UNIT-I

Generation control of Power Systems

Introduction
• Electricity is a converted form of energy and is used extensively in industrial,
commercial, residential agricultural and transportation sectors. It can be generated and
transmitted in bulk, economically, over long distances. AC systems have become the
most popular system for use, over DC, for the following reasons:
1. AC generators are simpler than DC generators.
2. Transformation of voltage levels is simple, providing great flexibility of different
voltage levels at generation, transmission and distribution.
3. AC motors, widely used, are simpler and more economical than DC motors.
Power System Scenario.
 Grids are interconnected in three phase systems between generation and transmission
sides
 Generation; alternators, prime mover.
 Transmission; stepping up of voltage levels
 Distribution; stepping down of voltage levels
 Load; Industrial (three phase), residential(single)
Transmission system interconnects major generating stations
Objectives of the Power System Control:
1. The system must be able to meet the continually changing load demand for active and
reactive power. Unlike other types of energy, electricity cannot be conveniently stored
in sufficient quantities. Therefore, adequate "spinning“ reserve of active and reactive
power should be maintained and appropriately controlled at all times.
2. The system should supply energy at minimum cost and with minimum ecological
impact.
3. The "quality" of power supply must meet certain minimum standards with regard to
the following factors:
(a) constancy of frequency;
(b) constancy of voltage; and
(c) level of reliability

The operation and control of the system should ultimately maintain the following:
Stability:
 Continued intact of the system, following a disturbance.
 This depends on the operating condition and the nature of the disturbance.
Security:
 It is the degree of the risk in the power system's ability to survive contingencies
without interruption to the consumer.
 It is related to the robustness of the system
Reliability:
 It is the probability of satisfactory operation over a long period.
 It denotes the ability of the system to supply adequate service on a nearly continuous
basis, with a few intermittent interruptions over an extended time period.
Various controls in a power system
Operating States of Power System

 The objective of the control strategy is to generate and distribute power in an

interconnected system as economically and reliably as possible while maintaining the
frequency and voltage within permissible limits.

 Changes in real power mainly affect the system frequency.

The system is said to be normal if

i. All the loads are met.

ii. The frequency and bus voltage magnitude are within the prescribed limits.
iii. No component of power system is overloaded.

The system operation is governed by equality and inequality constraints.

 Equality constraints are power balance between generation and load.

 Inequality constraints set the limits on different operating parameters such as

voltage, generation limits, currents etc.

The system states are classified as:

1. Normal state

2. Alert state

3. Emergency state

4. Inextremis state

5. Restorative state

Normal state:

 A system is said to be in normal if both load and operating constraints are satisfied.

 It is one in which the total demand on the system is met by satisfying all the operating
constraints.
Alert state:

 A normal state of the system said to be in alert state if one or more of the postulated
contingency states, consists of the constraint limits violated.
 When the system security level falls below a certain level or the probability of
disturbance increases, the system may be in alert state.
 All equalities and inequalities are satisfied, but on the event of a disturbance, the system
may not have all the inequality constraints satisfied.
 If severe disturbance occurs, the system will push into emergency state. To bring back
the system to secure state, preventive control action is carried out.

Emergency state:

 The system is said to be in emergency state if one or more operating constraints are
violated, but the load constraint is satisfied.
 In this state, the equality constraints are unchanged.
 The system will return to the normal or alert state by means of corrective actions,
disconnection of faulted section or load sharing.

Inextremis state:

 When the system is in emergency, if no proper corrective action is taken in time, then
it goes to Inextremis state.
 In this regard neither the load or nor the operating constraint is satisfied, this result is
islanding. Also, the generating units are strained beyond their capacity.
 So emergency control action is done to bring back the system state either to the
emergency state or normal state

Restorative state:

 From this state, the system may be brought back either to alert state or secure state.
The latter is a slow process.
 Hence, in certain cases, first the system is brought back to alert state and then to the
secure state. This is done using restorative control action.
 Operating States of Power System

Interconnected Power System:

Functions

 Exchange or sale of power.

