace Theorem

1. Line up all of your polygon’s coordinates in a vertical line

2. Repeat your first coordinate at the bottom of your line

3. Let the sum of products of all rightward diagonally pairs be A

4. Let the sum of products of all leftward diagonally pairs be B

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5. Find
1
|A − B|
2

4.36 Picks Theorem (Optional)

Theorem 4.36.1 (Pick’s Theorem)

If a polygon has vertices with integer coordinates (lattice points) then the area of the
polygon is i + 2b − 1 where i is the number of lattice points inside the polygon and b is
the number of lattice points on the boundary of the polygon.

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Advanced Topics

5.1 Floor and Ceiling Functions

Definition 5.1.1 (Floor, Ceiling, and Fractional Part Functions).

⌊x⌋ = Greatest integer less than or equal to x

⌈x⌉ = Smallest integer greater than or equal to x

{x} = Fractional part of x (the value after the decimal point)

Concept 5.1.2 (Common Floor and Ceiling Problems Techniques)

Most floor and ceiling problems can be solved using these techniques.

1. Make the substitution x = ⌊x⌋ + {x}

2. Use the floor or ceiling function to find an inequality

For example, if you know that y = ⌊x⌋, then y ≤ x < y + 1

3. Graph your equations and look for intersection points (we recommend using graph
paper)

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5.2 Trivial Inequality

Theorem 5.2.1 (Trivial Inequality)

For real x, x2 ≥ 0
This means all perfect squares are 0 or more.

Corollary 5.2.2 (Completing the Square)

In a quadratic Q(x) = ax2 + bx + c,

b2
• If a > 0, then the minimum value of Q(x) is c − 4a
and occurs when x = − 2a
b

b2
• If a < 0, then the maximum value of Q(x) is c − 4a
and occurs when x = − 2a
b

Remark 5.2.3
Simple, yet powerful. This is the core of all inequalities and how more advanced
inequalities are derived.

The rest of the inequalities are optional for the AMC 10 but are still good to know.

5.3 AM-GM

Theorem 5.3.1 (AM-GM Inequality For 2 variables)

For non-negative reals a and b,
a+b √
≥ ab
2

Basically, this means the average of 2 non-negative numbers (arithmetic mean) is always
at least as big as the square root of the product of the 2 numbers (the geometric mean).

Note that equality in this expression occurs when a = b.

Corollary 5.3.2
The minimum value of x + 1
x
is 2 and occurs when x = 1

• The minimum value of a + b (if ab remains constant) occurs when a = b

• The maximum value of ab (if a + b remains constant) occurs when a = b

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Theorem 5.3.3 (AM-GM Inequality For More Variables)

For non-negative reals a1 , a2 , . . . an ,
a1 + a2 + · · · + an √
≥ n a1 · a2 · a3 · · · · an
n

Note that equality occurs when a1 = a2 · · · = an . (essentially all the variables are equal).

Another way to say this is

q
Average of n numbers ≥ n
product of all n numbers

Remark 5.3.4
This means in general,
√
min(a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an ) = n · n
a1 · a2 · a3 · · · · an
a1 + a2 + · · · + an
 n
max(a1 · a2 · a3 · · · · an ) =
n

Essentially,
q
min(sum of all numbers) = n · n
product of all numbers)

max(product of all numbers) = (average of all numbers)n

Remark 5.3.5
Generally, we use AM-GM to maximize products or minimize sums.

Theorem 5.3.6 (Weighted AM-GM Inequality)

For non-negative reals, ai , ci ,
c1 · a1 + c2 · a2 + · · · + cn · an q
≥ c1 +c2 +···+cn
ac11 · ac22 · ac33 · · · · · acnn
c1 + c2 + · · · + cn

Remark 5.3.7
Weighted AM-GM is very similar to AM-GM. One way to visualize weighted AM-GM
is that there are ck number of terms which are all equal to ak . So instead of writing

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ak + ak + · · · + ak ck times in our sum we simply write ak · ck , and instead of writing

ak · ak · . . . ck times in our product we simply write ackk .

Remark 5.3.8
We use weighted AM-GM when we are trying to make the sum of all terms a constant
by multiplying weights to all (or some) the terms. Remember to divide by the weights
you multiplied at the end.

5.4 Cauchy Schwarz

Theorem 5.4.1 (Cauchy Schwarz)

For reals ai and bi ,

(a1 · b1 + a2 · b2 + · · · + an · bn )2 ≤ (a21 + a22 + . . . a2n )(b21 + b22 + . . . b2n )

This means
(the sum of the products of all ak and bk )2 ≤
product of the sum of squares of all ak and bk

Equality holds when the ratio of

ai
bi
for all i is the same.

