Physics

By: Dr. Engy Ragaei Abdelmaksoud

E-mail: [email protected]
Contents
Mechanics Electricity & Magnetism
1. Physics and measurements 1. Electric Force
2. Motion in one dimension 2. Electric Field
3. Motion in two dimensions 3. Capacitance
4. Laws of motion 4. Voltage, Current, Resistance
5. Work and Energy 5. Magnetic Fields, Induction

Oscillations & Waves

1. Oscillatory Motion
2. Wave Motion
Lecture 2
 Objectives
1. Motion in One Dimension [Chapter 2]
 Kinematics
 Types of Motion
 Position
 Displacement & Distance
 Average Velocity & Average speed
 Instantaneous Velocity & Instantaneous Speed
 Average Acceleration & Instantaneous Acceleration
 Motion Diagrams
 Examples
 Free Falling Objects
 Kinematics
 Kinematics is the branch of physics that deals with the motion of objects
without considering the forces that cause the motion.

 It focuses on the description of motion in terms of displacement, velocity,

acceleration, and time.
 Types of Motion
Translational motion Rotational motion Vibrational motion
An example is a car An example is the An example is the back-
traveling on a Earth’s spin on its axis. and-forth movement of
highway. a pendulum.

Particle model:
In our study of translational motion, we use what is called the particle model
and describe the moving object as a particle regardless of its size.
 Kinematics

Position Velocity Speed Acceleration

Average Average Average

Distance
Velocity Speed Acceleration

Instantaneous Instantaneous Instantaneous

Displacement
Velocity Speed Acceleration
 Position
 The object’s position is its location with
respect to a chosen reference point.

 Consider the point to be the origin of a

coordinate system.

 Only interested in the car’s translational

motion, so model as a particle.
 Position
The table gives the actual data collected during the motion of the object (car).
Position-Time Graph
 The position-time graph shows the motion of the particle (car).
 The smooth curve is a guess as to what happened between the data points.
 Vectors & Scalars
Vector Scalar

 Is defined as the change in  Scalar quantities are completely

Vector quantities need both described by magnitude only.
magnitude and direction to
completely describe them.
 Will use + and – signs to
indicate vector directions.
 Displacement & Distance
Displacement Distance
Is defined as the change in Is the length of a path followed by a
position during some time particle.
interval.  Is scalar quantity
∆𝒙 = 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊  Is always positive

 SI units are meters (m)

 Is a vector quantity
 x can be positive or negative
 Displacement & Distance
Assume a player moves from one end
of the court to the other and back.
 Distance is twice the length of the
court
 Distance is always positive
 Displacement is zero

∆𝒙 = 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊 = 0

Since 𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊
 Average Velocity & Average Speed
Average Velocity
Is defined as the displacement Δ𝒙 divided by the time interval Δ𝒕 during which
that displacement occurs:
∆𝒙
𝒗𝒙,𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
∆𝒕
The x indicates motion along the x-axis.
𝑳
 The dimensions are 𝒗 =
𝑻
 The SI units are m/s
 𝒗𝒙,𝒂𝒗𝒈 can be positive or negative
 Is also the slope of the line in the position – time graph
 Average Velocity & Average Speed
Average Velocity
 Is also the slope of the line in the
position – time graph.
 We can interpret average velocity
geometrically by drawing a straight
line between any two points on the
position–time graph.  For example, the line between
 The slope of this line is the ratio positions A and B has a slope
Δx/Δt, which is what we have equal to the average velocity of
defined as average velocity. the car between those two times,
𝟓𝟐 𝒎 − 𝟑𝟎 𝒎 𝒎
= 𝟐. 𝟐
𝟏𝟎 𝒔 − 𝟎 𝒔
 Average Velocity & Average Speed
Average Speed
 Is defined as the total distance (𝑑) traveled divided by the total time interval.

𝒅
𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
∆𝒕

 Speed is a scalar quantity.

 Has the same units as velocity
 The speed has no direction and is always expressed as a positive number.
 Average Velocity & Average Speed
The average speed is not the magnitude of the average velocity.

For example, a runner ends at her starting point.

Her displacement is zero. ∆𝐱 = 𝟎
Therefore, her velocity is zero. 𝒗(𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚) = 𝟎
However, the distance traveled is not zero, so the speed is not zero.