 Disturbed areas taking other area’s help.
 Long distance sale and transfer of power.
Advantages of interconnected system:
 Reduces Reserve Capacity – thus reduces installed capacity
 Capital Cost/kW is less for larger Unit- in India single unit can support >500MW
because of interconnection
 Effective Use of Generators
 Optimization of Generation – installed capacity is reduced
 Reliability

Disadvantages of interconnected system:

 Fault get Propagated – calls for fast switchgear
 CB rating increases
 Proper management required – EMS and it must be automated – Economic load
dispatch - Base load and Peak Load
National Regional Electricity Boards in India
 Northern Regional Electricity Board
 Western Regional Electricity Board
 Southern Regional Electricity Board
 Eastern Regional Electricity Board
 North-east Regional Electricity Board
Goal – To have National Grid to improve efficiency of the whole National Power Grid
Important Areas of Concern in power System
- Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
On-line Computer Control that maintains overall system frequency and net tie-line
load exchange through interconnection
- Economic Load Dispatch
On-line computer control to supply load demand using all interconnected system’s
power in the most economical manner
AGC is the name given to a control system having three major objectives:
i. To hold system frequency at or very close to a specified nominal value (50 or 60Hz).
ii. To maintain the correct value of interchange power between control areas.
iii. To maintain each unit’s generation at the most economic value.

To implement an AGC system, the following information is required:

 Unit megawatt output of each committed unit
 Megawatt flow over each tie line to neighboring systems
 System frequency

Control Area Concept

 All generators are tightly coupled together to form – Coherent Group.
 All generators respond to changes in load or speed changer setting.

Control Area – frequency is assumed to be constant throughout in static and dynamic

conditions. For the purpose of analysis, a control area can be reduced to a single speed
governor, turbo generator and load system.

Area Control Error – ACE

To maintain a net interchange of power with its area neighbors, an AGC uses real
power flow measurements of all tie lines emanating from the area and subtracts the scheduled
interchange to calculate an error value. The net power interchange, together with a gain, B
(MW/0.1Hz), called the frequency bias, as a multiplier on the frequency deviation is called the
Area Control Error (ACE) given by,

Pk = Power in Tie line - +ve – out of the area

Ps – Scheduled Power Interchange
f0 – Base frequency, fact – Actual frequency
B – Frequency Bias Constant
+ve ACE indicates flow out of the area.
 The real power summation of ACE loses information as to the flow of individual tie
lines but is concerned with area net generation. The tie lines transfer power through the area
from one neighbor to the next, called ‘Wheeling Power’.
The wheeling power cancels algebraically in the ACE. Thus, one area purchases or
sells blocks of power (MWh) with non-neighbor utilities.

Power Sale from A to C

 A – selling a power ‘p’ to C, then ACE for A = p
 Power export starts until its AGC forces ACE
to become zero
 Area C introduces ‘-p’ into its ACE
 Power flows in to area C until its ACE becomes zero
 Areas B & C must be aware of the power exchange
as they are also interconnected

The minimum requirements of AGC on controlling the interchange of power and

frequency have been established by NERC – North American Electric Reliability Council, which
is comprised of representatives of the major operating power pools. This committee specifies the
following criteria as minimum performance expected by AGC.
A. Normal System Conditions
- ACE = 0 at least once in 10 min period
- Deviation of ACE from zero must be within allowable limits
B. Disturbances Conditions
- ACE must return to zero within 10 min
- Corrective action from AGC must be within a minimum disturbance
Daily Load Cycle:
The allowable limit, Ld of the average deviation on power systems (averaged over 10
minutes) is:
Ld = 0.025ΔL + 5.0 MW
ΔL = ΔP/ Δt MW/hr
The value of ΔL is determined annually and is taken from the daily load cycle.
A power system is said to be in a disturbance condition if the ACE signal exceeds 3Ld.
 Daily Load Cycle

Expression for tie-line flow and frequency deviation

Operation without Central Computers or AGC:
Power Systems are capable of functioning even without Central Computer and/or AGC
- Due to a result of Turbine Generator speed controls in the generating station and
natural load regulation
- Thus, generators within an area are forced to share load and cause interconnected
areas to share load

Tie-line
  The area B represents an operating area of inter
connected power system in which sudden load
or generation change occurs, Area A forms the
rest of the power system.
 Areas share a disturbance in proportion to their
generating capacity size and operating
characteristics.
 Let the Area A overall generation frequency be
represented by curve GG
 The shaft speed and consequently the electrical
line frequency changes with load reflected onto
the prime mover.
 The generation – frequency characteristics
curve has a negative slope or droop.

