FACULTY OF BIOENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY

ACADEMIC SESSION 2024/2025

SEMESTER 4

EME4223 PERANTI SEMIKONDUKTOR

GROUP 1

REPORT LAB 2 P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

MEMBER NAME MATRIC NO.

1 UMA DHEVIGAI A/P SIVASUBRAMANIAM J21A0973

2 BHARATHYSRI A/P LETCHUMANAN J21A0785

3 JOANNES ANAK ANTHONY J21A1013

4 YAP ZUO BIN J21A0986

LECTURER DR. ARLINA BT ALI

Objective:
To study the Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Silicon P-N Junction Diode and to find cut-in voltage,
static and dynamic resistances.

Introduction:
The diode is the name of the first electronic device ever introduced. Despite being the most basic
semiconductor device, it is essential to electronic systems. It's a two-terminal electrical component
with low (preferably zero) resistance in one direction and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the
other that conducts current primarily in one direction. Electrons in a vacuum tube with two
electrodes, a heated cathode, and a plate, can only go in one direction from the cathode to the plate
when it is called a diode vacuum tube or thermionic diode. A crystalline piece of semiconductor
material with a p-n junction attached to two electrical terminals is called a semiconductor diode,
which is currently the most widely used form.
German physicist Ferdinand Braun discovered asymmetric electrical conductivity at the
contact between a crystalline mineral and a metal in 1874. While silicon still makes up the majority
of diodes today, other semiconducting semiconductors including germanium and gallium arsenide
are being utilized. Since "ode" is derived from an electrode and "Di" signifies two, the word diode
can be explained as follows. One terminal, or electrode, of a diode, is connected to the P-type,
while the other is connected to the N-type(Mu et al., 2024).
A diode's most common use is to permit current flow in one direction (referred to as the
forward direction) while obstructing it in the other (referred to as the reverse direction). The diode
can therefore be thought of as an electrical equivalent of a check valve. Rectification is the term
for this unidirectional behavior that transforms alternating current (ac) into direct current (dc).
Reversers and diodes come in various forms that can be utilized for things like removing
modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.
However, due to their nonlinear current-voltage properties, diodes can exhibit more
complex behavior than this straightforward on/off action. Semiconductor diodes are considered to
be forward-biased when they exhibit a specific threshold voltage, also known as a cut-in voltage,
in the forward direction. Only then can semiconductor diodes start to conduct electricity. A
forward-biased diode's voltage drop is a function of temperature and very slightly varies with
current; it can be used as a voltage reference or as a temperature sensor(Mahendiran Vellingiri et
al., 2023 and Widartha, Ra, Lee, & Kim, 2024). Additionally, when the reverse voltage across a
diode reaches a certain value known as the breakdown voltage, the diode's high resistance to
current flowing in the opposite direction abruptly lowers to a low resistance.
Diodes are typically used in a wide range of applications, including limiters, gates, clippers,
mixers, radar circuits (phase detectors, gain-control circuits, power detectors, parameter
amplifiers), radios (mixers, automatic gain control circuits, message detectors), televisions
(clamps, limiters, phase detectors, etc.), and computers (clamps, clippers, logic gates). The ability
of diodes to allow the flow of current in only one direction is commonly exploited in these
applications(Odiamenhi et al., 2024).

Equipment :

Apparatus Type Range Quantity

PN Junction Diode 1N4001 1

Resistance 1/2 watt 1k ohm, 5% tolerance 1

Ammeter MC (0-30)mA, (0-500)μA 1

Battery MC (0 – 1)V, (0 – 30)V 1

Breadboard and 2
connecting wires

LED (3 colours) 3
Procedure:
Forward Biased Condition:
1. Connect the PN Junction diode in forward bias. Anode is connected to the positive of the battery
and the cathode is connected to the negative of the battery.

2. For various values of forward voltage (Vf) note down the corresponding values of forward
current (If).

Reverse biased condition:

3. Connect the PN Junction diode in Reverse bias the anode is connected to the negative of the
battery and the cathode is connected to the positive of the battery.

4. For various values of (Vr) note down the corresponding values of reverse current ( Ir ).

5. From the data collected, plot the current versus voltage characteristic of the forward-biased
diode. Make sure VD is on the horizontal axis with ID on the vertical.