𝒅≠𝟎
𝒗(𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅) ≠ 𝟎
 Average Speed & Average Velocity
Example:
Find the displacement, average velocity, and average speed of the car in
between positions A and F.
 Average Speed & Average Velocity
Solution:
𝒙𝑨 = 𝟑𝟎 𝒎 𝒂𝒕 𝒕=𝟎

𝒙𝑭 = −𝟓𝟑 𝒎 𝒂𝒕 𝒕 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒔
Displacement:

∆𝐱 = 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊 = −𝟓𝟑 𝒎 − 𝟑𝟎 𝒎 = −𝟖𝟑 𝒎
Average velocity:
∆𝒙 −𝟖𝟑
𝒗𝒙,𝒂𝒗𝒈 = = = −𝟏. 𝟕 𝒎 𝒔
∆𝒕 𝟓𝟎 𝒔−𝟎 𝒔
Average speed:
𝒅 𝟏𝟐𝟕 𝒎
𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒈 = = = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎 𝒔
∆𝒕 𝟓𝟎 𝒔
 Instantaneous Velocity & Instantaneous Speed
 It indicates what is happening at every point of time.
 Is equals the limit of the ratio ∆𝑥/∆𝑡 as ∆𝑡 approaches zero.
 The general equation for instantaneous velocity is:

∆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒗𝒙 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕

The instantaneous velocity can be positive, negative, or zero.

 The instantaneous speed is the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity, it has
no direction associated with it.
 Average Acceleration & Instantaneous Acceleration
 Average acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity.
∆𝒗𝒙 𝒗𝒙𝒇 −𝒗𝒙𝒊
𝒂𝒙,𝒂𝒗𝒈 = =
∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 −𝒕𝒊

𝑳
 Dimensions are 𝒂 =
𝑻𝟐
 SI units are m/s²
 In one dimension, positive and negative can be used to indicate direction
 Instantaneous Acceleration is the limit of the average acceleration as ∆𝑡
approaches zero.
∆𝒗𝒙 𝒅𝒗𝒙 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
𝒂𝒙 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = = 𝟐
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
 Analysis Model: Particle Under Constant Acceleration
Imagine a moving object that can be modeled as a particle. If it begins from
position 𝑥 and initial velocity vxi and moves in a straight line with a constant
acceleration 𝑎x, its subsequent position and velocity are described by the
following kinematic equations:
 Motion Diagrams
A motion diagram can be formed by imagining the stroboscope photograph of a moving
object.
Red arrows represent velocity. Purple arrows represent acceleration.
 Images are equally spaced.
 The car is moving with constant positive velocity.(𝐯 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭)
 Acceleration equals zero. (𝒂 = 𝟎)
 Images become farther apart as time increases.
 Velocity and acceleration are in the same direction.
 Acceleration is uniform, Velocity is increasing
 This shows positive acceleration and positive velocity.
(v is + 𝒗𝒆) (a is + 𝒗𝒆)
 Images become closer together as time increases.
 Acceleration and velocity are in opposite directions.
 Acceleration is uniform, Velocity is decreasing.
 Positive velocity and negative acceleration.
(𝐯 is + 𝒗𝒆) (a is − 𝒗𝒆)
 Examples
Example 1:
A particle moves along the x axis. Its position varies with time
according to the expression 𝐱 = −𝟒𝐭 + 𝟐𝐭 𝟐 , where x is in
meters and t is in seconds.
The position–time graph for this motion is shown in the
given Figure.
Notice that the particle moves in the negative x direction for
the first second of motion, is momentarily at rest at the
moment t = 1 s, and moves in the positive x direction at times t
> 1 s.
(A) Determine the displacement of the particle in the time
intervals t = 0 to t = 1 s and t = 1 s to t = 3 s.
(B) Calculate the average velocity during these two time
intervals.
(C) Find the instantaneous velocity of the particle at 𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒔.
 Examples
Solution:
(A) Determine the displacement of the particle in the time
intervals t = 0 to t = 1 s and t = 1 s to t = 3 s.
t i = t A = 0 𝐱 = −𝟒𝐭 + 𝟐𝐭 𝟐
t f = t B = 1 s
∆xA →B = xf − xi = xB − x𝐴

