UNIT-1

WHAT IS COMPUTER?
 The word “computer” is comes from the word “TO
COMPUTE” means to calculate.
 A computer is normally considered to be a calculation device
which can perform the arithmetic operations very speedily.
 A computer may be defined as a device which operates upon the
data.
 Data can be in the form of numbers, letters, symbols, size etc.
And it comes in various shapes & sizes depending upon the
type of computer application.
 A computer can store, process & retrieve data as and when we
desired.
 The fact that computer process data is so fundamental that
many people have started calling as “Data Processor”.
 A computer first it gets the Data, does Process on it and
then produces Information.
Types of computer
Supercomputer
When we talk about speed, then the first name that comes to mind when
thinking of computers is supercomputers. They are the biggest and fastest
computers (in terms of speed of processing data). Supercomputers are designed
such that they can process a huge amount of data, like processing trillions of
instructions or data just in a second.
Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are designed in such a way that they can support
hundreds or thousands of users at the same time. It also supports multiple
programs simultaneously. So, they can execute different processes
simultaneously. All these features make the mainframe computer ideal for big
organizations like banking, telecom sectors, etc., which process a high volume
of data in general.
Characteristics of Mainframe Computers
 It is also an expensive or costly computer.
 It has high storage capacity and great performance.
  It can process a huge amount of data (like data involved in the banking
sector) very quickly.
 It runs smoothly for a long time and has a long life.
Minicomputer
Minicomputer is a medium size multiprocessing computer. In this type of
computer, there are two or more processors, and it supports 4 to 200 users at
one time. Minicomputer is similar to Microcontroller. Minicomputers are used
in places like institutes or departments for different work like billing,
accounting, inventory management, etc.
Personal Computer (PC)
Personal Computers is also known as a microcomputer. It is basically a general-
purpose computer designed for individual use. It consists of a microprocessor as
a central processing unit(CPU), memory, input unit, and output unit. This kind
of computer is suitable for personal work such as making an assignment,
watching a movie, or at the office for office work, etc. For example, Laptops
and desktop computers.
EXPLAIN THE GENERATION OF THE COMPUTERS.
In Computer language, “Generation” is a set of Technology. It
provides a framework for the growth of the computer technology. There are
totally Five Computer Generations till today. Discussed as following.
First Generation:
 Duration: 1942-1955
 Technology: vacuum tube
o Used as a calculating device.
o Performed calculations in milliseconds.
o To bulky in size & complex design.
o Required large room to place it.
o Generates too much heat & burnt.
o Required continuously hardware maintenance.
o Generates much heat so must air-conditioner rooms are required.
o Commercial production is difficult & costly.
o Difficult to configure.
o Limited commercial use.
o ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC are example of 1st generation
computer.

Second Generation:
  Duration: 1955-1964
 Technology: transistor
o 10 times Smaller in size than 1st generation system.
o Less heat than 1st generation computers.
o Consumed less power than 1st generation system.
o Computers were done calculations in microseconds.
o Air-conditioner is also required.
Easy to configure than 1st generation computers
o More reliable in information.
o Wider commercial use.
o Large & fast primary/secondary storage than 1st generation
computers.

Third Generation:
 Duration: 1965-1975
 Technology: IC chip
o Smaller in size than 1st & 2nd generation computers.
o Perform more fast calculations than 2nd generation systems.
o Large & fast primary/secondary storage than 2nd generation
computers.
o Air –conditioner is required.
o Widely used for commercial applications.
o General purpose computers.
o High level languages like COBOL & FORTAN are allowed to
write programs.
o Generate less heat & consumed less power than 2nd generation
computer.

Fourth Generation:
 Duration: 1975-1989
 Technology: Microprocessor chip
o Based on LSI & VLSI microprocessor chip.
o Smaller in size.
o Much faster than previous generations.
o Minimum hardware maintenance is required.
o Very reliable as computer to previous generation computers.
o Totally general purpose computer.
o Easy to configure.
 o Possible to use network concept to connect the computer together.
o NO requirement of air-conditioners.
o Cheapest in price.

