數位電路導論

Introduction to Circuits Theory

and Digital Electronics
許舒涵 (Shu-han Hsu)
成功大學 資訊工程系

Lecture 3 -Nodal Analysis, Mesh Analysis and Superposition

Circuit Analysis Methods
• Circuit analysis objective is to determine all:
• Node voltages
• Branch currents
• Circuit analysis tools:
• Ohm’s law
• Kirchhoff’s laws – KVL, KCL
• Circuit analysis methods:
• Nodal analysis
• Systematic application of KCL
• Mesh/loop analysis
• Systematic application of KVL
Nodal Analysis
• Systematic application of KCL
• Generate a system of equations
• Node voltages are the unknown variables
• Number of equations equals number of unknown node voltages
• Solve equations to determine node voltages
• Apply Ohm’s law to determine branch currents
Nodal Analysis – Step-by-Step Procedure
1. Choose a reference node (“ground”)
Look for the one with the most connections!
2. Define unknown node voltages
Those not fixed by voltage sources
3. Write KCL at each unknown node, expressing current in terms of
the node voltages (using the I-V relationships of branch elements)
Special cases: floating voltage sources
4. Solve the set of independent equations
N equations for N unknown node voltages
 Nodal Analysis: Example #1
𝑅1 𝑅3

𝑉1 +_ 𝐼𝑠
𝑅2 𝑅4

1. Choose a reference node

2. Define the node voltages (except reference node and one set by voltage
source)
3. Apply KCL at the nodes with unknown voltage

4. Solve for unknown node voltages

 Nodal Analysis: Example #1
𝑅1 𝑅3

𝑉1 +_ 𝐼𝑠
𝑅2 𝑅4

1. Choose a reference node

2. Define the node voltages (except reference node and one set by voltage
source)
3. Apply KCL at the nodes with unknown voltage

4. Solve for unknown node voltages

 Nodal Analysis: Example #1
𝑥 𝑅1 𝑎 𝑅3 𝑏

𝑉1 +_ 𝐼𝑠
𝑅2 𝑅4

1. Choose a reference node

2. Define the node voltages (except reference node and one set by voltage
source)
3. Apply KCL at the nodes with unknown voltage

4. Solve for unknown node voltages

 Nodal Analysis: Example #1
𝑥 𝑅1 𝑎 𝑅3 𝑏

𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼3
𝑉1 +_ 𝐼𝑠
𝑅2 𝑅4

1. Choose a reference node

2. Define the node voltages (except reference node and one set by voltage
source)
3. Apply KCL at the nodes with unknown voltage
Node a: 𝑉 − 𝑉 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎
(Into the 1 𝑎
− + =0
node=0) 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

4. Solve for unknown node voltages

 Nodal Analysis: Example #1
𝑥 𝑅1 𝑎 𝑅3 𝑏

𝐼1 𝐼3 𝐼4 𝐼𝑠
𝐼2
𝑉1 +_ 𝐼𝑠
𝑅2 𝑅4

1. Choose a reference node

2. Define the node voltages (except reference node and one set by voltage
source)
3. Apply KCL at the nodes with unknown voltage
Node a: 𝑉 − 𝑉 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 Node b: 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏
1 𝑎
(Into the − + =0 (Into the − − + 𝐼𝑠 = 0
node=0) 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 node=0) 𝑅3 𝑅4

4. Solve for unknown node voltages 𝑉𝑎 , 𝑉𝑏

 Nodal Analysis:
𝑅 1
Example #2
𝑅3 𝑉𝑎 𝑅5 Find 𝑉𝑎

𝐼1
_
𝑉1 + 𝑅2
_+ 𝑉2
𝑅4
 Nodal Analysis:
𝑅 1
Example #2
Notice sign 𝑅3 𝑉𝑎 𝑅5 Find 𝑉𝑎

