GSP 101 Midterm Study Guide (Modules 1-3)

Geospatial Science
Definition- a multidisciplinary approach to studying the world from a geographic perspective
Primary sciences
​ Geodesy- (foundation of geospatial science) science of measuring and
representing Earth’s size and shape, the exact position of points on Earth, and
the study of Earth’s gravitational and magnetic fields
​ Land Surveying- measurement of a position, elevation, perimeter, or an area to
define positional information
​ Remote Sensing- obtaining data from a distance using devices that detect
emitted or reflected electromagnetic energy
Secondary sciences
​ Cartography- art/science of mapmaking
​ GIS- combo of software, hardware and scientific methods used to store, analyze,
and display geographic information
4 geographic questions- location, distribution, change over time, relationships ***

Geospatial data
Definition- selectively generalized representation of reality on a map (represents reality, but
is not real -a discriminating/simplified portrayal of real world-)
Scientific process
Tobler’s Law- everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than
distant things
Real-world GIS example
Raster format- (faster) uses a grid of cells (pixels) with one attribute assigned to each cell
arranged in a regular pattern (used for aerial imagery and depicting
continuous/amorphous features like elevation, temperature, and precipitation), resolution
inverse of cell size (larger cells, lower resolution)
Vector format- (more accurate) uses points (nodes), lines (vertices) and polygons to display
geospatial data (used for features like roads, rivers, and buildings)
Geospatial file management- best done in file explorer, download and compress GIS files
into .zip, .7z and .tar
Metadata- data about the data (how you tell if the data is any good)
Accuracy- the degree to which information matches true values
Precision- how carefully the data was measured (replicability)
Error and error types- concept of imprecision and/or inaccuracy

Geodesy
Definition- (foundation of geospatial science) science of measuring and representing Earth’s
size and shape, the exact position of points on Earth, and the study of Earth’s
gravitational and magnetic fields
Latitude- lines running horizontally across the earth, starting at the equator (0 degrees of
lat), 1 degree of latitude = 69 miles = 60 minutes
Longitude- lines running from vertically North Pole to South Pole across earth, start at prime
meridian (0 degrees of long) and distance between meridians (lines of longitude) get
smaller farther from the equator they get, Distance between line of longitude=
cos(lat)*Distance at equator, related to time -> 15 degrees of longitude between each of
the 24 time zones
Graticule- 1 degree of latitude=69 miles
Geoid- surface model of Earth based on gravity (mean sea level)
Ellipsoid- a three-dimensional geometric shape that is used to model the Earth's shape on
maps
Datum- a standard reference ellipsoid used to simplify Earth’s shape for mapping (examples
of datums below)
NAD 1927 characteristics- 1866 ellipsoid with origin in Kansas, more accurate for North
America, less accurate the further you get from North America
NAD 1983 characteristics-
WGS 1984 characteristics- ellipsoid with origin at the center of Earth (best when mapping
the whole earths, what lat/long is based on, ideal for GPS receivers)

Projections
Definition- method of portraying the surface of the Earth that allows us to control distortion
Eratosthenes- estimated that the earth was approximately 25,000 miles in circumference.
Dataframe spatial reference system- is set by the spatial reference system of the first layer
loaded
Preserved properties of map projections/distortion types- size (equal area), direction
(azimuthal), shape (conformal), distance (equidistant), continuity
Developable surface- the shape used to flatten the earth (plane, cone, or cylinder)
Classification: Type, aspect and case
Type- conic (midlatitudes), cylindrical (tropical regions), planar (poles)
Aspect- normal, transverse, oblique
Case- tangent (one standard parallel) or secant (two standard parallels)
Strengths of specific classifications
Specific projections (properties and recommended use):
​ Lambert Conformal Conic
​ Type: Conic
​ Aspect: Normal
​ Case: Secant
​ Property preserved: Shape
​ Best use: mid-latitudes and countries with east-west orientation

​ Mercator
​ Type: Cylindrical
​ Aspect: Normal
​ Case: Tangent
​ Property preserved: conformal (angles)
​ Best use: navigation, all rhumb lines are straight, distorts land masses near poles
(makes Greenland look huge)
​
​ Universal Transverse Mercator
​ Type: Cylindrical
​ Aspect: Normal
​ Case: Secant
​ Property preserved: conformal
​ Best use: mapping, surveying, navigating, and emergency aid
​
​ Albers Equal Area Conic
​ Type: Conic
​ Aspect: Normal
​ Case: Secant
​ Property preserved: Equal-Area (relative size)
​ Best use: lower 48 US
Scale
Definition and types- relationship between map and ground distance
Verbal scale- quick sense of map size, does not have to be exact/same unit
Representative Fraction- ratio of map:ground, no units
Bar/graphical scale
Large scale vs. small scale
Large- more detail, map:ground ratio is closer to 1:1
Small- less detail, map:ground ratio is farther from 1:1
Scale conversions
Slope distance calculation
Scale from known objects
Scale from graticule
Know your unit conversions!
2.54cm=1in
1 km=0.62miles