Fifth Generation:
 Duration: 1989 to Present
 Technology: ULSI microprocessor chip
o Much smaller & handy.
o Based on the ULSI chip which contains 100 million electronic
components.
o The speed of the operations is increased.
o Consumed less power.
o Air-conditioner is not required.
o More user friendly interface with multi-media features.
o High level languages are allowed to write programs.
o Larger & faster primary/secondary storage than previous
generations.
EXPLAIN THE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER OR
EXPLAIN THE SIMPLE MODEL COMPUTER.
A simple computer system comprises the basic components like Input
Devices, CPU
(Central Processing Unit) and Output Devices as under:

 Input Devices:
o The devices which are used to entered data in the
computer systems are known as input devices.
 o Keyboard, mouse, scanner, mike, light pen etc are example of
input devices. FUNCTION OF INPUT DEVICES
o Accept the data from the outside worlds.
o Convert that data into computer coded information.
o Supply this data to CPU for further processing.
 Output Devices:
o The devices which display the result generated by the computer
are known as output devices.
o Monitor, printer, plotter, speaker etc are the example of output
devices.

FUNCTIONS OF OUTPUT DEVICES

o Accept the result form the CPU.
o Convert that result into human readable form.
o Display the result on the output device.

 Memory Unit:
o The data & instruction have to store inside the computer
before the actual processing start.
o Same way the result of the computer must be stored before
passed to the output devices. This tasks performed by
memory unit.

FUNCTIONS OF MEMORY UNIT

o Store data & instruction received from input devices.
o Store the intermediate results generated by CPU.
o Store the final result generated by CPU.

 Arithmetical & Logical Unit:

o The ALU is the place where actual data & instruction are
processed.
o All the calculations are performed & all comparisons are made in
ALU.
o Performs all arithmetical & logical operations.
o An arithmetic operation contains basic operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.
o Logical operations contains comparison such as less than,
greater than, less than equal to, greater than equal to, equal to,
not equal to.

 Control Unit:
 o It controls the movement of data and program instructions
into and out of the CPU, and to control the operations of the
ALU.
o In sort, its main function is to manage all the activities
within the computer system.
o Controls the internal parts as well as the external parts
related with the computer.
 CPU:
o The Unit where all the processing is done is called as Central
Processing Unit.
o It contains many other units under it.
o Main of them is: - Control Unit and ALU (Arithmetic & Logic
Unit).
What is an Input Device?
An input device is a computer device or hardware that allows the user to
provide data, input, and instructions to the computer system. Data is provided to
the computer system in a raw format which is then converted into a computer-
understandable language by the input devices. The central processing unit then
processes the data to produce output. In other words, an input device is a kind of
peripheral device that helps the users communicate with the computer system.
Input Devices of Computer are-
Keyboard
Mouse
Joystick
Scanner
Light Pen
Microphone
Digital Camera
Track Ball
Bar Code Reader
Keyboard
Keyboards are one of the primary input devices which helps in entering data
and commands in a computer or any electronic device by pressing keys. A
keyboard has a different set of keys for letters, numbers, functions, and
characters. A keyboard is connected to a computer system through a USB cable
(for a wired keyboard) or through Bluetooth (for a wireless keyboard). Most of
the keyboards are in two sizes, 84 keys or 101/102 keys but nowadays many
brands are making keyboards with 104 or 108 keys for Windows.
The mouse is a commonly used input device that helps the user to interact with
the computer system through a process called “point and click”. This hand-held
input device is used to move the cursor or pointer across the screen. It works on
a flat surface and has a left and right button with a wheel in between to perform
the tasks. The left button helps to select items whereas the right button helps to
display the menu.
A Joystick is also a pointing device like a mouse which is widely used to play
games on a computer. Joysticks are made up of a stick with a spherical base
wherein the base is fitted in a socket which allows free movement of the stick.
The cursor or pointer is controlled on the screen through the movement of the
stick.

A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. It is very sensitive
and has a small tube containing a photocell and an optical system. The tip of the
light pen has a special detector that lets users point at or select things on the
computer screen.
A scanner is an important input device that helps us to convert a hard copy
document into a digital file (.jpeg, .png, .pdf, etc). The technology behind
Scanner is called Optical technology which basically reads characters or
pictures from a paper and transfers them to the computer drive for further
processing. A scanned image can further be edited, printed, emailed, etc.

What is a Computer Bus?