𝐼1
_
𝑉1 + 𝑅2
_+ 𝑉2
𝑅4
 Nodal Analysis:
𝑅 1
Example #2
Notice sign 𝑅3 𝑉𝑎 𝑅5 Find 𝑉𝑎

𝐼1
_
𝑉1 + 𝑅2
_+ 𝑉2
𝑅4
 Nodal Analysis:
𝑅 1
Example #2
Notice sign 𝑅3 𝑉𝑎 𝑅5 Find 𝑉𝑎

𝐼1
_
𝑉1 + 𝑅2
_+ 𝑉2
𝑅4

−𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑎
+ 𝐼1 − + =0
𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑅5

𝐼1 − 𝑅𝑉1 + 𝑅𝑉2
1 5
𝑉𝑎 = 1 1 1
𝑅1 +𝑅4 +𝑅5
 Nodal Analysis:
𝑅 1
Example #2
Notice sign 𝑅3 𝑉𝑎 𝑅5 Find 𝑉𝑎

𝐼1
_
𝑉1 + 𝑅2
_+ 𝑉2
𝑅4

−𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑎
+ 𝐼1 − + =0
𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑅5

𝐼1 − 𝑅𝑉1 + 𝑅𝑉2
1 5
𝑉𝑎 = 1 1 1
𝑅1 +𝑅4 +𝑅5
 Nodal Analysis:
𝑅 1
Example #2
Notice sign 𝑅3 𝑉𝑎 𝑅5 Find 𝑉𝑎

𝐼1
_
𝑉1 + 𝑅2
_+ 𝑉2
𝑅4

−𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑎
+ 𝐼1 − + =0
𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑅5

𝐼1 − 𝑅𝑉1 + 𝑅𝑉2
1 5
𝑉𝑎 = 1 1 1
𝑅1 +𝑅4 +𝑅5
 Nodal Analysis:
𝑅 1
Example #2
Notice sign 𝑅3 𝑉𝑎 𝑅5 Find 𝑉𝑎

𝐼1
_
𝑉1 + 𝑅2
_+ 𝑉2
𝑅4

−𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑎
+ 𝐼1 − + =0
𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑅5

𝐼1 − 𝑅𝑉1 + 𝑅𝑉2
1 5
𝑉𝑎 = 1 1 1
𝑅1 +𝑅4 +𝑅5
Supernode
• If a voltage source is connected between two nonreference nodes (two
nodes that are not the ground voltages), then these nodes can be
combined to form a generalized node which is known as a supernode

Supernode can be regarded as a

surface enclosing the voltage
source and its two nodes.
(wiraelectrical.com)

Node 2 and 3 can be

combined into a Supernode.
 Nodal Analysis w/ “Floating Voltage Source”
• A “floating” voltage source is one for which neither side is connected
to the reference node, e.g. VLL in the circuit below:
V𝐿𝐿
V𝑎 V𝑏
_+
𝑅1 𝑅4

𝑉1 +_ +_ 𝑉4
𝑅2 𝑅3

Problem: Cannot write KCL at nodes a or b because there is no way to

express the current through the voltage source in terms of Va-Vb.
Solution: Define a “supernode” –chunk of circuit containing nodes a and b.
Express KCL for supernode. Incorporate voltage source constraint into KCL
equation.
 Nodal Analysis w/ “Floating Voltage Source”
• A “floating” voltage source is one for which neither side is connected
to the reference node, e.g. VLL in the circuit below:
V𝐿𝐿
V𝑎 V𝑏
_+
𝑅1 𝑅4

𝑉1 +_ +_ 𝑉4
𝑅2 𝑅3

Problem: Cannot write KCL at nodes a or b because there is no way to

express the current through the voltage source in terms of Va-Vb.
Solution: Define a “supernode” –chunk of circuit containing nodes a and b.
Express KCL for supernode. Incorporate voltage source constraint into KCL
equation.
 Nodal Analysis w/ “Floating Voltage Source”
V𝐿𝐿
V𝑎 V𝑏 Supernode
_+
𝑅1 𝑅4