Circuit diagram:

Figure 1 :Setup of Forward biased

Figure 2: Setup of Reverse biased
Data Tables :
Table 1 (Forward biased)

E (volts) VD (V) ID (mA)

0 0 0

1.5 0.104 0.01

3 0.539 0.94

4.5 0.607 2.31

6 0.634 3.70

Table 2 (Reverse biased)

E (volts) VD (V) ID (mA)

0 0 0

1.5 -0.213 -0.20

3 -1.207 -1.06

4.5 -1.382 -2.44

6 -1.413 -3.80
Model Graph:

Figure 3: Model plot of dynamic I-V characteristics curve of P-N Junction Diodes.

Based on the figure 3 ,the voltage-current (V-I) characteristics of a diode illustrate its behavior
under different biasing conditions, highlighting the relationship between the voltage across the
diode and the current flowing through it. In forward bias, where the positive voltage is applied to
the anode and negative to the cathode, the diode only starts to conduct once the applied voltage
overcomes the built-in potential barrier. For silicon diodes, this threshold, or “cut-in” voltage, is
approximately 0.7V. Once this threshold is reached, the diode’s resistance decreases
significantly, allowing current to increase with only a slight rise in voltage. This behavior is
demonstrated in Table 1, where the current surges from 0.01 mA at 1.5V to 3.7 mA at 6V,
confirming that beyond a certain point, voltage has minimal influence on the current in forward
bias.

In reverse bias, where the positive voltage is applied to the cathode and the negative to the
anode, the diode resists current flow due to the expanded depletion region. The diode exhibits
extremely high resistance, maintaining a small leakage current until breakdown. This is
illustrated in Table 2, where at 6V of reverse bias, the diode's current remains low at -3.8 mA.
This behavior showcases the diode’s rectifying nature, allowing current flow in one direction
while blocking it in the reverse. Thus, the VI characteristics confirm the essential role of diodes
in directing current flow within circuits.

This behavior is crucial for understanding how diodes function in circuits, as it allows for
controlled current flow in one direction while blocking it in the reverse direction. The V-I graph
also demonstrates that in reverse bias, the current remains minimal until breakdown occurs,
indicating the diode's effectiveness in preventing reverse current flow under normal operating
conditions(Mahendiran Vellingiri et al., 2023).

Questions (RESULT and DISCUSSION)

1. Is 0.7 volts a reasonable approximation for a forward bias potential?
Is an open circuit a reasonable approximation for a reverse-biased diode? Support your arguments
with experimental data.

A forward bias potential of around 0.7V is a reasonable approximation for silicon diodes since this
is close to the threshold needed to overcome the internal electric field and allow conduction. The
experimental data from Table 1 supports this, the diode shows negligible current until
approximately 0.5V, at which point the current starts to rise, approaching significant conduction
by 0.7V. This voltage acts as a standard for silicon diodes, although it can vary slightly based on
material and temperature(Huang, Luo, & Zeng, 2024).

In reverse bias, an open circuit approximation is generally valid. Table 2 shows that when the
diode is reverse-biased, the current remains close to zero, with values such as -0.20 mA at -1.5V.
Even at 6V, the reverse current is minimal (-3.8 mA), indicating that the diode effectively resists
reverse current flow and approximates an open circuit. Therefore, treating the reverse-biased diode
as an open circuit is typically accurate for most circuit analyses, as it models the diode's high
resistance in blocking current effectively(Alshaikh, Peng, Zierold, Blick, & Heyn, 2024).

2. The “average” resistance of a forward-biased diode can be computed by simply dividing

the diode's voltage by its current. Using Table 1, determine the smallest average diode
resistance (show work).
To calculate the average resistance of the forward-biased diode from Table 1, using the formula:

𝑉𝐷
Ravg =
𝐼𝐷

Where:

● VD is the diode voltage.

● ID is the diode current.

𝑉𝐷
Ravg =
𝐼𝐷
0.104𝑉
= ≈10.40kΩ =10,400Ω
0.01𝑚𝐴
𝑉𝐷
Ravg =
𝐼𝐷
0.539𝑉
= ≈ 0.5734kΩ =573.4Ω
0.94𝑚𝐴
𝑉𝐷
Ravg =
𝐼𝐷
0.607𝑉
= ≈ 0.2627kΩ =262.7Ω
2.31𝑚𝐴
𝑉𝐷
Ravg =
𝐼𝐷
0.634𝑉
= ≈ 0.17135kΩ =171.35Ω
3.70𝑚𝐴
 The average resistance of a diode in forward bias can be determined by dividing the
diode's voltage by its corresponding current. Since resistance generally decreases as
forward bias voltage increases, the smallest resistance is expected at the highest applied
voltage. According to the calculation above , it proven that in Table 1, this smallest
resistance occurs at 6V of applied forward bias, with a diode voltage (VD) of 0.634V and
current (ID) of 3.7 mA:

𝑉𝐷
Ravg =
𝐼𝐷
0.634𝑉
= ≈ 0.17135kΩ =171.35Ω
3.70𝑚𝐴

This low average resistance at higher current levels demonstrates the diode’s effective
conductivity in forward bias, highlighting its suitability in applications requiring rapid
switching and high efficiency, as it minimizes energy loss . This property is valuable in
circuits where diodes are used to guide substantial currents, as it keeps the internal
resistance and associated energy dissipation low under normal operating conditions.