A bus is a set of physical connections (cables, circuits, etc.) that can be shared
by multiple hardware components to communicate with one another. Memory
and input/ output devices are connected to the Central Processing Unit through a
group of lines called a bus. These lines are designed to transfer data between
different components.
Types of Computer Bus
1. Address Bus
2. Data Bus
 3. Control Bus
1. Address Bus
 A collection of wires used to identify particular location in main
memory is called Address Bus. Or in other words, the information used to
describe the memory locations travels along the address bus.
 The address bus transports memory addresses which the processor wants
to access in order to read or write data..
 The address bus is unidirectional.
 The size of address bus determines how many unique memory locations
can be addressed.
 Example:
o A system with 4-bit address bus can address 24 = 16 Bytes of
memory.
o A system with 16-bit address bus can address 216 = 64 KB of
memory
o A system with 20-bit address bus can address 220 = 1 MB of
memory.
2. Data Bus
 A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a
computer to another is called Data Bus.
 Data Bus can be thought of as a highway on which data travels within a
computer.
 The main objective of data bus is transfer of the data between
microprocessor to input/ output devices or memory.
 The data bus transfers instructions coming from or going to the processor.
 The data bus is bidirectional because the data can flow in either direction
from CPU to memory(or input/output device) or from memory to the
CPU.
 The size (width) of bus determines how much data can be transmitted at
one time.
 Example:
 o A 16-bit bus can transmit 16 bits of data at a time.
o 32-bit bus can transmit 32 bits at a time.
Control Bus
 The connections that carry control information between the CPU and
other devices within the computer is called Control Bus.
 The main objective of control bus is all signals controller carried from
processor to other hardware device.
 The control bus transports orders and synchonisation signal coming from
the control unit and travelling to all other hardware components
 The Control bus is bidirectional because the data can flow in either
direction from CPU to memory (or input/output device) or from memory
to the CPU.
 it also transmits response signals from the hardware.
 Example:
o This bus is used to indicate whether the CPU is reading from
memory or writing to memory.
What is Output Device?
An output device is a computer hardware device that retrieves and presents the
result of the inserted input data from the computer system and further translates
that data into human-understandable language. The output or result is then
presented to us in the form of text, visuals, audio or a hard copy (printed on
paper).

The output devices can be mainly classified into four categories such as visual,
data, print and sound. Based on the type of output and requirements, different
output devices can be attached to the computer systems to retrieve the output.
Output Devices are-
Monitor
Printer
Speakers
Headphones
Projector
GPS
Plotter
Monitor is The most general example of an output device is a monitor. It is also
known as a Visual Display Unit (VDU) and the major function of a monitor is to
display the processed data like images, videos, text, audio, etc. A monitor
arranges the microscopic dots known as pixels in a rectangular pattern to make
images. The number of pixels present determines the sharpness of an image.
Printers are another common example of Output devices. Printers primarily
operate by producing a copy, typically a hard copy or Xerox copy, of the
information transmitted by the computer. The printer receives electronic data
from the computers and produces a hard copy of the processed data. Printers are
divided into two categories which are Impact Printer and Non-Impact Printer.
1) Impact Printer: In impact printers firstly, the characters are printed on the
ribbon which is then smashed on the paper.
2) Non-Impact Printers: Non-impact printers do not use any hammer or print
head to strike the ink ribbon.
Speakers are the output devices that are connected to computers to allow sound
to be output. For the working of speakers, sound cards send signals to the
speakers which are converted into audio. Speakers are available in a variety of
shapes and sizes ranging from simple two-speaker output devices to surround-
sound multi-channel sets.
Headphones are the output devices that help us listen to the audio coming out of
a computer. With the help of headphones, we can listen to the audio privately
and without disturbing anyone around. These come in various sizes and brands
and can be connected with computer systems both wired or wirelessly.
What is a Storage Device? Definition, Types, Examples
The storage unit is a part of the computer system which is employed to store the
information and instructions to be processed. A storage device is an integral part
of the computer hardware which stores information/data to process the result of
any computational work. Without a storage device, a computer would not be
able to run or even boot up. Or in other words, we can say that a storage device
is hardware that is used for storing, porting, or extracting data files. It can also
store information/data both temporarily and permanently.
Types of Computer Memory
 1. Primary Memory
2. Secondary Memory
3. Tertiary Memory
1. Primary Memory: It is also known as internal memory and main memory.
This is a section of the CPU that holds program instructions, input data, and
intermediate results. It is generally smaller in size. RAM (Random Access
Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) are examples of primary storage.
2. Secondary Memory: Secondary storage is a memory that is stored external
to the computer. It is mainly used for the permanent and long-term storage of
programs and data. Hard Disks, CDs, DVDs, Pen/Flash drives, SSD, etc, are
examples of secondary storage.
3. Tertiary Memory: Tertiary Memory is a type of Memory that is rarely used
in personal computers and due to this, tertiary memory is not considered to be
an important one. Tertiary memory works automatically without human
intervention.
Types of Computer Storage Devices
Now we will discuss different types of storage devices available in the market.
These storage devices have their own specification and use. Some of the
commonly used storage devices are:
1. Primary Storage Devices
2. Magnetic Storage Devices
3. Flash memory Devices
4. Optical Storage Devices
5. Cloud and Virtual Storage
Primary Storage Devices
 RAM: It stands for Random Access Memory. It is used to store
information that is used immediately or we can say that it is a temporary
memory. Computers bring the software installed on a hard disk to RAM
to process it and to be used by the user.
 ROM: It stands for Read-Only Memory. The data written or stored in
these devices are non-volatile, i.e, once the data is stored in the memory
cannot be modified or deleted. The memory from which will only read
 but cannot write it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information
is stored permanently during manufacture only once.
Magnetic Storage Devices
 Floppy Disk: Floppy Disk is also known as a floppy diskette. It is
generally used on a personal computer to store data externally. A Floppy
disk is made up of a plastic cartridge and secured with a protective case.
Nowadays floppy disk is replaced by new and effective storage devices
like USB, etc.
 Hard Disk: Hard Disk is a storage device (HDD) that stores and retrieves
data using magnetic storage. It is a non-volatile storage device that can be
modified or deleted n number of times without any problem.