= −𝟒 𝟏 + 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 − −𝟒 𝟎 + 𝟐 𝟎 𝟐 = −𝟐 𝐦
t i = t B = 1 s
t f = t D = 3 s
∆xB →D = xf − xi = xD − xB
𝟐 𝟐
= −𝟒 𝟑 + 𝟐 𝟑 − −𝟒 𝟏 + 𝟐 𝟏 = +𝟖 𝐦
 Examples
Solution:
(B) Calculate the average velocity during these two time
intervals.
ti = tA = 0
tf = tB = 1 s
∆𝒙𝑨 →𝑩 −𝟐 𝒎
𝒗𝒙,𝒂𝒗𝒈 (𝑨→𝑩) = = = −𝟐 𝒎 𝒔
∆𝒕 𝟏𝒔

ti = tB = 1 s
tf = tD = 3 s

∆𝒙𝑩 →𝑫 𝟖 𝒎
𝒗𝒙,𝒂𝒗𝒈 (𝑩→𝑫) = = =𝟒 𝒎 𝒔
∆𝒕 𝟐𝒔
 Examples
Solution:
(C) Find the instantaneous velocity of the particle at 𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒔.
Measure the slope of the green line at t = 2.5 s (point 𝐶):

𝟏𝟎 𝒎 − −𝟒 𝒎
𝒗𝒙 = = +𝟔 𝒎 𝒔
𝟑. 𝟖 𝒔 − 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒔
Or
𝐱 = −𝟒𝐭 + 𝟐𝐭 𝟐
∆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒗𝒙 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒙
𝒗𝒙 = = −𝟒 + 𝟒𝒕
𝒅𝒕
= −𝟒 + 𝟒 𝟐. 𝟓 = +𝟔 𝒎 𝒔
 Examples
Example 2:
The position of a particle moving along the x axis varies in time according to
the expression 𝐱 = 𝟑𝐭 𝟐 , where x is in meters and t is in seconds.
(A) Find the position at t = 3.00 s
(B) Find the velocity at t = 3.00 s.
(C) Find the acceleration at t = 3.00 s.
 Examples
Solution:
𝐱 = 𝟑𝐭 𝟐
(A) The position at t = 3.00 s
𝒙 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝒔 = 𝟑 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 𝒔 𝟐 = 𝟐𝟕 𝒎
(B) Find the velocity at t = 3.00 s.

∆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒗𝒙 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = = 𝟔𝒕 = 𝟔 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 𝒔 = +𝟏𝟖 𝒎 𝒔
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕
(C) Find the acceleration at t = 3.00 s.
∆𝒗𝒙 𝒅𝒗𝒙 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
𝒂𝒙 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒗𝒙
𝒂𝒙 = = +𝟔 𝒎 𝒔𝟐
𝒅𝒕
 Examples
Example 3:
In the following Figure match each vx–t graph on the top with the ax–t graph on the bottom
that best describes the motion.
 Free falling objects
A freely falling object is any object moving freely under the influence of gravity
alone.
 It does not depend upon the initial motion of the object.
• Dropped – released from rest
• Thrown downward
• Thrown upward

 The magnitude of the free-fall acceleration, also called the acceleration due
to gravity, is
𝒂𝒚 = −𝒈 = −𝟗. 𝟖 𝒎 𝒔𝟐
 The negative sign means that the acceleration of a freely falling object is
downward ↓.
 Free falling objects
Free Fall – An Object Dropped
 Initial velocity is zero
 Use the kinematic equations (use y instead of x
since vertical). vo= 0

 Acceleration is + Ve
a = -g

𝒂𝒚 = −𝒈 = −𝟗. 𝟖 𝒎 𝒔𝟐
- Ve
 Free falling objects
Free Fall – An Object Thrown Downward
 Acceleration is
𝒂𝒚 = −𝒈 = −𝟗. 𝟖 𝒎 𝒔𝟐 vo≠ 0
a = -g

 Initial velocity  0
 With upward being positive, initial velocity will be
negative.
 Free falling objects
Free Fall – Object Thrown Upward
 Initial velocity is upward, so positive v=0

 The instantaneous velocity at the maximum height is zero.

𝒂𝒚 = −𝒈 = −𝟗. 𝟖 𝒎 𝒔𝟐 vo≠ 0
a = -g
everywhere in the motion
 The motion may be symmetrical.
• Then tup = tdown
• Then v = -vo
 The motion may not be symmetrical.
• Break the motion into various parts.
• Generally up and down