 The area connected load is defined by the curve

LL as shown. As there is increase in load the
rotating machinery in the area is forced to
increase the speed.

Basic Equations
GA = G0 +10β1 (fact – f0) MW --------- (1)
LA = L0 +10β2 (fact – f0) MW --------- (2)
GA = Total Generation,
G0 = Base generation
LA = Total Load
L0 = Base load
fact = System frequency
f0 = Base frequency
β1 = Cotangent of generation-frequency characteristic, MW/0.1 Hz < 0
β2 = Cotangent of load-frequency characteristic, MW/0.1 Hz > 0
 Isolated Operation in A – response to load change

 Increase in load in ‘A’ moves the load frequency curve to position L’L’.
 The new system frequency will now be defined by the intersection labeled as I1 at
49.9Hz.
 Then it is desired to return the system frequency to 50.0Hz i.e., point I2.
 Setting AGC in ‘A’- shifting of GG to G’G’ takes place to meet frequency demand of
50.0Hz – I2
 Resulting combined characteristic is C’C’ In terms of increments,
ΔA = GA - G0 + L0 - LA = 10β1 (fact – f0) - 10β2 (fact – f0)
= 10BA XA (fact – f0)
= 10BA XA Δf MW ------------- (4)
Where,
BA - Natural regulation characteristic of area expressed in % gen for 0.1Hz
XA – Generating Capacity of Area A, MW

Thus The load increase, ΔA (or generation decrease) in area A leads to a Frequency
deviation.

Frequency deviation = Δf =
ΔA Hz ------- (5)
10BA XA
 Define a real power tie-line flow, ΔTL as a power quantity out of area, the combined
effect on frequency for a load increase (or generation decrease) and positive tie flow on area.
Then, considering Tie line flow Frequency deviation

Δf =
ΔA + ΔTL Hz --------(6)
10BA XA

Where,
ΔA + ΔTL - Net Megawatt change
ΔTL = ΔGA - ΔLA

Effect of Tie Line Flow - Interconnected operation

Let two areas A and B are interconnected through a Tie Line. Thus both Generation and
Load frequency are equal to 50.0 Hz. There is no initial Tie Line Power Flow.

 Disturbance occurs at B causing frequency to drop to 49.9 Hz.

 Area generation does not match with effective load in A.
 Difference between I1 and I2 – difference between generation and load – net excess
power in the area – flows out of A towards B.
 Contributory effects in A are decrease in load power ΔL and increase in generation ΔG.
  Tie Line Flow from A to B = ΔTL = (ΔGA - ΔLA) MW ------- (7)
Where, ΔTL – net change in tie-line power flow which is a positive value
directed from A to B.
 If area A has AGC, tie line flows increases – ΔTL’ and ΔTL’’ representing increased
amounts of bias due to AGC.

Frequency change due to disturbance B for a tie line power flow from A to B is

Δf =
ΔB - ΔTL Hz ------- (8)
10BB XB
Let, ΔAB = ΔB be the magnitude of disturbance that occurs in area B and ΔA = 0.
Since the frequency is common for both systems,

Δf =
ΔTL = ΔAB - ΔTL Hz ------ (9)
10BA XA 10BB XB
Solving the equation (9) for tie-line flow ΔTL,
(10BA XA) ΔAB
ΔTL = MW ------ (10)
(10BA XA +10BB XB)
Equation (10) is the expression for Tie-line power.