UNIT-2
Number System and Base Conversions
Electronic and Digital systems may use a variety of different number systems,
(e.g. Decimal, Hexadecimal, Octal, Binary), or even Duodecimal or less well
known but better named Uncial. All the other bases other than Decimal result
from computer usage. Uncial (named from Latin for 1/12 “uncia” the base
twelve analogue of Decimal from the Latin word for 1/10 “decima”).
What is Number System ?
A number system is a method to represent numbers mathematically. It can
use arithmetic operations to represent every number uniquely. To represent a
number, it requires a base or radix.
Types of Number System
There are four common types of number systems based on the radix or base of
the number :
1. Decimal number system or Base 10 number system
 2. Binary number system or Base 2 number system
3. Octal number system or Base 8 number system
4. Hexadecimal number system or Base 16 number system
Decimal to Binary Number System
To convert from decimal to binary, start dividing decimal
number by 2, and whatever the reminder getting, writing down
from bottom to top, and that will be the binary number
representation of the decimal number. And the number
contains fractional part, then multiply 2 in the fractional part.
Binary to Decimal Number System
To convert from binary to decimal, start multiplying the exponent of 2 with each
digit of the number in decreasing order. If the number contains fractional part
then will divide it by the exponent of 2.
Decimal to Octal Number System
To convert from decimal to octal, start dividing decimal number by 8, and
whatever the reminder getting, writing down from bottom to top, and that will
be the octal number representation of the decimal number. And the number
contains fractional part, then multiply 8 in the fractional part.
Octal to Decimal Number System
To convert from octal to decimal, start multiplying the exponent of 8 with each
digit of the number in decreasing order. If the number contains fractional part
then will divide it by the exponent of 8.
Hexadecimal to Binary Number System
To convert from Hexadecimal to Binary, write the 4-bit binary equivalent of
hexadecimal.
Binary to Hexadecimal Number System
To convert from Binary to Hexadecimal, start grouping the bits in groups of 4
from the right-end and write the equivalent hexadecimal for the 4-bit binary.
Add extra 0’s on the left to adjust the groups.
Binary arithmetic:
Binary arithmetic is one of the fundamental concepts in the field of digital
electronics and computer engineering. It is basically the mathematics of binary
numbers allow to perform various arithmetic operations on binary numbers. We
know that the binary number system has two digits, i.e., 0 and 1 which are used
to represent the ON or OFF states of the digital systems. Hence, binary
arithmetic forms the foundation of the digital computing.
Binary Addition
In binary arithmetic, the process of adding two binary numbers is called binary
addition. Where, the binary numbers consist of only 0 and 1. In the binary
addition, a carry is generated when the sum is greater than 1.
Rules of Binary Addition
The addition of two binary numbers is performed according to these rules of
binary arithmetic −
0+0=00+0=0
0+1=10+1=1
1+0=11+0=1
1+1=10(Sum=0&Carry=1)1+1=10(Sum=0&Carry=1)
Let us consider some examples to understand the binary addition.
Binary Subtraction
In binary arithmetic, binary subtraction is a mathematical operation used to find
the difference between two binary numbers.
In binary subtraction, each bit of the binary numbers is subtracted, starting from
the rightmost bit.
Also, a borrow bit can be taken from higher bits if require.
Rules of Binary Subtraction
The binary subtraction is performed as per the following rules of binary
arithmetic −
0–0=00–0=0
1–0=11–0=1
0–1=1(borrow1fromthenexthigherbit)0–1=1(borrow1fromthenexthigherbit)
1–1=0
Binary Multiplication
In binary arithmetic, binary multiplication is the process of multiplying two
binary numbers and obtain their product.
In binary multiplication, we multiply each bit of one binary number by each bit
of another binary number and then add the partial products to obtain the final
product.
Rules of Binary Multiplication
The multiplication of two binary numbers is performed as per the following
rules of binary arithmetic −
0×0=00×0=0
0×1=00×1=0
1×0=01×0=0
1×1=11×1=1
It is clear that the binary multiplication is similar to the decimal multiplication.
Binary Division
Binary division is one of the basic arithmetic operations used to find the
quotient and remainder when dividing one binary number by another.
Rules of Binary Division
The following rules of binary arithmetic are utilized while diving one binary
number by another −
0÷0=Undefined0÷0=Undefined
0÷1=0withRemainder=00÷1=0withRemainder=0
1÷0=Undefined1÷0=Undefined
1÷1=1withRemainder=0.