Remark 5.4.2
If you ever forget which side the ≥ sign faces, just try a small example like a1 = 1,
a2 = 2, b1 = 3, and b2 = 4.

Remark 5.4.3
You generally want to apply Cauchy Schwarz when you are dealing with sums of squares.

Corollary 5.4.4 (Titu’s Lemma)

For reals ai and bi ,

a21 a22 a2 (a1 + a2 + · · · + an )2

+ + ··· + n ≥
b1 b2 bn b1 + b2 + b3 + · · · + b n

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Alternately, √ √ √
a1 a2 an ( a1 + a2 + · · · + an )2
+ + ··· + ≥
b1 b2 bn b1 + b2 + b3 + · · · + b n

Note that this is a direct consequence of Cauchy Schwartz.

Concept 5.4.5 (Techniques For Optimization Problems)

Steps to find maximum/minimum of expressions

1. Try to find another simple expression for maximization is greater than or equal to
the expression you are given OR minimization is less than the expression you are
given by using 1 (or possibly even more) of the inequalities

(a) Trivial Inequality

(b) AM-GM
(c) Weighted AM-GM (AM-GM weighted and unweighted are useful for maximiz-
ing products and minimizing sums)
(d) Cauchy Schwartz (Cauchy Schwartz is useful when dealing with sums of
squares)

2. Verify that the equality case of your inequality holds true with your problem
conditions

3. Simplify your equality case and solve for the answer

5.5 Logarithms
Definition 5.5.1 (Logarithm). A logarithm is the power to which a number must be raised
in order to get some other number.
Logarithms are expressed as
a = logb n
where b is the base and n is the number.
Basically, we are trying to calculate how many times we need to multiply the base to get the
number a, or what power do we need to raise the base to get the number a.

Theorem 5.5.2 (Converting to Logarithm and Exponents)

logx y = a =⇒ xa = y
.

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5.6 Logarithmic Formulas

Theorem 5.6.1 (Important Formulas)

loga ar = r

loga bc = loga b + loga c

b
loga = loga b − loga c
c

loga bc = c loga b

logb logc logc

loga b · logb c = · = = loga c
loga logb loga

1
logb a =
loga b

logd a
logb a =
logd b

Remark 5.6.2
This last formula is known as the ”Base Change Formula” and is the most useful of them
all. Often times in logarithm problems you can just expand out your expression in terms
of this formula and simplify the expression to get the answer.

Remark 5.6.3
These formulas are extremely important for working with logarithms and should definitely
be memorized.

Remark 5.6.4
If you ever forget which way the sign of these logarithms are, you can just try a small
example like log10 100 + log10 1000 = log10 100, 000 so from here for example you could
figure out the sum of logarithms identity.

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Remark 5.6.5
Natural Logarithm (Base e) where e is the Euler’s Number = 2.71828
A logarithm with a base of e is a called a natural log and is written as ln

Theorem 5.6.6 (Advanced Formulas)

n
logam an =
m

1
 
loga = − loga b
b

log 1 b = − loga b
a

Remark 5.6.7
These formulas are less important and aren’t necessary for most logarithm problems,
but still good to know.

Concept 5.6.8
When you take a logarithm of numbers which form a geometric progression, the logarithms
of those numbers form an arithmetic progression.

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5.7 Trigonometric Identities

Theorem 5.7.1 (Trigonometric Identities)

Opposite
Sine: sin(a) =
Hypotenuse
Adjacent
Cosine: cos(a) =
Hypotenuse
Opposite sin(a)
Tangent: tan(a) = =
Adjacent cos(a)

Remark 5.7.2
To remember the relationships, just use the mnemonics SOH, CAH, TOA:
SOH = Sin is Opposite over Hypotenuse
CAH = Cos is Adjacent over Hypotenuse
TOA = Tan is Opposite over Adjacent

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5.8 More Trigonometric Identities

Theorem 5.8.1 (More Trigonometric Identities)

Hypotenuse 1
Cosecant: csc(a) = =
Opposite sin(a)
Hypotenuse 1
Secant: sec(a) = =
Adjacent cos(a)
Adjacent 1 cos(a)
Cotangent: cot(a) = = =
Opposite tan(a) sin(a)

5.9 Important Trigonometric Values

cos 0° = 1 √ sin 0° = 0 √
cos 15° = 23+1
√
2
sin 15° = 23−1
√
2
√
cos 30° = √23 sin 30° = 12√
cos 45° = 22 sin 45° = √22
cos 60° = 1√
2
sin 60° = √23
cos 75° = 23−1
√
2
sin 75° = 23+1√
2
cos 0° = 1 sin 0° = 0
cos 90° = 0 sin 90° = 1 √
cos 120° = − 1√2
sin 120° = √23
cos 135° = − √22 sin 135° = 22
cos 150° = − 23 sin 150° = 12
cos 180° = 1 sin 0° = 0