Net power change in B is,

(10BBXB) ΔAB
ΔAB - ΔTL = MW ------- (11)
(10BAXA + 10BBXB)
From Equation (11) it is clear that interconnected power system having
area A and B both share disturbance as weighted by their generating capacity.
ΔAB = (10BAXA+ 10BBXB )Δf MW ------- (12)
Equation (12) is written as transfer function form as
Δf
Hz/MW ------ (13)
ΔAB (10BAXA+ 10BBXB)
The expression for Frequency Deviation is given by,
ΔAB
Δf Hz ------- (14)
(10BAXA+ 10BBXB )
Problem:
Two areas A and B are interconnected. Generating capacity of A is 36,000MW with
regulating characteristic of 1.5%/0.1Hz. B has 4000MW with 1%/0.1Hz. Find each area’s
share of +400MW disturbance (load increase) occurring in B and resulting tie line flow.
Sol:
Given Data: XA = 36,000 MW
XB = 4000 MW
ΔAB = 400 MW
BA = 1.5 % = 0.015 MW/0.1Hz
BB = 1 % = 0.01 MW/0.1Hz
Tie Line flow,
(10BA XA) ΔAB
Area A‘s share, ΔTL = MW
(10BA XA +10BB XB)
(10*0.015*36000)*400
ΔTL =
(10*0.015*36000+10*0.01*4000)

ΔTL =372.41 MW
(10BBXB) ΔAB
Area B‘s share, ΔAB - ΔTL = MW
(10BAXA +10BBXB)
(10*0.01*4000)*400
ΔAB - ΔTL =
(10*0.015*36000+10*0.01*4000)

ΔAB - ΔTL =27.59 MW

(or) ΔAB - ΔTL = 400 - 372.41 = 27.59MW

Frequency Deviation,
ΔAB
Δf (10BAXA+ 10BBXB)
Hz

400
Δf =
(10*0.015*36000+10*0.01*4000)

Δf = 0.0689 Hz
 Parallel operation of Generators:
Tie line flows and frequency droop described for interconnected power areas are
composite characteristics based on parallel operation of generators. Each area could maintain
its speed w = 2f, then a load common to both areas, by superposition have the terminal voltage,
Vload = V1sinw1t + V2sinw2t,
Where, 1&2 represents areas and ‘t’ time in secs.
Generator speed versus load characteristics is a function of the type of the governor
used on the prime mover- type 0 – for a speed droop system and type 1 – for constant speed
system.
Therefore,
Unit speed regulation = R = Δf(pu)/ΔP(pu)

If it is desired to increase the load on

the generator, the prime mover torque is
increased, which results in a shift of the
speed-droop curve as shown in fig. The real
power flow is given by,
P = V1V2 sin (θ1 - θ2) / X
Where, X = synchronous reactance

Parallel operation of two identical units

Load

Two generators paralleled have different governor-speed-droop characteristics.

Because they are in parallel, power exchange between them forces them to synchronize at a
common frequency. Since the two units are of equal capacity having equal regulation are
initially operating at 1.0 base speed as shown. If unit is operated at point A1 satisfies 25% of
the total load and unit 2 at point A2 supplies 75%. If the total load is increased to 150%, the
frequency decreases to f1. Since the droop curves are linear, unit 1 will increase its load to 50%
of rating and unit 2 to be overloaded.

Parallel operation of two units with different capacity and regulation:

 The case when two units of different frequency and regulation characteristics are
operated in parallel is as shown in fig. The regulation characteristics are
Δf
Δf (pu)
R1 = = 𝟓𝟎
ΔP1 ------------ (1)
ΔP1 (pu)
P1 rate
Δf
Δf (pu) 𝟓𝟎
R2 = ΔP2 ------------- (2)
ΔP2 (pu)
P2 rate

Since the frequency is common to both units, they will share according to the ratio,

ΔP1 R2 P1 rate
-------------- (3)
ΔP2 R1 P2 rate
Initial Loads - P1 and P2, change in load

ΔL = ΔP1 + ΔP2

Δf P1 rate Δf P2 rate
ΔL = R1
+ R2

Equivalent System Regulation = Δf / ΔL

𝟏
Rsys =
P1 rate +
P2 rate
R1 R2
Problem: Two machines operate in parallel to supply a load of 400 MW. The capacities of
the machines are 200 MW and 500 MW. Each has a droop characteristic of 4%. Their
governors are adjusted so that frequency is 100% on full load. Calculate the load supplied by
each unit and the frequency at this load. The system is a 50Hz system.
Sol:
Problem:
Two generators rated 200 MW and 400 MW are operating in parallel. The droop
characteristics of their governor are 4%, and 5%, respectively from no load to fill load. The
speed set points are such that the generators operate at 50Hz when sharing the full load of 600
MW in proportion to their ratings:
(i) If lead reduces to 400 MW, who is the load shared, at what, frequency will system
Operate.
(ii) If speed changer arc reset so that load of 400 MW is shared at 50 Hz in proportion to
their rating what is the no load frequency now.
Sol:
 Problem:
Two generators rated 200MW and 400MW are operating in parallel. The droop
characteristics of their governors are 4% and 5% respectively from no load to full load.
Assuming that the generators are operating at 50Hz at no load, how would a load of 600MW
be shared between them? What will be the system frequency at this load? Assume free governor
operation.
Sol:
Load shedding area lumped dynamic model