𝑉1 +_ +_ 𝑉4
𝑅2 𝑅3

Two unknowns: Va and Vb

𝑉1 −𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑏 −𝑉4
Obtain one equation form KCL at supernode: − = +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4

Obtain 2nd “auxiliary” equation from property of voltage source: VLL = V𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎

(often called the “constraint”)
=> 2 Equations & 2 Unknowns
 Nodal Analysis w/ “Floating Voltage Source”
V𝐿𝐿
V𝑎 V𝑏 Supernode
_+
𝑅1 𝑅4

𝑉1 +_ +_ 𝑉4
𝑅2 𝑅3

Find Va, Vb if R1= R2 = R3 = R4 = 1MΩ, and V1 = V4 =1.5V with VLL = 1V

Solution: At supernode enclosing nodes a and b:
𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉4
− = + 𝑉𝑎 = 0.25𝑉 Check answer
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4
with KCL!
VLL = V𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 = 1.25𝑉
Answer Checking Technique: Use KCL
Is 𝑉𝑎 = 0.25𝑉 and 𝑉𝑏 = 1.25𝑉, if R1= R2 = R3 = R4 = 1MΩ, and V1
= V4 =1.5V with VLL = 1V?
1.25 𝜇𝐴 1.0 𝑉 0.25 𝜇𝐴
0.25 𝑉 1.25 𝑉
_ +
1.0 𝑀 1.0 𝑀

1.5 𝑉 _+ 0.25 𝜇𝐴 1.25 𝜇𝐴 +_ 1.5 𝑉

1.0 𝑀 1.0 𝑀

KCL at the Supernode:

Verify that the solution is correct by seeing if the total currents
entering the supernode is the same as the total currents exiting
the supernode.
 Nodal Analysis Practice Problem
Determine the current flowing through 1
Ohm resistor using nodal analysis.

https://www.notesforengineering.com/nodal-analysis/
 Nodal Analysis Practice Problem
Determine the current flowing through 1
Ohm resistor using nodal analysis.

Ans:
Assign the reference node at C as ground voltage and the
voltages at a node as VA and VB

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 Nodal Analysis Practice Problem
Determine the current flowing through 1
Ohm resistor using nodal analysis.

Ans:
Then apply KCL at nodes A and B.
For Node A,

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 Nodal Analysis Practice Problem
Determine the current flowing through 1
Ohm resistor using nodal analysis.

Ans:
Then apply KCL at nodes A and B.
For Node B,

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 Nodal Analysis Practice Problem
Determine the current flowing through 1
Ohm resistor using nodal analysis.

Ans:
Now, solving equations (i) and (ii)

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 Nodal Analysis Practice Problem
Determine the current flowing through 1
Ohm resistor using nodal analysis.

Ans:
Current through 1 Ohm resistor is given by

𝐼1Ω

The negative sign indicates the current is flowing from node B to A.

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Mesh Analysis
• Systematic application of KVL
• Generate a system of equations
• Mesh currents are the unknown variables
• Number of equations equals number of unknown mesh currents
• Solve equations to determine mesh currents
• Determine branch currents as linear combinations of mesh currents
• Apply Ohm’s law to determine node voltages
Meshes
• What is a mesh?
• A mesh is a loop that does not
contain any other loops
• Components of the branch
currents I𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ1 I𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ2 Loop
• Branch currents are linear
combinations of mesh currents
• I1 = I𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ1
• I2 = I𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ2
• I3 = I𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ1 + I𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ2
(miniphysics.com)
Planar Circuit
• Planar: circuit can be drawn on plane surface without crossovers
Planar Not Planar

• Nodal good for either Branch with 13Ω resistor prevents circuit
• Mesh good for planar from being drawn w/o crossing branches

(hard to define mesh in 3D branches) (All figures from Electrical4U)

Mesh Analysis: Example #1
3Ω 4Ω

𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑐 _
40 𝑉 _+ 𝑖𝑏
+ 64 𝑉
45 Ω