Contour lines
Finding elevation
Visualizing terrain

Coordinates
Geographic coordinates- depicts location on earth with angular units based on ellipsoid
model (lat/long DMS)
Projected coordinates- depicts location on earth by transforming it to a flat plane with linear
unit, x/y coordinates (no negatives, i.e. State Plane and PLSS)
Land Partitioning systems- a spatial reference system used to divide property into sections,
trucks, parcels or lots
Regular- uses standardized measurements and consistent divisions to define
boundaries
Irregular- uses natural features to define boundaries
Notation formats- how position is written
UTM system- (in meters) covers whole world, ex notation= 780950 meters E, 2052283
meters N, 18N
-Zones are numbered 1-60, starting at 180º longitude
-Based on Transverse Mercator
-Zones are 6º of longitude each, split into north and south
-Notation is in easting and northing, and no zero values

State Plane system- (in feet) covers just the US, ex notation= 67095 feet E, 37557 feet N,
California Zone 3
-Based on Transverse Mercator or Lambert Conformal Conic
-Zones are labeled or numbered
-Each state has 1-6 zones
-Notation is in easting and northing, and no zero values
PLSS reference- ex notation= NW ½ NE ¼ S25 T17N R12W Humboldt Meridian
Direction
Definition- angular distance from a reference point (often North)
Three norths
True North- North Pole (fixed, can be located with sun and stars)
Grid North- north on map
Magnetic North- northern pole of Earth’s geomagnetic field, and north that your compass
finds (moves around a lot)
Magnetic declination- angular difference between true and magnetic north (if magnetic
declination = 0, true and magnetic north are the same)
Declination shift & calculation- the adjustment made on a compass to factor in the
movement of magnetic earth
Azimuth- horizontal angle in degrees, measured clockwise from North (0-360 degrees)
Bearing- horizontal angle in degrees from north or south reference (i.e. N45degreesE)
Resection- The technique of determining your location that involves plotting lines that cross
your position
Traverse- ​A simple way of measuring out from a control point

Land Surveying
Definition- the determination of an object/person’s location on earth by measuring angle and
distance
 Triangulation- used to survey large areas, uses two angles and a known base to find
distance

Trilateration- using distances to find location with radii (pl. radius) -known distance- of
overlapping circles to find point of overlap -location-, what satellites use (needs 4 at
least, 3 for horizontal location, 1 for vertical location -elevation-)

Differential leveling- measures relative elevation over short distances, i.e. auto level, finding
slope of reach (more accurate)
Trigonometric leveling- like trilateration but vertically (less accurate)
Barometric leveling- uses air pressure to determine elevation (least accurate)

GPS (US GNSS)- made up of space, user and control

Space segment- orbiting space vehicles (24 core + spares)
User segment- GPS receivers (civilian, survey, and military grade)
Control segment- network of ground stations that monitor satellites
Differential GPS- calculates differences btw broadcast and actual position
Post-processing services- CORS and OPUS, improves data’s accuracy
Error budget- calculation of all sources of error
Datums- reference point/ellipsoid that GPS receivers use
Elevation- measured height above ellipsoid
Waypoint averaging- used when receiver cannot get a good connection with satellites

Other
Geographic information refers to a collection of information containing non-spatial attributes that
correspond to a spatial location and extent in space and time.
Compromise projection- does not strictly preserve any properties (i.e. Robinson projection)
Azimuthal Equidistant projection- all distances measured from the point of tangency are true to
scale and true to distance
Orthographic projection- perspective of the projection is at an infinite distance from the
generating globe
Scale Factor- relationship between actual and principal scale
Spatial reference system ≠ coordinate reference system-> A spatial reference system may
contain a coordinate system, along with a datum and projection information, but some spatial
reference systems (e.g. land partitioning systems) are sans coordinate systems, meaning they
are without coordinates.
Agonic line- the a line where magnetic north and true north are the same (on an isogonic map)
Geographic north- the northern end on the axis of the earth’s rotation
Magnetic declination on the west coast is currently decreasing