3. The instantaneous resistance (also known as AC resistance) of a diode may be

approximated by taking the differences between adjacent current-voltage readings. That is,
rdiode = ΔVdiode/ΔIdiode. What are the smallest and largest resistances using Table 1 (show
work)? Based on this, what would a plot of instantaneous diode resistance versus diode
current look like?

To calculate the instantaneous (or differential) resistance r diode of the diode, we can use the
formula:
𝛥𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒
r diode=
𝛥𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒

Where:

● ΔVdiode is the change in diode voltage between two adjacent points.

● ΔIdiode is the change in diode current between two adjacent points.

Using data from Table 1, we calculated:

 ● Between E = 0V and E = 1.5V:

0.104𝑉−0𝑉 0.3
r diode= = ≈10.4kΩ =10,400Ω
0.01𝑚𝐴−0𝑚𝐴 2.1

● Between E = 1.5V and E = 3V:

0.539𝑉−0.104𝑉 0.435
r diode= = ≈0.4677kΩ =467.7Ω
0.94𝑚𝐴−0.01𝑚𝐴 0.93

● Between E = 3V and E = 4.5V:

0.607𝑉−0.539𝑉 0.068
r diode= = ≈0.0496kΩ =49.6Ω
2.31𝑚𝐴−0.94𝑚𝐴 1.37

● Between E = 4.5V and E = 6V:

0.634𝑉−0.607𝑉 0.027𝑉
r diode = = ≈0.0194kΩ = 19.4Ω
3.70𝑚𝐴−2.31𝑚𝐴 1.39𝑚𝐴

According to the calculation above it proven that the:

Smallest Instantaneous Resistance occur:

● Between E = 4.5V and E = 6V:

0.634𝑉−0.607𝑉 0.027𝑉
r smallest diode= = ≈0.0194kΩ= 19.4Ω
3.70𝑚𝐴−2.31𝑚𝐴 1.39𝑚𝐴

Largest Instantaneous Resistance occur:

● Between E = 0V and E = 1.5V:

0.104𝑉−0𝑉 0.3
r largest diode= = ≈10.4kΩ=10,400Ω
0.01𝑚𝐴−0𝑚𝐴 2.1
If we plot the instantaneous resistance against diode current, we would observe a declining trend,
reflecting that resistance decreases as current increases. This pattern aligns with the diode’s
exponential current-voltage relationship. Once the forward threshold voltage is exceeded,
resistance decreases significantly, facilitating efficient current conduction. This trait is crucial for
circuits requiring precise, real-time responses, as the diode's resistance and efficiency improve
with increased forward current. This characteristic allows for more stable operation and better
performance in high-speed and high-frequency applications. It underscores the importance of
understanding diode behavior for designing effective electronic circuits that rely on rapid and
efficient current flow (Mahendiran Vellingiri et al., 2023).

4. If the circuit is constructed with LEDs in place of switching diodes, would there be any
changes to the values measured in Table 3? Why/why not?

If standard diodes in the circuit were replaced with light-emitting diodes (LEDs), the measured
voltage and current values would change significantly due to LEDs’ distinct operating properties.
LEDs generally have a higher forward voltage drop, typically between 1.8V and 3.3V depending
on their color and material composition, which means they require a higher voltage to begin
conducting. This increased forward voltage threshold means that under the same applied
conditions, the current through LEDs would likely be lower than with standard diodes, resulting
in different voltage and current readings across each LED in Table 3. Additionally, LEDs emit
light as they conduct, converting part of the electrical energy into light rather than solely into heat,
which may affect the power dissipation and efficiency calculations in the circuit (Mahendiran
Vellingiri et al., 2023 and Widartha, Ra, Lee, & Kim, 2024).

This difference in behavior makes LEDs less efficient as standard diodes for switching purposes,
as their energy usage includes photon production. Consequently, replacing diodes with LEDs
would not only alter current and voltage characteristics but also introduce new considerations for
power management, efficiency, and heat dissipation within the circuit(Xu et al., 2024).