2Ω 1.5 Ω

1. Select M mesh currents.

2. Apply KVL to each mesh.

3. Solve for mesh currents.

Mesh Analysis: Example #1
3Ω 4Ω
FYI: How many mesh currents?
𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑐 _ General Formula:
40 𝑉 _+ 𝑖𝑏
+ 64 𝑉
45 Ω b-n+1 mesh currents

2Ω 1.5 Ω
Ex. b=7 branches
n= 6 nodes
1. Select M mesh currents. Total number of mesh currents:
2. Apply KVL to each mesh. M=7-6+1 =2

3. Solve for mesh currents.

Mesh Analysis: Example #1
3Ω 4Ω

𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑐 _
_+ 𝑖𝑏 64 𝑉
Chose any direction of
40 𝑉
45 Ω 𝑖2
+
𝑖1 mesh rotation you like

2Ω 1.5 Ω

1. Select M mesh currents.

2. Apply KVL to each mesh.

3. Solve for mesh currents.

Mesh Analysis: Example #1
3Ω 4Ω

𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑐 _
_+ 𝑖𝑏 64 𝑉
Chose any direction of
40 𝑉
45 Ω 𝑖2
+
𝑖1 mesh rotation you like

2Ω 1.5 Ω

1. Select M mesh currents.

2. Apply KVL to each mesh.
−40 + 3𝑖1 + 45 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 + 2𝑖1 = 0

3. Solve for mesh currents.

Mesh Analysis: Example #1
3Ω 4Ω

𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑐 _
40 𝑉 _+ 𝑖𝑏
+ 64 𝑉
𝑖1 45 Ω 𝑖2

2Ω 1.5 Ω

1. Select M mesh currents.

2. Apply KVL to each mesh.
−40 + 3𝑖1 + 45 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 + 2𝑖1 = 0
4𝑖2 − 64 + 1.5𝑖2 + 45 𝑖2 − 𝑖1 = 0
3. Solve for mesh currents.
Mesh Analysis: Example #1
3Ω 4Ω

𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑐 _
40 𝑉 _+ 𝑖𝑏
+ 64 𝑉
𝑖1 45 Ω 𝑖2

2Ω 1.5 Ω

1. Select M mesh currents.

2. Apply KVL to each mesh.
−40 + 3𝑖1 + 45 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 + 2𝑖1 = 0
4𝑖2 − 64 + 1.5𝑖2 + 45 𝑖2 − 𝑖1 = 0
3. Solve for mesh currents.
Mesh Analysis: Example #1
3Ω 4Ω

𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑐 _
40 𝑉 _+ 𝑖𝑏
+ 64 𝑉
𝑖1 45 Ω 𝑖2

2Ω 1.5 Ω

1. Select M mesh currents.

2. Apply KVL to each mesh.
−40 + 3𝑖1 + 45 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 + 2𝑖1 = 0
4𝑖2 − 64 + 1.5𝑖2 + 45 𝑖2 − 𝑖1 = 0
3. Solve for mesh currents.
𝑖1 = 9.8𝐴, 𝑖2 = 10𝐴
 Mesh Analysis with a Current Source
3Ω 9Ω

_
18 𝑉 _+ 3𝐴 + 15 𝑉
𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑏

2Ω 6Ω

Problem: cannot write KVL for meshes a and b because there is no way to
express voltage drop across current source in terms of mesh currents.