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5.10 Unit Circle Identities

Theorem 5.10.1 (Unit Circle Identities)

sin(−a) = − sin(a)

sin(a) = sin(180 − a)

cos(a) = cos(−a)

cos(a) = − cos(180 − a)

tan(a) = − tan(180 − a)

tan(−a) = − tan(a)

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5.11 Pythagorean Identities

Theorem 5.11.1 (Pythagorean Identities)

sin2 (a) + cos2 (a) = 1

tan2 (a) + 1 = sec2 (a)

cot2 (a) + 1 = csc2 (a)

5.12 Double Angle Identities

Theorem 5.12.1 (Double Angle Identities)

sin(2a) = 2 sin(a) cos(a)

cos(2a) = cos2 (a) − sin2 (a) = 2 cos2 (a) − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 (a)

2 tan(a)
tan(2a) =
1 − tan2 (a)

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5.13 Addition and Subtraction Identities

Theorem 5.13.1 (Addition and Subtraction Identities)

sin(a + b) = sin(a) cos(b) + sin(b) cos(a)

sin(a − b) = sin(a) cos(b) − sin(b) cos(a)

cos(a + b) = cos(a) cos(b) − sin(a) sin(b)

cos(a − b) = cos(a) cos(b) + sin(a) sin(b)

tan(a) + tan(b)
tan(a + b) =
1 − tan a tan b

tan(a) − tan(b)
tan(a − b) =
1 + tan a tan b

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5.14 Half Angle Identities

Theorem 5.14.1 (Half Angle Identities)

s
a 1 − cos(a)
 
sin =±
2 2
s
a 1 + cos(a)
 
cos =±
2 2

5.15 Sum to Product Identities

Theorem 5.15.1 (Sum to Product Identities)

a+b
! !
a−b
sin(a) + sin(b) = 2 sin cos
2 2

a+b
! !
a−b
sin(a) − sin(b) = 2 sin cos
2 2

a+b
! !
a−b
cos(a) + cos(b) = 2 cos cos
2 2

a+b
! !
a−b
cos(a) − cos(b) = −2 sin sin
2 2

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5.16 Product to Sum Identities

Theorem 5.16.1 (Product to Sum Identities)

1
sin(a) sin(b) = (cos(a − b) − cos(a + b))
2

1
cos(a) cos(b) = (cos(a − b) + cos(a + b))
2

1
sin(a) cos(b) = (sin(a + b) + sin(a − b))
2

5.17 Graphing to Solve Trigonometry Problems

Definition 5.17.1. A periodic function is a trigonometric function which repeats a pattern
of y-values at regular intervals. One complete repetition of the pattern is called a cycle. The
period of a function is the horizontal length of one complete cycle.
Period of sin, cos, and tan is 2π

5.18 Periods and Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

Concept 5.18.1 (Sine Graph)

Concept 5.18.2 (Cosine Graph)

Concept 5.18.3 (Tan Graph)

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Remark 5.18.4
Long trigonometric expressions can be evaluated by telescoping, using identities in clever
ways, complex number substitutions (see complex numbers section below).

5.19 Area of a Triangle using Trigonometry

Theorem 5.19.1 (Area of a Triangle using trigonometry)

In a triangle with side lengths, a, b, c, where the angle between sides a and b is denoted
by C

1
Area of the triangle = · ab · sin(C)
2

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5.20 Law of Sines

Theorem 5.20.1 (Law of Sines)

In a triangle with sides a, b, c and angles A, B, and C where the side a is opposite to
the angle A, the side b is opposite to the angle B, and the side c is opposite the angle C,
we have

a b c
= = = 2R
sin A sin B sin C

where R is the circumradius of the triangle.

5.21 Law of Cosines

Theorem 5.21.1 (Law of Cosines)

In a triangle with side lengths, a, b, c, where the angle between sides a and b is denoted
by C
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab · cos C

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Video Lectures
Solving area problems using trigonometry

5.22 Complex Numbers

Definition 5.22.1. A complex number is a number that can be expressed in the form a + bi,
where a and b are real numbers, and i represents the “imaginary unit”. a is the real part of
our number, and bi is the imaginary part. Complex numbers are often represented by the
variable z.
√
Definition 5.22.2. i = −1, i2 = −1, i3 = −i, i4 = 1

Remark 5.22.3
√
Powers of i cycle every 4 terms, so i4n = i4 = 1, i4n+1 = i = −1, i4n+2 = i2 =
−1, i4n+3 = i3 = −i

Theorem 5.22.4 (Adding Complex Numbers)

(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i

Theorem 5.22.5 (Subtracting Complex Numbers)

(a + bi) − (c + di) = (a − c) + (b − d)i

Theorem 5.22.6 (Multiplying Complex Numbers)

(a + bi) · (c + di) = (ac − bd) + (bc + ad)i

Definition 5.22.7 (Real and Imaginary Parts). The imaginary part of a complex number
a + bi is b and the real part is a.