5. Everyone writes the conclusion for this topic. Write your name and matrix number with
your conclusions.
UMA DHEVIGAI A/P SIVASUBRAMANIAM J21A0973
Conclusion :
The hypothesis is accepted. This experiment provided an in-depth exploration of a diode’s VI
characteristics and operational behavior under forward and reverse bias conditions. In forward
bias, we observed that the diode initially resists current until the applied voltage reaches a
threshold, typically around 0.7V for silicon diodes. Beyond this threshold, the diode’s internal
resistance drops, and current increases exponentially, demonstrating efficient current conduction
essential for applications such as rectifiers and voltage regulation. In reverse bias, the diode
exhibited high resistance, preventing current flow and validating the open circuit approximation
for reverse-biased conditions. This characteristic underscores the diode’s role in blocking reverse
current, which is critical in circuits that require unidirectional current control.

Calculations of both average and instantaneous resistance revealed the diode’s non-linear response
to voltage, with resistance decreasing as forward current increased. This behavior supports the
diode’s suitability for applications where variable resistance under different biases is
advantageous. Replacing standard diodes with LEDs would alter circuit behavior due to LEDs'
higher forward voltage and light emission properties, showcasing the practical differences between
diode types. Overall, this lab underscored the diode’s role as an indispensable component in
controlling and rectifying current within circuits, highlighting its foundational importance in
electronic and signal-processing applications.

JOANNES ANAK ANTHONY J21A1013

Conclusion :
In conclusion, P-N junction diode characteristics by studying the volt-ampere were to
reveals its electrical behaviour which allow current to flow in one direction while blocking it in
the opposite direction. Forward bias condition was connect positive terminal of the battery to the
P side and negative terminal of the battery to the N side. I-V graphs illustrates that diode
exponential increase in current with voltage in the forward direction where the cut-in happened
typically around 0.7 V, and flat line at low currents in the reverse direction until breakdown occurs.

Static resistance indicates the overall resistance at a specific operating point and mostly
low. For dynamic resistance were indicates by the slope of the I-V curve in theforward region
which reflects how the diode resistance changes with high current, thats are crucial for high-
frequency applications.

YAP ZUO BIN J21A0986

Conclusion：
This lab provided valuable insights into the function of P-N junction diodes under both
forward and reverse bias conditions. In forward bias, we observed that the diode begins conducting
at approximately 0.7V, allowing current to flow in one direction and confirming its threshold
voltage for silicon. In reverse bias, the diode blocked current effectively, demonstrating its role as
a rectifier and ensuring minimal leakage current, which is crucial for applications where
unidirectional current flow is required.

The resistance calculations showed that the diode's resistance decreases as current
increases in forward bias, a characteristic that improves efficiency and reduces energy loss. This
feature is especially important in designing circuits where diodes need to handle varying currents
without compromising performance. Additionally, we noted that if LEDs were used in place of
standard diodes, the higher forward voltage of LEDs would change the current and voltage values,
emphasizing the importance of choosing the correct type of diode for specific circuit needs.

In summary, this lab reinforced essential concepts about diode operation and control of
current flow, highlighting the importance of P-N junction diodes as fundamental components in
electronic circuits.

BHARATHYSRI LETCHUMANAN J21A0785

Active components that are crucial to many electrical and electronic circuits are semiconductor
diodes. The net flow of charge in one direction is zero when there is no bias voltage (unbiased
voltage) across the diode. The P-N junction is said to be reverse-biased when an external voltage
of V volts is placed across it in such a way that the positive terminal is connected to the n-type
material and the negative terminal is connected to the p-type.
 This causes the following to occur: Since most carriers are drawn away from the junction
by the electric field produced by the external voltage, the barrier potential is increased and the
depletion region widens. The P-N junction is said to be forward-biased when an external potential
of V volts is applied across it, causing the positive terminal to be linked to the p-type material and
the negative terminal to be connected to the n-type. The following occurs as a result: As long as
the external voltage is greater than the voltage barrier of the depletion area, it produces an electric
field that opposes the barrier potential and reduces the size of the depletion region. The diode, the
most basic semiconductor component, has an incredible array of uses made possible by a variety
of useful and distinctive diode varieties that are essential to contemporary electronics.
Photodiodes are among the uses for diodes. Consumer electronics equipment including
smoke alarms, television remote control receivers, and compact disc players all use photodiodes.
The second is the light emitting diode (LED), which is utilised in a variety of places, including
houses, businesses, automobiles, motorbikes, mobile phones, projector light sources, and traffic
light signals.

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