Solution: Define a “supermesh” – a mesh which avoids the branch

containing the current source. Apply KVL for this supermesh.
 Mesh Analysis: Example #2
3Ω 9Ω

+_ _
18 𝑉 3𝐴 + 15 𝑉
𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑏

2Ω 6Ω
supermesh
2𝑖𝑎 − 18 + 3𝑖𝑎 + 9𝑖𝑏 − 15 + 6𝑖𝑏 = 0 KVL for supermesh
𝑖𝑏 − 𝑖𝑎 = 3𝐴 Constraint due to current source

𝑖𝑎 = −0.6𝐴, 𝑖𝑏 = 2.4𝐴
 Mesh Practice Problem
V2
Find using mesh method.
𝑉1

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 Mesh Practice Problem
V2
Find using mesh method.
𝑉1

Solution:
Loop abcd: Solving (1) and (2),
…..(3)
…..(1)
Then
[using (3)]
Loop befc:

…..(2)
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 Dependent Sources
• Treat each dependent source (of any of the four kinds) as a new variable,
associated to a “known” source and proceed as before. At the end, you get an
extra equation from the dependency that defines the source, for each dependent
source.

• These extra equations will allow you to complete the solution

Dependent Current Sources Dependent Voltage Sources

𝑖𝑠 = 𝛼𝑣𝑥 𝑖𝑠 = 𝛽𝑖𝑥 𝑣𝑠 = 𝜇𝑣𝑥 +_ 𝑣𝑠 = 𝜌𝑖𝑥 +_

Voltage-controlled Current-controlled Voltage-controlled Current-controlled

Circuit w/ Dependent Source Example
4Ω 6Ω

+ Find 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 .
20 𝑉 _+ 𝑖1 𝑎𝑣𝑥 𝑖2 𝑣𝑥 2 Ω
_

2Ω 𝑎 =0.25
 Circuit w/ Dependent Source Example
4Ω 6Ω

+ Find 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 .
20 𝑉 _+ 𝑖1 𝑎𝑣𝑥 𝑖2 𝑣𝑥 2 Ω
_

2Ω 𝑎 =0.25
supermesh
 Circuit w/ Dependent Source Example
4Ω 6Ω

+ Find 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 .
20 𝑉 _+ 𝑖1 𝑎𝑣𝑥 𝑖2 𝑣𝑥 2 Ω
_

2Ω 𝑎 =0.25
supermesh
−20 + 4𝑖1 + 6𝑖2 + 2𝑖2 + 2𝑖1 = 0 KVL for supermesh
 Circuit w/ Dependent Source Example
4Ω 6Ω

+ Find 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 .
20 𝑉 _+ 𝑖1 𝑎𝑣𝑥 𝑖2 𝑣𝑥 2 Ω
_

2Ω 𝑎 =0.25
supermesh
−20 + 4𝑖1 + 6𝑖2 + 2𝑖2 + 2𝑖1 = 0 KVL for supermesh
𝑎𝑣𝑥 = 0.25𝑣𝑥 = 𝑖2 − 𝑖1 Voltage-controlled current source
 Circuit w/ Dependent Source Example
4Ω 6Ω

+ Find 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 .
20 𝑉 _+ 𝑖1 𝑎𝑣𝑥 𝑖2 𝑣𝑥 2 Ω
_

2Ω 𝑎 =0.25
supermesh
−20 + 4𝑖1 + 6𝑖2 + 2𝑖2 + 2𝑖1 = 0 KVL for supermesh
𝑎𝑣𝑥 = 0.25𝑣𝑥 = 𝑖2 − 𝑖1 Voltage-controlled current source
𝑣𝑥
𝑖2 =
2
 Circuit w/ Dependent Source Example
4Ω 6Ω

+ Find 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 .
20 𝑉 _+ 𝑖1 𝑎𝑣𝑥 𝑖2 𝑣𝑥 2 Ω
_

2Ω 𝑎 =0.25
supermesh
−20 + 4𝑖1 + 6𝑖2 + 2𝑖2 + 2𝑖1 = 0 KVL for supermesh
𝑎𝑣𝑥 = 0.25𝑣𝑥 = 𝑖2 − 𝑖1 Voltage-controlled current source
𝑣𝑥
𝑖2 =
2
𝑖1 = 1𝐴, 𝑖2 = 2𝐴
 Mesh Practice Problem
Using mesh analysis, find the magnitude of the current
dependent source and the current through the 2Ω resistor.
𝑖