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Remark 5.22.8
The imaginary part does not include a factor of i.

Definition 5.22.9. A complex conjugate is found by flipping the sign of the imaginary part
of complex number, and is represented as z̄.

Theorem 5.22.10 (Finding Conjugates)

z = a + bi = a − bi

Definition 5.22.11 (Complex Plane). A complex number can also be represented geometri-
cally by expressing a + bi as (a, b) on the Complex plane. The x-axis represents the Real axis
and the y-axis represents the Imaginary axis.

Definition 5.22.12. The magnitude of a complex number is represented by |z|, and is the
distance of a complex number (a, b) from the origin.

Theorem 5.22.13 (Magnitude of a Complex Number)

√
|z| = |a + bi| = a2 + b 2

Theorem 5.22.14 (Multiplying Complex Numbers with their Conjugates)

(a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 + b2

Theorem 5.22.15
For a complex number z, z × z = z̄ 2

Remark 5.22.16
This is derived from the theorem above. It is super useful!

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5.22.1 Polar Form

Definition 5.22.17. The angle that the positive real axis makes with the ray that connects
the origin with a complex number is called the argument of that complex number and is
represented by θ.

Theorem 5.22.18 (Argument of a Complex Number)

The argument θ of a complex number a + bi is
b
tan θ =
a
.

Definition 5.22.19. The distance between 0 and a complex number is sometimes called the
modulus of that complex number and is represented by r.

Theorem 5.22.20 (Modulus of a Complex Number)

The modulus r of a complex number a + bi is
√
r = |a + bi| = a2 + b 2

Definition 5.22.21. Polar form is another way to represent a complex number based on its
modulus r and argument θ.

Theorem 5.22.22 (Polar Form)

z = a + bi = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = r cis θ

Remark 5.22.23
cis θ is just short for cos θ + i sin θ

Remark 5.22.24
Trigonometric ratios tell us that cos θ = ar and sin θ = rb , which we can rearrange to see
that r cos θ = a and r sin θ = b. Plugging in these values gives us the polar form formula.

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Remark 5.22.25
cos θ + i sin θ can also be written as cis θ.

Theorem 5.22.26 (Euler’s Formula)

Euler’s Formula tells us that
cos θ + i sin θ = eiθ
, which tells us that
z = a + bi = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = reiθ
.

Remark 5.22.27
Euler’s Identity is a special case of Euler’s Formula and tells us that

eπi = −1

Definition 5.22.28. Roots of unity are the complex solutions to an equation xn = 1, for
some positive integer n. There will always be n solutions to xn = 1.

Theorem 5.22.29 (Roots of Unity)

The set of the nth roots of unity is
e2kπi/n
for
k ∈ {1, 2, . . . n}
.

Theorem 5.22.30 (Rotating a Point)

To rotate a point θ radians counterclockwise, covert a coordinate to its corresponding
complex number and multiply it by eiθ . Converting this back to ordered pairs gives us
our answer.

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Theorem 5.22.31 (De Moivre’s Theorem)

For a complex number z = reiθ and a real number n,

z n = (reiθ )n = rn [cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)]

Remark 5.22.32
We can use this to evaluate expressions like
√
( 3 + i)8

much easier because we just convert to polar form and apply De Moivre’s Theorem.

Remark 5.22.33
DeMoivre’s Theorem is very useful when dealing with complex numbers and exponents.

Concept 5.22.34
Complex numbers and their relations to circles makes them easy to work with for many
geometry problems, especially when dealing with polygons such as equilateral triangles
or squares.
How to solve geometry problems using complex numbers:

1. Assign a complex number to 1 or more of the coordinates

2. To find the complex numbers for other points, multiple/divide by eiθ

3. Use the information you have to solve for what you are asked in the problem

Remark 5.22.35
We can also view algebraic complex number problems geometrically.

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5.23 Complex Numbers in Polynomials

Definition 5.23.1. A polynomial of degree n has n roots, and these roots may be complex.
For binomials, if our discriminant is negative we have complex roots.

5.24 Complex Numbers in Trigonometry

Theorem 5.24.1 (Sin and Cos values in terms of complex numbers)

eiθ + ei(180−θ)
sin θ =
2i

eiθ + ei(−θ)
cos θ =
2

eiθ + ei(180−θ)
tan θ = i
eiθ + ei(−θ)

Remark 5.24.2
By using these substitutions, we can bash out the value of trigonometric expressions
easily without clever manipulation of trigonometric identities that would be needed to
solve the problem otherwise.

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