UNIT-3
What is a Logic Gate?
A logic gate is an electronic circuit designed by using electronic components
like diodes, transistors, resistors, and more. As the name implies, a logic gate is
designed to perform logical operations in digital systems like computers,
communication systems, etc.
Types of Logic Gates
A logic gate is a digital gate that allows data to be manipulated. Logic gates, use
logic to determine whether or not to pass a signal. Logic gates, on the other
hand, govern the flow of information based on a set of rules.
AND Gate
The AND gate is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ i/ps one o/p, which performs
logical conjunction based on the combinations of its inputs. The output of this
gate is true only when all the inputs are true. When one or more inputs of the
AND gate’s i/ps are false, then only the output of the AND gate is false. The
symbol and truth table of an AND gate with two inputs is shown below.

AND Gate and

its Truth Table
OR Gate
The OR gate is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ i/ps and one o/p, that performs
logical conjunction based on the combinations of its inputs. The output of the
OR gate is true only when one or more inputs are true. If all the i/ps of the gate
are false, then only the output of the OR gate is false. The symbol and truth
table of an OR gate with two inputs is shown below.

OR Gate and its

Truth Table
NOT Gate
The NOT gate is a digital logic gate with one input and one output that operates
an inverter operation of the input. The output of the NOT gate is the reverse of
the input. When the input of the NOT gate is true then the output will be false
and vice versa. The symbol and truth table of a NOT gate with one input is
shown below. By using this gate, we can implement NOR and NAND gates
 NOT Gate and Its
Truth Table
NAND Gate
The NAND gate is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ i/ps and one o/p, that performs
the operation of the AND gate followed by the operation of the NOT
gate.NAND gate is designed by combining the AND and NOT gates. If the
input of the NAND gate high, then the output of the gate will be low.The
symbol and truth table of the NAND gate with two inputs is shown below.

NAND Gate and

its Truth Table
NOR Gate
The NOR gate is a digital logic gate with n inputs and one output, that performs
the operation of the OR gate followed by the NOT gate. NOR gate is designed
by combining the OR and NOT gate. When any one of the i/ps of the NOR gate
is true, then the output of the NOR gate will be false. The symbol and truth table
of the NOR gate with the truth table is shown below.

NOR Gate and

Its Truth Table
Exclusive-OR Gate
The Exclusive-OR gate is a digital logic gate with two inputs and one output.
The short form of this gate is Ex-OR. It performs based on the operation of the
OR gate. . If any one of the inputs of this gate is high, then the output of the EX-
OR gate will be high. The symbol and truth table of the EX-OR are shown
below.

EX-OR gate and

Its Truth Table
Exclusive-NOR Gate
The Exclusive-NOR gate is a digital logic gate with two inputs and one output.
The short form of this gate is Ex-NOR. It performs based on the operation of the
NOR gate. When both the inputs of this gate are high, then the output of the
EX-NOR gate will be high. But, if any one of the inputs is high (but not both),
then the output will be low. The symbol and truth table of the EX-NOR are
shown below.