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 Mesh Practice Problem
Using mesh analysis, find the magnitude of the current
dependent source and the current through the 2Ω resistor.
𝑖

Ans:
Substituting these values in (1),
Loop-1: i1 = -2A
Loop-3: …..(1)
or,
However,
or,
and,

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Mesh Practice Problem
Using mesh analysis, find the magnitude of the current
dependent source and the current through the 2Ω resistor.
𝑖

Ans:
Also,
In loop-2,
or,
or,
or,
or,
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Mesh Practice Problem
Using mesh analysis, find the magnitude of the current
dependent source and the current through the 2Ω resistor.
𝑖

Ans:
Value of dependent source

Thus, the magnitude of the dependent source = 1.45V.

The current through 2Ω resistor is i2 i.e., 0.183A flowing anticlockwise in loop-2.

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Formal Circuit Analysis Methods
Nodal Analysis Mesh Analysis*
(“Node-Voltage Method”) (“Mesh-Current Method”)
0) Choose a reference node 1) Select M independent mesh
1) Define unknown node voltages currents such that at least one
mesh current passes through each
2) Apply KCL to each unknown node, branch
expressing current in terms of the M = #branches - #nodes + 1
node voltages
=> N equations for N unknown 2) Apply KVL to each mesh, expressing
voltages in terms of mesh currents
node voltages => M equations for M unknown
3) Solve for node voltages mesh currents
=> determine branch currents 3) Solve for mesh currents
=> determine node voltages
(*can only be used for planar circuits)
Nodal vs. Mesh Analysis
• Pick the one that involves solving the fewest equations
• If number of equations are same, look at required value to get direct result
• If the goal is to find currents → mesh (KVL+ Ohm’s Law)
• If the goal is to find voltages → nodal (KCL + Ohm’s Law)

• Pick the one that’s easier for you to use/do

Superposition
 2 4V
+–
+
+
24 V – 4A 4  Vo
–

How would you analyze a circuit like this?

Systems
• System
• Some entity – component, group of components – with inputs and outputs
• Electrical component
• Electrical circuit Input System Output
• Motor, engine, robot, aircraft, etc. …
• Can think of the system as a mathematical function that operates on
the input to provide the output
• 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑦

• A resistor is a system with voltage as the input and current as the

output (or vice versa)
1
•𝑖= 𝑣 𝑣
Resistor
1 𝑖
𝑅
×
𝑅
Linear Systems
• Linear system
• A system whose constitutive relationship is linear
• Function relating input to output is an equation for a line

• An ideal resistor is an example of a linear system

• Voltage in, current out: Resistor
1 𝑣 1 𝑖
𝑖= 𝑣 ×
𝑅 𝑅
• A line with slope 1/𝑅

• Current in, voltage out:

𝑣 =𝑅×𝑖 Resistor
• A line with slope 𝑅 𝑖 𝑣
×𝑅
Superposition
• Linear systems obey the principle of superposition

• Two components to the superposition principle:

• Additivity
𝑓 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 𝑓 𝑥1 + 𝑓 𝑥2 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑦1 + 𝑦2

• Homogeneity
𝑓 𝛼∙𝑥 =𝛼∙𝑓 𝑥 𝛼∙𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝛼∙𝑦
Superposition
𝑖
• Consider an 4 Ω resistor
𝑣
• 𝑖= +
𝑅 𝑣 – 4
• 𝑣1 = 2𝑉
2𝑉
• 𝑖1 = = 0.5𝐴
4Ω
• Homogeneity 𝑖
• 𝑣2 = 6𝑉 1
2
3∙2𝑉
• 𝑖2 = = 3 ∙ 0.5𝐴 = 1.5𝐴 1.5
𝑅
4Ω
• Additivity
• 𝑣3 = 8𝑉 0.5
2𝑉+6𝑉
• 𝑖2 = = 0.5𝐴 + 1.5𝐴 = 2𝐴
4Ω 2 6 8 𝑣
Superposition
• Linear: I-V characteristics of elements are straight lines when plotted

• Linear circuit: has only linear elements and independent sources

(linear function)
Linear Resistor

• Superposition applied to electrical circuits

• Tool for analyzing networks with multiple sources
• Can only be used in linear circuits

(Wikipedia)
Superposition
• Principle of Superposition:
• In any linear circuit containing multiple independent sources, the current or
voltage at any point in the network may be calculated as the algebraic sum of
the individual contributions of each source acting alone.

𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑏)

Analyze circuit with only independent source a Analyze circuit with only independent source b
(remove all other independent sources) (remove all other independent sources)

Superposition useful for

circuits that have
multiple independent
sources
Source Combinations
• Voltage sources in series can be replaced by an equivalent voltage
source:

• Current sources in parallel can be replaced by an equivalent current

source:
Superposition
Procedure:
1. Determine contribution due to one independent source
• Set all other sources to 0: Replace independent voltage source by short circuit,
independent current source by open circuit
2. Repeat for each independent source
3. Sum individual contributions to obtain desired voltage or current

+
Voltage source +_ 𝑣𝑥 =0
short
_ circuit

open
Current source 𝐼0 =0
circuit
Open Circuit and Short Circuit
• Open circuit → i=0 ; Cut off the branch
• Short circuit → v=0 ; replace the element by wire

• Turn off an independent voltage source means +

Voltage +_ 𝑣𝑥 =0
short
– V=0 source _ circuit
– Replace by wire
– Short circuit
• Turn off an independent current source means Current open
source 𝐼0 =0
– i=0 circuit
– Cut off the branch
– open circuit

*Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit
variables.
Comments on Dependent Sources
• A dependent source establishes a voltage or current whose value
depends on the value of a voltage or current at a specified location in
the circuit.

• The relationship between the dependent source and its reference

cannot be broken!
– Dependent sources cannot be turned off in analysis using superposition.
Superposition Example
2 4V
• Find Vo +–
+
+
24 V – 4A 4  Vo
–
 Superposition Example
2 4V
• Find Vo +–
+
+
24 V – 4A 4  Vo
–

A. 24V source alone:

2 Voltage divider:
+ 4
+ 𝑉0𝐴 = 24 × 4+2 =16𝑉
24 V – 4  V0A
–
 Superposition Example
2 4V
• Find Vo +–
+
+
24 V – 4A 4  Vo
–
B. 4A source alone:
2
+ +
4A 4  V0B 4A 2 4  V0B 𝑉0𝐵 = −4A × (2Ω ∥ 4Ω)
– = −5.3 𝑉
–
Superposition Example
2 4V
• Find Vo +–
+
+
24 V – 4A 4  Vo
–

C. 4V source alone:
2 4V Voltage divider:
4
+–
+
𝑉0C = −4 × 4+2 =−2.7𝑉

4 V0C
–
Add independent sources answers together
• 𝑉0 = 𝑉0𝐴 + 𝑉0𝐵 + 𝑉0C

• In this example:
𝑉0 = 𝑉0𝐴 + 𝑉0𝐵 + 𝑉0C = 16𝑉 + -5.3𝑉 + (-2.7V) =8V
 Superposition Practice Problem
Determine the current I through the 4 ohm
resistor using superposition theorem

https://www.electronicshub.org/superposition-theorem/
 Superposition Practice Problem
Determine the current I through the 4 ohm
resistor using superposition theorem

Ans: Only with 12V Voltage source:

16 ohm 16 × 6
16Ω ∥ 6Ω =
16 + 6

I1 = 12 / 8.36 = 1.43 A

4.36+4=8.36Ω
https://www.electronicshub.org/superposition-theorem/
 Superposition Practice Problem
Determine the current I through the 4 ohm
resistor using superposition theorem