The model discussed so far is one macroscopic behavior because there is no effort made
to indicate instantaneous power flow within the system due to a tie line disturbance, magnitudes
of the internal line flows, the time history of generator phase angles and so on. The power
system macro model may be described by means of a block diagram as shown in the block
diagram.
SCADA – Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition:
One of key processes of SCADA is the ability to monitor an entire system in real time.
This is facilitated by data acquisitions including meter reading, checking statuses of sensors,
etc that are communicated at regular intervals depending on the system.
A well planned and implemented SCADA system not only helps utilities deliver power
reliably and safely to their customers but it also helps to lower the costs and achieve higher
customer satisfaction and retention.

SCADA – Why do we need it?

 If we did not have SCADA, we would have very inefficient use of human resources
and this would cost us (Rs,Rs,Rs)
 In today’s restructured environment SCADA is critical in handling the volume of data
needed in a timely fashion
 Service restoration would involve travel time and would be significantly higher
 It is essential to maintain reliability

SCADA - Architecture
 Basic elements are sensors which measure the desired quantities
 Current Transformers CTs – measure currents and Potential Transformers PTs-measure
voltages.
 Today there is a whole new breed of Intelligent electronic devices (IEDs)
 This data is fed to a remote terminal unit (RTU)
 The master computer or unit resides at the control center EMS

SCADA - Process
 Master unit scan RTUs for reports, if reports exist, RTU sends back the data and the
master computer places it in memory
 In some new substation architectures, there could be significant local processing of
data which could then be sent to the control center.
 The data is then displayed on CRTs and printed
SCADA - Logging
 The SCADA provides a complete log of the system
 The log could be provided for the entire system or part of the system
 Type of information provided – Time of event
– Circuit breaker status
– Current measurements, voltage measurements, calculated flows, energy, etc.
– Line and equipment ratings
SCADA as a System
There are many parts of a working SCADA system. A SCADA system usually includes
signal hardware (input and output), controllers, networks, user interface (HMI),
communications equipment and software. Altogether, the term SCADA refers to the entire
central system. The central system usually monitors data from various sensors that are either
in close proximity or off site (sometimes miles away).
For the most part, the brains of a SCADA system are performed by the Remote
Terminal Units (sometimes referred to as the RTU). The Remote Terminal Units consists of a
programmable logic converter. The RTU are usually set to specific requirements, however,
most RTU allow human intervention, for instance, in a factory setting, the RTU might control
the setting of a conveyer belt, and the speed can be changed or overridden at any time by human
intervention. In addition, any changes or errors are usually automatically logged for and/or
displayed. Most often, a SCADA system will monitor and make slight changes to function
optimally; SCADA systems are considered closed loop systems and run with relatively little
human intervention.
SCADA can be seen as a system with many data elements called points. Usually, each
point is a monitor or sensor. Usually, points can be either hard or soft. A hard data point can
be an actual monitor; a soft point can be seen as an application or software calculation. Data
elements from hard and soft points are usually always recorded and logged to create a time
stamp or history
User Interface – Human Machine Interface (HMI)
A SCADA system includes a user interface, usually called Human Machine Interface
(HMI). The HMI of a SCADA system is where data is processed and presented to be viewed
and monitored by a human operator. This interface usually includes controls where the
individual can interface with the SCADA system.
 HMI's are an easy way to standardize the facilitation of monitoring multiple RTU's or
PLC's (programmable logic controllers). Usually, RTU's or PLC's will run a pre-programmed
process, but monitoring each of them individually can be difficult, usually because they are
spread out over the system. Because RTU's and PLCs historically had no standardized method
to display or present data to an operator, the SCADA system communicates with PLC's
throughout the system network and processes information that is easily disseminated by the
HMI.
HMI's can also be linked to a database, which can use data gathered from PLC's or
RTU's to provide graphs on trends, logistic info, schematics for a specific sensor or Machine
or even make troubleshooting guides accessible. In the last decade, practically all SCADA
systems include an integrated HMI and PLC device making it extremely easy to run and
monitor a SCADA system.
Today’s SCADA systems, in response to changing business needs, have added new
functionalities and are aiding strategic advancements towards interactive, self-healing smart
grids of the future. A modern SCADA system is also a strategic investment which is a must-
have for utilities of all sizes facing the challenges of the competitive market and increased
levels of real time data exchange that comes with it (Independent Market Operator, Regional
Transmission Operator, Major C&I establishments etc). A well planned and implemented
SCADA system not only helps utilities deliver power reliably and safely to their customers but
it also helps to lower the costs and achieve higher customer satisfaction and retention. Modern
SCADA systems are already contributing and playing a key role at many utilities towards
achieving:
 New levels in electric grid reliability – increased revenue.
 Proactive problem detection and resolution – higher reliability.
 Meeting the mandated power quality requirements – increased customer satisfaction.
 Real time strategic decision making – cost reductions and increased revenue