What is an Adder?
An adder is a digital logic circuit in electronics that is extensively used for the
addition of numbers. In many computers and other types of processors, adders
are even used to calculate addresses and related activities and calculate table
indices in the ALU and even utilized in other parts of the processors. These can
be built for many numerical representations like excess-3 or binary coded
decimal. Adders are basically classified into two types: Half Adder and Full
Adder.
What is Half Adder and Full Adder Circuit?
The half adder circuit has two inputs: A and B, which add two input digits and
generates a carry and a sum. The full adder circuit has three inputs: A and C,
which add three input numbers and generates a carry and sum. This article gives
detailed information about what is the purpose of a half adder and full adder in
tabular forms and even in circuit diagrams too. It is already mentioned that the
main and crucial purpose of adders is addition. Below are the detailed half
adder and full adder theory.
Half Adder
So, coming to the scenario of half adder, it adds two binary digits where the
input bits are termed as augend and addend and the result will be two outputs
one is the sum and the other is carry. To perform the sum operation, XOR is
applied to both the inputs, and AND gate is applied to both inputs to produce
carry.

HA Functional Diagram
Whereas in the full adder circuit, it adds 3 one-bit numbers, where two of the
three bits can be referred to as operands and the other is termed as bit carried in.
The produced output is 2-bit output and these can be referred to as output carry
and sum.
Let’s see an example of adding two single bits.
The 2-bit half adder truth table is as below:

Half Adder Truth Table

0+0 = 0
0+1 = 1
1+0 = 1
1+1 = 10

Full Adder
This adder is difficult to implement when compared to half-adder.
 Full Adder Functional Diagram
The difference between a half-adder and a full-adder is that the full-adder has
three inputs and two outputs, whereas half adder has only two inputs and two
outputs. The first two inputs are A and B and the third input is an input carry as
C-IN. When a full-adder logic is designed, you string eight of them together to
create a byte-wide adder and cascade the carry bit from one adder to the next.

FA Truth Table
UNIT-4
Operating System Definition and Function
In the Computer System (comprises of Hardware and software), Hardware can
only understand machine code (in the form of 0 and 1) which doesn't make any
sense to a naive user.
An Operating System can be defined as an interface between user and
hardware. It is responsible for the execution of all the processes, Resource
Allocation, CPU management, File Management and many other tasks.
The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in which a
user can execute programs in convenient and efficient manner.

We need a system which can act as an intermediary and manage all the
processes and resources present in the system.
What does an Operating system do?
1. Process Management
2. Process Synchronization
 3. Memory Management
4. CPU Scheduling
5. File Management
6. Security
 Process Management: Manages the life cycle of processes, from creation to
termination. It uses algorithms like:
First-Come, First-Served (FCFS):
 Processes are executed in the order they arrive.
 Simple but can cause long wait times for later processes.
Diagram:
Arrival order: P1 → P2 → P3
Execution: [P1] → [P2] → [P3]
Shortest Job Next (SJN):
 The process with the shortest burst time is executed first.
 Minimizes average waiting time but can lead to starvation for longer
processes.
Diagram:
Burst times: P1 (4) → P2 (2) → P3 (1)
Execution: [P3] → [P2] → [P1] Round Robin:
 Each process gets an equal time slice (quantum) in a circular order.
 Fair, but more context switching occurs.
Diagram:
Time slice: 2 units
Processes: P1 → P2 → P3
Execution: [P1] → [P2] → [P3] → [P1] → [P2] → [P3]...
Priority Scheduling:
 Processes with higher priority are executed first.
 Lower-priority processes may face starvation.
Diagram:
Priority: P1 (2) → P2 (1) → P3 (3)
Execution: [P2] → [P1] → [P3]