Ans: Only with 20V Voltage source: Loop a: 20 + 10Ia + 6Ia +6(Ia – Ib)+ = 0 Substituting Ia in equation 1
22Ia – 6Ib + 20 = 0 22 (10Ib/6) – 6Ib = -20
Ib = – 0.65A
22Ia – 6Ib = -20 ……………….(1)
Loop b: Therefore, I2 = Ib = -0.65A
6(Ib – Ia) + 4Ib = 0
10Ib – 6Ia = 0
Ia = 10Ib/6
https://www.electronicshub.org/superposition-theorem/
 Superposition Practice Problem
Determine the current I through the 4 ohm
resistor using superposition theorem

Ans: Only with 4A Current Source:

Nodal analysis at node 2: Substituting V2 in equation 2
4 = (V2/10) + (V2 – V1)/6 ………………..(2) V1 = 120/23=5.2 Volts
At node1, Therefore I3 = V1/4
(V1/6) + (V1/4) = (V2 – V1)/ 6 = 1.3 Amps
V2 = 3.496 V1

https://www.electronicshub.org/superposition-theorem/
 Superposition Practice Problem
Determine the current I through the 4 ohm
resistor using superposition theorem

Ans:
Thus, as per the superposition theorem, I = I1 + I2 + I3
= 1.43 – 0.65 + 1.3
= 2.08 Amps

https://www.electronicshub.org/superposition-theorem/
 Superposition Practice Problem with
Dependent Source
Find io using superposition.

https://wiraelectrical.com/what-is-superposition-theorem/
 Superposition Practice Problem with
Dependent Source
Find io using superposition.

Ans:
(1)

Contribution from Contribution from

4A current source 20V voltage source

https://wiraelectrical.com/what-is-superposition-theorem/
 Superposition Practice Problem with
Dependent Source
Find io using superposition.
Loop 1: (2)
′
Loop 2: 3(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) + 2𝑖2 − 5𝑖0 + (𝑖2 −𝑖3 ) = 0
(3)
Loop 3: 5 𝑖 − 𝑖 + 𝑖 − 𝑖 + 5𝑖 ′ + 4𝑖 = 0
Ans: 4 A current source only: 3 1 3 2 0 3
(4)
At node 0: 𝑖0′ + 𝑖3 = 𝑖1

Substituting (2) and (5) into (3) and (4) gives

two simultaneous equations
node 0 (6)
(8)
https://wiraelectrical.com/what-is-superposition-theorem/ (7)
 Superposition Practice Problem with
Dependent Source
Find io using superposition.

Ans: 20V voltage source Loop 4: 𝑖4 − 𝑖5 + 3𝑖4 + 2𝑖4 − 5𝑖0′′ = 0

only:
(9)
Loop 5: 𝑖5 − 𝑖4 + 5𝑖0′′ + 4𝑖5 − 20 + 5𝑖5 = 0
(10)
Node 0: i5 = –i”o Substituting this in (9) and (10) gives

(11)
node 0 (13)
(12)
https://wiraelectrical.com/what-is-superposition-theorem/
 Superposition Practice Problem with
Dependent Source
Find io using superposition.

Ans:

Contribution from Contribution from

4A current source 20V voltage source

https://wiraelectrical.com/what-is-superposition-theorem/
Summary
• Circuit analysis methods
• Nodal Analysis
• Use KCL to solve for node voltages and determine branch currents
• Mesh Analysis
• Use KVL to solve for mesh currents and determine node voltages
• Nodal applicable to all circuits, Mesh only applicable to planar circuits
• Not all circuits require nodal or mesh analysis to solve them
• If nodal or mesh analysis is required, choose the one which will give
the fastest or simplest steps
Summary
• Superposition allows us to activate one source at a time and sum the
existing voltages and currents to determine the voltages and currents
that exist when all independent sources are active
• The output of a multiple-input system is the sum of the outputs due to each
independent source acting individually
• Can also be used for linear circuits