Critical Functions of SCADA

Following functions are carried out every 2 seconds:
 Switchgear Position, Transformer taps, Capacitor banks
 Tie line flows and interchange schedules
 Generator loads, voltage etc.,
 Verification on links between computer and remote equipment
Modern SCADA systems are already contributing and playing a key role at many utilities
towards achieving:
 New levels in electric grid reliability – increased revenue.
 Proactive problem detection and resolution – higher reliability.
 Meeting the mandated power quality requirements – increased customer satisfaction.
 Real time strategic decision making – cost reductions and increased revenue.

Digital Computer Configuration

Major functions
- Data acquisition control
- Energy Management
- System Security
For best/secured operation 100% redundancy is used – Dual Digital Computers
(i) on-line computer – monitors and controls the system
(ii) Backup computer – load forecasting or hydro thermal allocations

The digital computers are usually employed in a fixed-cycle operating mode with priority
interrupts wherein the computer periodically performs a list of operation. The most critical
functions have the fastest scan cycle. Typically, the following categories are scanned every 2
seconds:
- All status points such as switchgear position (open or closed), substation loads and
voltages, transformer tap positions, and capacitor banks etc.,
- Tie line flows and interchange schedules
- Generator loads, voltage, operating limits and boiler capacity
- Telemetry verification to detect failures and errors in the bilateral communication links
between the digital computer and the remote equipment.
Q. What is SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) and how does it work?
(Or) What is a SCADA System, describe about the major components of SCADA
system.
SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) is a category of software
applications for controlling industrial processes, which is the gathering of data in real time from
remote locations in order to control equipment and conditions. One of the most commonly used
types of industrial control system, SCADA can be used to manage almost any type of industrial
process. SCADA systems include hardware and software components. The hardware gathers
and feeds data into field controller systems, which forward the data to other systems that
process and present it to a human-machine interface (HMI) in a timely manner. SCADA
systems also record and log all events for reporting process status and issues. SCADA
applications warn when conditions become hazardous by sounding alarms.
SCADA is a system of hardware and software elements that facilitate process control.
This central control system consists of communication equipment, network interfaces, input/
output devices and software. It allows organizations to carry out following functions:
 Manage industrial processes remotely or locally.
 Real-time data gathering, monitoring and processing.
 Direct interaction with devices like valves, motors, pumps, valves using Human
Machine Interface (HMI) software.
 Create a log file of events.
Basic Components of SCADA System
A basic SCADA system consists of following components:

1. Human Machine Interface

2. Supervisory System
3. Remote Terminal Units
4. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)
5. Communication Infrastructure
6. SCADA Programming
1. Human Machine Interface
It is an I/O device that allows a human operator to control the process data. This is achieved by
linking SCADA’s databases and software programs for providing management information
like detailed schematics, scheduled maintenance, data diagnostics and logistic information. The
operating personnel can also see the graphical representation of data.
2. Supervisory System
This system acts as a communication server between the HMI software in control room
workstations and its equipment like PLCs, RTUs, sensors etc. Smaller Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition systems have only a single PC that serves as a supervisory or master system.
Larger Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition systems have multiple servers, sites for
disaster recovery and distributed software applications. The servers are configured as dual-
redundant or hot-standby formation for continuously monitoring server failure.
3. Remote Terminal Units
This system contains physical objects that are interfaced with Remote Terminal Units (RTUs).
These electronic devices are controlled by microprocessors and are used for transmitting
recorded data to the supervisory systems. They also receive data from the master system in
order to control the connected objects. They are also called as Remote Telemetry Units.
4. Programmable Logic Controllers
PLCs find their use in the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition system through sensors.
They are attached to the sensors in order to convert the sensor output signal into digital data.
They are preferred over RTUs because of their configuration, flexibility, affordability and
versatility.
5. Communication Infrastructure
Generally, a combination of direct wired connection and radio is used in Supervisory Control
and Data Acquisition systems. However, SDH/ SONET can also be used for larger systems
like railways and power stations. Among the compact SCADA protocols, few recognized and
standardized protocols deliver information only when the RTUs are polled by the supervisory
station.
6. SCADA Programming
SCADA programming in HMI or master station is used for creating diagrams and maps that
provide vital information during process or event failure. Most of the commercial Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition systems use standardized interfaces in programming.
SCADA System Working
The SCADA system performs the following functions
 Data Acquisitions
 Data Communication
 Information/Data presentation
 Monitoring/Control
These functions are performed by sensors, RTUs, controllers, a communication network. The
sensors are used to collect the important information and RTUs are used to send this
information to the controller and display the status of the system. According to the status of the
system, the user can give the command to other system components. This operation is done by
the communication network.
Data Acquisitions
The real-time system consists of thousands of components and sensors. It is very important to
know the status of particular components and sensors. For example, some sensors measure the
water flow from the reservoir to the water tank and some sensors measure the value pressure
as the water is released from the reservoir.
Data Communication
The SCADA system uses a wired network to communicate between users and devices. Real-
time applications use a lot of sensors and components which should be controlled remotely.
The SCADA system uses internet communications. All information is transmitted through the
internet using specific protocols. Sensors and relays are not able to communicate with the
network protocols so RTUs used to communicate sensors and network interfaces.
Information/Data Presentation
The normal circuit networks have some indicators which can be visible to control but in the
real-time SCADA system, there are thousands of sensors and alarm which are impossible to be
handled simultaneously. The SCADA system uses the human-machine interface (HMI) to
provide all of the information gathered from the various sensors.
Monitoring/Control
The SCADA system uses different switches to operate each device and displays the status of
the control area. Any part of the process can be turned ON/OFF from the control station using
these switches. SCADA system is implemented to work automatically without human
intervention but in critical situations, it is handled by manpower.
Advantages
The advantages of the SCADA system include the following.
 The quality of service can be improved
 Reliability can be improved
 Maintenance cost is less
 The operation can be reduced
 Large system parameters can be monitored
 Manpower can be reduced
 Repair time can be reduced
 Fault detection & fault localization
 It stores a large amount of data
 As per the user requirement, it displays the data in various formats.
 Thousands of sensors can be interfaced with SCADA for controlling and monitoring
 Real data simulations can be obtained by operators
 Gives fast response
 It is flexible as well as scalable while adding extra resources.
 The SCADA system provides onboard mechanical and graphical information
 The SCADA system is easily expandable. We can add a set of control units and
sensors according to the requirement.
 The SCADA system is able to operate in critical situations.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of the SCADA system include the following.
 It is complex in terms of dependent modules & hardware units.
 It needs analysts, programmers & skilled operators to maintain
 High installation cost
 Unemployment rates can be increased
 This system supports hardware devices and restricted software’s
Applications
The applications of the SCADA system include the following.
 Generation and Distribution of Power
 Public Transport
 Water and Sewage System
 Manufacturing
 Industries & Buildings
 Communication Networks
 Oil & Gas Industries
 Power generation, transmission, and distribution
 Water distribution and reservoir system
 Public buildings like electrical heating and cooling system.
 Generators and turbines
 Traffic light control system