 Process Synchronization: Ensures multiple processes can run concurrently

without conflicts when sharing resources. Common techniques include:
 Semaphores: Variables that control access to resources.
 Mutexes: Locks to ensure mutual exclusion, so only one process accesses
a resource at a time.
 Monitors: High-level synchronization constructs used in some
programming languages.
 Barriers: Forces processes to wait until all have reached a certain point.
 Memory Management: Manages how memory is allocated and freed. Key
algorithms include:
 Paging: Divides memory into fixed-size pages to reduce fragmentation.
 Segmentation: Divides memory into variable-sized segments, based on
the logical divisions of programs.
 Virtual Memory: Extends physical memory by using disk space to
simulate more RAM.
 Best-Fit and Worst-Fit: Allocates the most or least suitable memory
block to a process.
 CPU Scheduling: Determines which process uses the CPU at any time. Key
scheduling algorithms include:
 First-Come, First-Served (FCFS): Simple, but can cause the "convoy
effect."
 Shortest Remaining Time First (SRTF): Preempts processes to run the
one with the shortest remaining time.
 Priority Scheduling: Executes based on process priority, possibly
causing starvation.
 Multilevel Queue: Organizes processes into different queues, each with
its own scheduling algorithm.
 File Management: Handles the organization, storage, retrieval, and access
permissions of files on disk. Core operations include:
 File Allocation Table (FAT): Tracks file locations on disk.
 Indexed Allocation: Uses an index to store file block addresses.
 Access Control Lists (ACL): Manages permissions for different users or
groups.
 Journaling: Logs changes to file systems to prevent data loss in crashes.
 Security: Protects the system from unauthorized access and vulnerabilities.
Important mechanisms include:
 Authentication: Verifies users via passwords or biometrics.
 Access Control: Manages who can access what resources.
 Encryption: Secures data by converting it into unreadable formats for
unauthorized users.
 Firewalls: Protects systems from unauthorized network access.
three main types of operating systems:
1. Windows OS: A widely used, user-friendly operating system developed
by Microsoft, popular for personal computers, business, and gaming
applications.
2. Mac OS: Developed by Apple for its Mac computers, known for its sleek
design, stability, and integration with other Apple products.
3. Linux OS: An open-source operating system favored for its flexibility,
security, and use in servers, programming, and system administration.
UNIT-5
Data Communication & Computer Network
Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two
or more computers and a computer network or data network is a
telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data. The
physical connection between networked computing devices is established using
either cable media or wireless media. The best-known computer network is the
Internet.
Computer Network Types
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables
the computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources,
data, and applications.
A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is
mainly of four types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a
small area such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN(Personal Area Network)
o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual
person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of
personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of
the Personal Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area
network are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger
geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger
network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private
industries.
 o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a
telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay,
ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Advertisement
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large
geographical area such as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans
over a large geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic
cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,
government, and education.
Examples Of Wide Area Network:
o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely u

computer Network Topologies

A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or
network devices are connected to each other. Topologies may define both
physical and logical aspect of the network. Both logical and physical topologies
could be same or different in a same network.
Bus Topology
In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or
cable.Bus topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the
same time.

star Topology
All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub
device, using a point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point
connection between hosts and hub.
Ring Topology
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines,
creating a circular network structure. When one host tries to communicate or
send message to a host which is not adjacent to it, the data travels through all
intermediate hosts.

Mesh Topology
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts.This
topology has hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host or may
also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to few hosts only.

Tree Topology
Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network
topology in use presently. This topology imitates as extended Star topology and
inherits properties of bus topology.

The internet
The internet is a global network of interconnected computers that allows users
to access and exchange information, communicate, and perform various online
activities. It emerged from the ARPANET in the late 1960s and has since
evolved into an essential part of modern life. The internet functions through
protocols such as TCP/IP, which enable devices across the world to
communicate with each other seamlessly.
One of the primary uses of the internet is communication. Platforms like email,
social media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter), and messaging apps (e.g., WhatsApp,
Telegram) allow people to connect instantly, regardless of their location. Video
conferencing services, such as Zoom and Skype, have become vital for both
personal and professional interactions, especially in a globalized world.
Another major use is information access and sharing. The internet hosts vast
amounts of data across websites, blogs, and online databases. Search engines
like Google and Bing make it easy to find information on nearly any topic.
Educational platforms, including MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) like
Coursera and Khan Academy, provide opportunities for learning and skill
development.
The internet is also a hub for entertainment, offering streaming services like
Netflix, YouTube, and Spotify, which allow users to watch videos, listen to
music, and play games. Additionally, social media and online forums facilitate
content creation and sharing, allowing individuals to contribute to the vast pool
of digital content.
E-commerce is another key aspect, with platforms like Amazon, eBay, and
Alibaba transforming how people shop, by providing a wide range of products
and services at their fingertips. The internet has revolutionized industries like
banking and healthcare, enabling online transactions and telemedicine.
In summary, the internet has become indispensable for communication,
information sharing, entertainment, and business, shaping how individuals and
organizations interact in the modern world.